CAD/CAM/CIM

MEC302

Unit 2

P. Dinesh babu
Associate Professor
School of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]

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 Unit - II

CAD modelling and data exchange

Geometric modelling – wire frame entities, wire frame modelling, parametric representation of Bezier,
cubic spline and B-spline curves, surface entities, surface modelling, solid modelling – geometry and
topology, solid entities, boundary representation (B-Rep), constructive solid geometry (CSG).

CAD/CAM data exchange -types of translators, IGES, PDES, DXF, virtual reality modelling language
(VRML). Introduction to finite element modelling – finite element procedure, types and techniques of
simulation in manufacturing.

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 GEOMETRIC MODELING

✓ Computer representation of the geometry of a component using software is called a geometric model.
✓ Geometric modeling is done in three principal ways. They are:
❑ Wire frame modeling
❑ Surface modeling
❑ Solid modeling

✓ The user construct geometric model by inputting the object data via
the user interface provided by the software.
✓ CAD/CAM systems have adequate geometric and visualization
attributes.
✓ Based on these attributes, they are utilized in applications such as
mass property calculations mechanical analysis, finite element
modeling, NC.

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GEOMETRIC MODELING

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 WIRE FRAME MODELING

✓ A wireframe model simplest geometric model - represent it mathematically in the computer.

✓ In wire frame modeling the object is represented by its edges.

✓ The word wireframe is related to the fact that one may imagine a wire that is bent to follow the

object edges to generate the model.

✓ A wire frame model consists of points, lines, arcs and circles, conics and curves.

✓ Early wireframe modeling techniques developed in the 1960s were two dimensional and were

designed to automate drafting and simple NC.

✓ Later in the early 1970s, the 3D wireframe modeling was introduced.

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WIRE FRAME MODELING

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 WIREFRAME ENTITIES

Wire frame entities can be divided into analytic and synthetic entities
Analytic entities are :
Points, Lines, Arcs, Circles, fillets, and chamfers, and conics.
Synthetic entities are:
Splines (cubic spline, B-spline), Bezier curves.
Method of defining points:

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 WIREFRAME ENTITIES

Method of defining Lines:

Method of defining Arcs and circles:

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 WIREFRAME ENTITIES

Method of defining Ellipses and parabolas:

Method of defining Synthetic curves:

Cubic spline Bezier curve B-Spline curve

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 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages
✓ Simple to construct.
✓ Does not require as much computer time and memory as does surface and solid modeling.
✓ Surface algorithms require wireframe entities to generate surfaces.
Disadvantages
✓ Unambiguous representation of real objects.
✓ Complex design having many edges become very confusing.
✓ Lack of information to determine the object profile.
✓ Both topological and geometrical data are needed to construct wireframe models while solids
require only geometrical data.
✓ Volume, mass properties, NC tool path generation, cross sectioning are not possible.

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 REPRESENTATION OF CURVES

✓ Generally shape representation have two uses

Analytic use.
Synthetic use.
✓ In Analytical, representation are used analytically to describe shapes that can be measured.
✓ In synthetic, the designer interactively creates or modifies a model of a shape, examining and
improving the design until it is acceptable.

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 SYNTHETIC CURVES
As the name implies these are artificial curves

❑ Bezier

❑ B-Spline

❑ NURBS etc.

✓ Analytic curves are usually not sufficient to meet geometric design requirements of mechanical parts.

✓ Many products need free-form, or synthetic curved surfaces.

✓ These curves use a series of control points either interploated or aproximated

✓ It should be controllable by the designer.

✓ Calculation and storage should be easy.

✓ At the same time called as free form curves.

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 REPRESENTATION OF CURVES

Generic form
✓ The generic form in which any generic point (x, y, z) satisfies a relationship in implicit form in x,
y, and z i.e.
f (x, y, z) = 0
g (x, y, z) = 0
✓ For a given value of x, these equations when solved will give the other coordinates on the curve.
✓ The implicit form is convenient for two-dimensional curves of first and second order.
✓ For higher orders, the solution is lengthy and inconvenient.
✓ It is difficult to handle during computer programming because of its lengthy nature, and requires
a lot of computational time for display purpose.
✓ Typical curves that can be covered are lines, arcs and circles.

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 REPRESENTATION OF CURVES

Parametric form
✓ A parametric curve is one whose defining equations are in terms of a simple, common independent
variable known as parametric variable.
✓ In the parametric form, the representation is done by a set of functions.
✓ A curve may be represented by
x = x (u)
y = y (u)
z = z (u)
✓ where x, y, z are co-ordinates of the points on the curve which are functions of some parameter u
and the parametric variable is constrained in the interval.

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 REPRESENTATION OF CURVES

Parametric design is very popular in computer aided design for a variety of reasons, which are
listed below:
❑ Separation of variables
❑ Each variable is treated alike
❑ More degrees of freedom/control
❑ Parametric equations can be transformed directly
❑ Infinite slopes can be handled without computational breakdown
❑ Easy to express as vectors
❑ Amenable to plotting and digitizing
❑ Inherently bounded

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 DESIGN OF CURVED SHAPES

✓ Design of curved shapes should satisfy the following requirements:

I. It should be possible to represent the shape mathematically.
II. The modeling should involve minimum computation.
III. It should be possible to generate a CNC program to machine the surfaces (2, 3, 4 and 5 axis
machining) or to prepare a mould or die to make the part (as in plastic injection molding or
casting or automobile panel pressing).

✓ A component can be designed using the curves and shapes which can be mathematically
described e.g. arc, circle, conics, ellipsoid, hyperbolic paraboloid, sphere, and cone, cylinder,
linear, conical - and circular swept surfaces etc.
✓ However very often the designer starts with specifying a few points which roughly describe the
shape.

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 Interpolation and Approximation of Synthetic Curves

✓ Two approaches are available to designers to model curves and surfaces in such cases:
Interpolation and approximation.
✓ The interpolation essentially tries to pass a curve on a surface called interpolant through all these
points.
✓ Approximation tries to fit a smoother curve on surface which may be close to these points but may
not actually pass through each of them.

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 Properties of Curves

In general, the modeling of curves is done to satisfy the following:

I. Control Points

II. Axis independence

III. Global and local control

IV. Variation diminishing property (Smoothness of curves)

V. Versatility

VI. Continuity between adjoining segments of curve.

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 Properties of Curves

➢ Control Points:
Locate points through which the curve must pass or points that control the curve shape.

➢ Axis independence:
The shape of an object must not change when the control points are measured in a
different coordinate system.

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 Properties of Curves

➢ Global or Local control:

As a designer manipulates a control point, a curve may change shape only in the region
near the control point or it may change shape throughout.

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 Properties of Curves

➢ Variation diminishing property (Smoothness of curves)

❖ A curve that oscillates about its control points is usually undesirable.

❖ Variation diminishing curves tend to smooth out a sequence of control points.

❖ The number of intersections of a line/plane with the curve is less or equal to the number
of intersections with its control polygon.

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 Properties of Curves

➢ Versatility:
❖ A curve representation that allows a limited variety of shapes may frustrate a
designer.
❖ The control of a curve representation, often by adding or removing control
points.

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 Properties of Curves

➢ Order of continuity:
❖A complex shape is usually not modeled by a single curve, but by several curves
pieced together end to end.

❖When creating joints, the designer often wants to control the order of continuity at
the joint.

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 Order of Continuity – C0 continuity

➢ Zero order continuity (C0) yields a position continuous curve (same end point).

Mid-points are connected

2
1
3

Connected (C0 continuity)

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 Order of Continuity – C1 continuity

Slope Continuity/Tangent Continuity

Both curves have the same first derivative value at
the connection point. At the same time position
continuity is also attained.

Continuous
tangent

Tangent continuity (C1 continuity)

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 Order of Continuity – C2 continuity

Curvature Continuity
Both curves have the same second derivative value at the connection point.

At the same time position and slope continuity is also attained.

1
2

Continuous
curvature

Curvature continuity (C2 continuity)

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 CUBIC SPLINES

✓ Cubic splines are the more general form of curves that can be

defined through a set of points.

✓ A spline is a piecewise parametric representation of the geometry

of a curve with a specified level of parametric continuity.

✓ Splines are functions that are used for fitting a curve through a

number of data points.

✓ Each segment of a Hermite cubic spline is approximated by a

parametric cubic polynomial to maintain the 𝐶 1 continuity

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 CUBIC SPLINES

➢ Parametric cubic spline curves are piecewise polynomial

curves with first order continuity.

➢ Parametric cubic splines are interpolate to given data.

➢ Cubic spline is determined by defining positions and

tangent vectors at the data points.

➢ The parametric cubic spline connects two data points and

utilizes a cubic function.

➢ Therefore four conditions (positions of the two end points and

two tangent vectors at the points) are required to determine
the coefficients of the equation.

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 CUBIC SPLINES

➢ A cubic spline has C1 continuity at intermediate points

➢ Cubic splines do not allow local control

➢ Lagrange interpolation - 4 points

➢ Hermite interpolation - 2 points, 2 slopes

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 Parametric representation of CUBIC SPLINE

The parametric equation of a Hermite cubic spline is given by

In an expanded form, it can be written as

Where u is the parameter and Ci is the polynomial coefficients

In scalar form it can written as for x, y and z components

In the matrix form, it can be written as

C=coefficient of vector

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 Parametric representation of CUBIC SPLINE

The tangent vector to the curve at any point is

- Position vector at the starting point
given by differentiating the equation with
- Tangent vector at the starting point
respect to ‘u’ to give
- Position vector at the end point
- Tangent vector at the end point

Solving these four equations simultaneously for

the coefficients gives
In order to find the coefficients Ci, consider the
cubic spline curve with two endpoints P0 and P1.
Applying the boundary conditions

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 Parametric representation of CUBIC SPLINE

Substituting the values in the below equation and rearranging gives

P0, P1, P’0 and P’1 are called geometric coefficients. Tangent Vector becomes

The function of u called blending functions

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 Parametric representation of CUBIC SPLINE

This can be rewritten in the matrix form as

2 −2 1 1   P0 
− 3 −2 − 1  P1 

P(u ) = u 3 u2 u 1
0
 0
3
1 0   P0
  
1 0 0 0   P1

The same equation can be written in the compact form as follows: p(u) = {U} [M] [P]

where the basis function is

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 CUBIC SPLINE

➢ The use of the cubic splines in design applications is not popular compared to Bezier or B-spline curves.

➢ The control of the curve is not very obvious from the input data due to its global control characteristics.

➢ The order of the curve is always constant (cubic).

➢ The curve’s shape can be controlled by changing its endpoints or its tangent vectors.

➢ If the two end points are fixed in space, the designer can control the shape of the spline by changing either
the magnitudes or the direction of the tangent vectors.

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 CUBIC SPLINE

Cubic Hermite Interpolation

P0’

P1
P0
P1’
Hermite curve set with same end points (P0 ve P1),
Tangent vectors P0’ and P1’ have the same directions but
P0’ have different magnitude P1’ is constant
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 CUBIC SPLINE

Cubic Hermite Interpolation

All tangent vector magnitudes are equal but the direction of left tangent vector changes.
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 CUBIC SPLINE Example

Example: Find the midpoint of a Hermite cubic spline with the two points as [1, 1], and [6, 5] and the
tangent vectors as [0, 4] and [4, 0].

From the given end points and tangent vectors, 2 −2 1 1   P0 

− 3 −2 − 1  P1 
x0 = 1, y0 = 1, and x’0 = 0, y’0 = 4

P(u ) = u 3 u2 
u 1
0 0
3
1 0   P0
x1 = 6, y1 = 5, and x’1 = 4, y’1 = 0
  
1 0 0 0   P1
Midpoint means, u = 0.5. Substituting this value in the
above two equations, and solving, we get

Px (u=0.5) = 3
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 CUBIC SPLINE Example

From the given end points and tangent vectors, 2 −2 1 1   P0 

− 3 −2 − 1  P1 
x0 = 1, y0 = 1, and x’0 = 0, y’0 = 4 
P(u ) = u 3 u2 
u 1
0 0
3
1 0   P0
x1 = 6, y1 = 5, and x’1 = 4, y’1 = 0   
1 0 0 0   P1
Midpoint means, u = 0.5. Substituting this value in the above
equation, and solving, we get

Py (u=0.5) = 3.5
Mid point coordinates are = (3, 3.5)
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 BEZIER CURVES

✓ Bezier curves and surfaces are credited to P. Bezier of the French car firm Regie Renault who

developed (1962).

✓ Bezier curves were developed to allow more convenient manipulation of curves.

✓ A Bezier curve is defined by a set of data points.

✓ The curve may approximate the data points.

✓ The data points are used to control the shape of the resulting curves.

✓ Only the first and the last control points or vertices of the polygon actually lie on the curve.

✓ The other vertices define the order and shape of the curve.

✓ The curve shape tends to follow the polygon shape.

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BEZIER CURVES

Control polygon

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 BEZIER CURVES

➢The order of defining the control points changes

the polygon definition, which changes the
resulting curve shape.

➢The arrow shown on the curve shows its

direction.

➢Cubic Bezier curve: 4 control points, 3 degree (n-

1).

➢Bezier curve uses Bernstein polynomials as a

basic function / blending function.

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BEZIER CURVES FOR VARIOUS CONTROL POINTS

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 BEZIER CURVES – Parametric Representation

Mathematically for n+1 control points, the Bezier curve is defined by the following polynomial of degree n:

✓ This polynomial, whose basis is called the power basis, is only one of an infinite number of bases
for the space of polynomials.
✓ The Bernstein basis, called Bernestein polynomials, has many useful properties.
✓ They are written as

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BEZIER CURVES – Parametric Representation

First-order Bernestein polynomials can be written as B0,1 (u) = 1 – u

B1,1 (u) = u

Second-order Bernestein polynomials can be written as B0,2 (u) = (1 – u)2

B1,2 (u) = 2u (1 – u)
B2,2 (u) = u2

Third-order Bernestein polynomials can be written as B0,3 (u) = (1 – u)3

B1,3 (u) = 3 u(1 – u)2
B2,3 (u) = 3 u2(1 – u)
B3,3 (u) = u3

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 BEZIER CURVES – Parametric Representation

Bézier chose Bernestein polynomials as the basis functions for the curves.
Based on these basis functions, the equation for the Bézier curve is given by

For n = 3, substituting

This can be written in the matrix form as

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 BEZIER CURVES – Parametric Representation

The same equation can be written in the compact form as follows:

p(u) = U MB P

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BEZIER CURVE

✓ The curve interpolates the first and last control points; that is, it passes through P0 and Pn.

✓ The curve is tangent to the first and last segments of the polygon.

✓ Slope at P0 should be P0P1, at Pn it is Pn-1 Pn . It has C1 continuity.

✓ The curve is symmetric: the sequence of control points defining the curve can be reversed

without change of the curve shape.

✓ The curve shape can be modified by either changing one or more vertices of its polygon.

✓ A closed Bezier curve can simply be generated by closing its characteristics polygon.

✓ The curve lies entirely within the convex hull formed by four control points.

✓ The curve will never oscillates widely.

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MODIFICATION IN CUBIC BEZIER CURVE

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BEZIER CURVE - Order of Continuity

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 Convex Hull Property- CUBIC BEZIER CURVE

✓ Bezier curve has the convex hull property.

✓ A curve is said to have convex hull property if it is lies entirely within the

convex hull defined by the polygon vertices.

✓ In a plane, the convex hull is a closed polygon and in 3D it is a

polyhedron.

✓ The hull is formed by connecting the vertices of the characteristic

polygon.

✓ This is a useful property for graphics functions such as displaying or

clipping the curve.

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 BEZIER CURVES – Important Properties

Some important properties of Bézier curves that are relevant for CAD applications are as follows:

❑ The Bézier curve passes through the first and last control points while it maintains proximity

to the intermediate control points.

❑ As such, the entire Bézier curve lies in the interior of the convex hull of the control points.

❑ If a control point is moved, the entire curve moves.

❑ Being polynomial functions, Bézier curves are easily computed, and infinitely differentiable.

❑ If the control points of the Bézier curve are transformed, the curve moves to the

corresponding new coordinate frame without changing its shape.

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 BEZIER CURVES – Example Problem

Example: A cubic Bézier curve is defined by the control points as (20, 20), (60, 80), (120, 100), and
(150, 30). Find the equation of the curve and its midpoint.

The equation of the curve is given by

= [(–50 u3 + 60 u2 + 120 u + 20), (–50 u3 – 120 u2 + 180 u + 20)]

It is possible to calculate the x and y coordinates of the Bézier curve by varying the parameter u from 0 to 1
in the above equations on the right-hand side. Midpoint is when u = 0.5
p(0.5) = [–50 (0.5)3 + 60 (0.5)2 + 120 (0.5) + 20, –50 (0.5)3 – 120 (0.5)2 + 180 (0.5) + 20]
= [88.75, 73.75]

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 BEZIER CURVES – Example Problem

Practice Problem : Fit a cubic Bézier curve for the following control points: (1, 3), (4, 5), (5, 7) and
(8,4). Calculate the points at u = 0.4 and 0.6.

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 BEZIER CURVES – Example Problem

Example: Construct the Bezier curve of order 3 and with 4 polygon vertices A (1,1), B (2,3), C (4,3) and D (6,4)

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BEZIER CURVES – Example Problem

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BEZIER CURVES – Example Problem

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 BEZIER CURVES- DISADVANTAGES

Bezier curve seems superior to a cubic spline curve, it still has some
disadvantages.
✓ The curve does not pass through the control points which may be
inconvenient to some designers.
✓ The curve lacks local control. It only has the global control nature.
✓ If one control point is changed, the whole curve changes. Therefore, the
designer cannot selectively change parts of the curve.

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 B – SPLINE CURVE

✓ B-splines are a powerful tool for generating curves with many control points and provide many
advantages over Bezier curves.
✓ Curve is defined by n+1 control points and the order (k) of the curve.
✓ A long, complicated curve can be specified in B-spline.
✓ The designer has much flexibility in adjusting the curvature of a B-spline curve.
✓ It can be designed with sharp bends and even corners.
✓ It can interpolate or approximate a set of given data points.
✓ B-splines have two advantages over Bézier splines:
(1) the degree of a B-spline polynomial can be set independently of the number of control
points (with certain limitations), and
(2) B-splines allow local control over the shape of a spline.

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 B – SPLINE CURVE

✓ One of the problems associated with the Bézier curves is with an increase in the number of
control points, the order of the polynomial representing the curve increases.
✓ To reduce this complexity, the curve is broken down into more segments with better control
exercised with individual segments, while maintaining a simple continuity between the segments.
✓ An alternative is to use a B-spline to generate a single piecewise parametric polynomial curve
through any number of control points with the degree of the polynomial selected by the designer.
✓ B-spline curves have the flexibility of choosing the degree of the curve irrespective of the number
of control points.
✓ With four control points, it is possible to get a cubic Bézier curve, while with a B-spline curve one
can get a linear, quadratic or cubic curve.

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 B – SPLINE CURVE

Similar to a Bézier curve, a B-spline also uses the basis (blending) functions and the equation is of

the form

Pi is the control points (P0, P1,P2….)

u is the parameter 0 ≤ u ≥ n–k+2
n = C.P -1
k is the order of curve (control points per segment)
K-1 is the degree of the curve.
where k controls the degree (k – 1) of the resulting polynomial in u and also the continuity of the curve.
The ui are the knot values, which relate the parametric variable u to the pi control points.

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 Non Uniform B – SPLINE CURVE

Non Uniform B – SPLINE CURVE (n = 6, k = 3)

Non uniform: P0 influences segment 1,
P1 influences segment 1 and 2….
Uniform curve will not passes through
first and last control points.

The curve is made up of (n-k+2)

segments (5)
K=3, it means each segment of the
curve influenced by three control points.

The curve is C(k-2) continuous.

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 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF B- SPLINE CURVE

✓ The local control of the curve can be achieved by changing the position of a control points, using
multiple control points by placing several points at the same location, or by choosing a different
degree.
✓ B-spline curve passes through the first and last control points P0 and Pn+1 and is tangent to the first
and last segments of the control polygon.

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 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF B- SPLINE CURVE

✓ k is the order of the polynomial segments of the B-Spline curve.

✓ Order k means that curve is made up piecewise polynomial segments of degree k-1.
✓ 2 ≥ k ≤ C.P (n+1), where k defines the no of control points per curve segment.
✓ Total segments is n – k + 2 , where n is the no. of control points.
✓ Degree of the curve is k-1.

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 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF B- SPLINE CURVE

The Effect of Order of B- Spline Curve on its shape

✓ Increasing the degree of the curve tightens it.
✓ In general, the less the degree, the closer the curve gets to the control points.
✓ When k = 1, a zero degree curve results.
✓ The curve then becomes the control points themselves.

✓ When k=2, the curve becomes the

polygon segments themselves.
✓ A second degree curve is always tangent
to the midpoints of all the internal polygon
segments.
✓ This not in the case for other degrees.

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 IDENTICAL B-SPLINE AND BEZIER CURVES

Identical B-spline and Bezier Curves

✓ If k equals the number of control points, then the resulting B-spline curve becomes a
Bezier curve.
✓ Multiple control points induce regions of high curvature of a B-spline curve.
✓ This is useful when creating sharp corners in the curve.

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 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF B- SPLINE CURVE

Multiple Control point B-Spline curve

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 Matrix Formulation of B- SPLINE CURVE

A matrix formulation for a cubic periodic B-spline with four control points can then be written as

This matrix can be obtained by solving for the coefficients in a general cubic polynomial expression,
using the specified four boundary conditions.

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 Surface modelling

✓ A component is represented by its surfaces which in turn are represented by their vertices and edges or
boundaries.
✓ Surface modeling has been very popular in aerospace product design and automotive design.
✓ The boundary of a solid object may consist of surfaces which are bounded by straight lines and curves, either
single or in combination.
✓ Apart from standard surface types available for surface modeling (box, pyramid, wedge, dome, sphere, cone,
torus, dish and mesh) techniques are available for interactive modeling and editing of curved surface
geometry.
✓ Surfaces can be created through an assembly of polygonal meshes or using advanced curve and surface
modeling techniques

Cubic, Bezier, B-Spline curves

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Classification of Surfaces

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 Surface modelling

✓ In order to visualize surfaces on a graphic display, a mesh say m x n in

size is usually displayed; the mesh size, is controlled by the user.
✓ A wire frame model can be extracted from a surface model by deleting
all surface entities.
✓ Database of surface models are centralized and associative,
manipulation of surface entities in one view is automatically reflected in
the other views.
✓ Surface model can be used for finite element mesh, design purposes.
✓ Surface models can be shaded and represented with hidden lines.

70
 Several ways to create a surface

✓ Creating a plane surface by the linear sweep of a line or series of lines.

✓ Revolving a straight line about an axis. Cylindrical, conical surfaces etc. can be generated by this technique.

✓ Revolving a curve about an axis.

✓ Combination of plane surfaces.

✓ Analytic surfaces: Planes, cylinders, cones, ellipsoid, parabolic hyperboloid etc can be defined by

mathematical equations in terms of X, Y and Z co-ordinates.

✓ Sculptured surfaces: These are also called free form surfaces. These are created by spline curves in one or

both directions in a 3-D space.

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Modelling of Surface

72
 Applications of surfaces

✓ Modeling of curves and surfaces is essential to describe objects that are encountered in several areas of
mechanical engineering design.
✓ Curves and surfaces are the basic building blocks in the following designs:

❑ Body panels of passenger cars

❑ Aircraft bulk heads and other fuselage structures,
slats, flaps, wings etc.
❑ Marine structures
❑ Consumer products like plastic containers,
telephones etc.
❑ Engineering products like mixed flow impellers,
foundry patterns etc

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 SURFACE ENTITIES

Plane Surface
✓ This is the simplest surface.
✓ The plane surface can be used to generate cross sectional views by intersecting a surface model
with it.

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 SURFACE ENTITIES

Ruled (lofted )Surface

✓ This is a linear surface. It interpolated linearly between two
boundary curves that define the surface (rails).
✓ Rails can be any wireframe entity.
✓ This entity is ideal to represent surfaces that do not have any
twists or kinks.

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 SURFACE ENTITIES

Surface of revolution
✓ This is an axisymmetric surface that can model axisymmetric objects.
✓ It is generated by rotating a planar wireframe entity in space about the axis of symmetry a certain
angle.

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 SURFACE ENTITIES

Tabulated Cylinder
✓ This is a surface generated by translating a planar curve a
certain distance along a specified direction (axis of the
cylinder)
✓ It is used to generate surfaces that have identical curved
cross sections.

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 SURFACE ENTITIES

Bezier Surface
✓ This is a surface that approximates given input data.
✓ Similar to Bezier curve, it does not pass through all given data
points.
✓ It is a synthetic surface that permits, twists and kinks.
✓ It allows only the global control of the surface.

78
 SURFACE ENTITIES

B-spline surface
✓ It is a synthetic surface, can approximate or interpolate given input data.

✓ It permits local control of the surface.

79
 SURFACE ENTITIES

Coons Patch
Coons patch is used to create surface using curves that form
closed boundaries.

Fillet surface
Surface that blends two surfaces together.

80
 SURFACE ENTITIES

Offset surface
✓ Existing surface can be offset to create new ones identical in shape but may have different
dimensions.

81
 REPRESENTATION OF SURFACES

Implicit Surfaces (Sphere)

Quadric Surfaces

Explicit Surfaces (Plane)

Parametric Surfaces The above equation can used to represent:

Cylinder Plane, two parallel and intersecting planes,
line, cylinder, cone, Ellipsoid, Paraboloid

82
 REPRESENTATION OF SURFACES

✓ Surface can be defined as the locus of points which satisfy a constraint equation in the form of
F(X, Y, Z) = 0.
✓ In parametric form a surface may be represented as
x = X (u, v)
y = Y (u, v)
z = Z (u, v)
where X, Y and Z are suitable functions of two parameters u and v.
✓ For example, the parametric representation of the surface of a sphere whose centre is at the
origin of coordinates and of radius R is
x = X (θ, φ) = R sin φ cos θ
y = Y (θ, φ) = R sin φ sin θ
z = Z (θ, φ) = R cos φ

83
 SURFACES OF KNOWN FORM

❖ Plane Surface

❖ Cylindrical Surface

❖ Conical Surface

❖ Spherical Surface

❖ Toroidal Surface

84
 SURFACES OF KNOWN FORM

❖ Surface of known form can be modelled as swept surfaces.

❖ Plane surface (line swept along another line)

❖ Cylindrical surface (line swept along circle or circle swept along line)

❖ Conical surface (line swept along circle)

❖ Spherical surface (circle swept along circle)

❖ Toroidal surface (circle swept along circle)

85
 SOLID MODELING

Solid Modeling (Volumetric modeling) techniques begun to develop in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

✓ Eliminate all kinds of ambiguities in representation and manipulations.

✓ The completeness of the information contained in a solid model allows the automatic production

of realistic images of a shape.

✓ The model can serve as a means of geometric input for finite element analysis or numerically

controlled machining.

✓ It produces accurate designs

✓ It provides complete three dimensional definition. It improves the quality of the design

✓ It improves visualization. It has potential for functional automation and integration.

86
 SOLID MODELING

✓ Solid modeling is more complete representation than the surface model.

✓ Contain geometric data as well as topological information.

Geometry (point, curves, lines)

❑ Metric information

❑ Location Coordinate

Topology (vertex, edges, faces)

❑ Connectivity

❑ Associativity

❑ Neighborhood information

87
 SOLID MODELING

Use of Solid Modeling in design and manufacturing increasing due to

✓ Reduced computing costs

✓ Fast computing hardware

✓ Improved user interface

✓ Software improvements

✓ It is the solution to automating and integrating design and manufacturing.

✓ The complete definition of part shape is a key to CIM

✓ It store more information than wire frame or surface modelers.

88
 GEOMETRY AND TOPOLOGY

✓ The data base have two types of information.

✓ The first is the metric or geometric data which relate

to the 3D coordinate positions of the object in space.

✓ Second is the connectivity or topological data which

relate objects with each other.

✓ Both information are necessary, as different shapes

can result with
❑ Same geometry with different topology

❑ Different geometry with same topology

89
 GEOMETRY AND TOPOLOGY

✓ The geometry is the actual dimensions that define the

entities of the object.

✓ The length of lines L1, L2, L3 and the angles between the
lines, and the radius R and the center P1 of the half circle.

✓ Topology is the connectivity and associativity of the object

entities.

✓ It determines the relational information between object

entities.

✓ L1 shares a vertex with L2 and C1 , L2 shares a vertex with

L1 and L3, L3 shares a vertex with L2 and C1, L1 and L3 do
not overlap, and P1 lies outside the object.
90
 SOLID MODELING –Primitive Approach

✓ Using primitive approach, one can construct the

solid model of the object by dividing it into blocks

and cylinders.

✓ In feature approach the designer can create

different cross sections and extrude them.

91
 SOLID MODELING - Primitives

✓ Primitives (building blocks) are simple basic shapes and are considered the solid modeling
entities which can be combined by a mathematical set of Boolean operations to create the
solid.

✓ The most common primitives are:-

Block Cylinder
Cone Sphere
Wedge Torus
✓ A primitives requires a set of location data, a set of geometric data and a set of orientation
data.

✓ Primitives are usually translated or rotated to position and oriented properly before applying
Boolean operations.

92
VARIOUS SOLID MODELING PRIMITIVES

93
MOST COMMON PRIMITIVES

94
 SOLID MODELING- Boolean operations

✓ Two or more primitives can be combined to form the desired solid.

✓ The relationships between primitives are achieved via Boolean operations.

✓ Boolean operations are

❑ Union

❑ Intersection

❑ Difference

95
SOLID MODELING- Boolean operations

96
SOLID MODELING- Boolean operations

Boolean operators and their effect on model construction

97
 SOLID MODELING- Boolean operations

✓ A solid model of an object is defined mathematically as a

point set S in 3-D Euclidean space.

✓ The interior, the boundary and exterior of the solid is

denoted by iS, bS and cS respectively

✓ Then the object is represented by the relation

S = bS  iS
The universal set W is represented by
W = bS  iS  cS
S = kS kS = bS  iS
✓ Where kS is the geometric closer, which implies that the
interior of the solid is geometrically closed by its boundary.

98
 SOLID MODELING- PROPERTIES

Rigidity- Shape of model is invariant and does not depend on the model location or orientation in space.

Homogenous three Dimensionality – boundaries must be in contact with interior.

No isolated or dangling boundaries should be permitted.

Finiteness and Finite Describability –

Size of the solid is not infinite and a limited amount of information can describe the solid.

Closure Under Rigid Motion and Regularized Boolean Operations –

Manipulation of solids by moving them in space or changing them via
Boolean operations must produce other valid solids.
Boundary Determinism –
The boundary of a solid must contain the solid and hence must determine
distinctively the interior of the solid.

99
 THE PROPERTIES OF REPRESENTATION SCHEMES

➢ Domain
➢ Class of objects that the scheme can represent or it is the geometric coverage of the
scheme.
➢ Validity
➢ Validity of a representation scheme is determined by its range, i.e., the set of valid
representations or models it can produce.
➢ Completeness or Unambiguousness
➢ This properties determines the ability of the scheme to support analysis and other
engineering applications.
➢ Uniqueness
➢ Used to determine object equality.

100
 OTHER PROPERTIES OF REPRESENTATION SCHEMES

➢ Conciseness
➢ Measure of the size of data a scheme requires to describe an object.
➢ The scheme generates compact databases, convenient to store and efficient to transmit
from one system to another.

➢ Ease of operation
➢ Determines the user-friendliness of a scheme.

➢ Efficacy
➢ Measures how accessible a representation is by downstream applications.
➢ Good representation schemes should permit the use of a wide variety of application
algorithms for evaluating various functions.

101
 SOLID REPRESENTATION

✓ Representation scheme is defined as a relation that

maps a valid point set into a valid model.

✓ One model produced by the scheme represents

only one object.

✓ More than one model represent the object.

✓ One model can represent more than one object.

102
SOLID MODELING

103
 VARIOUS REPRESENTATION SCHEMES

The nine solid representation schemes are

❑ Half-spaces

❑ Boundary Representation (B-rep)

❑ Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

❑ Sweeping

❑ Analytical Solid Modeling (ASM)

❑ Cell decomposition

❑ Spatial enumeration

❑ Octree encoding and

❑ Primitive instancing
104
 SOLID MODELING

❑ Representation of solids are built and invoked via algorithms (processors)

❑ Algorithm is a procedure that takes certain input and produces a desired output.

Three types of algorithms

❑ a: data → rep (algorithm a is defined as taking data and
producing representation) – these algorithms build, maintain
and manage representations.
❑ a: rep → data (compute property values - by taking a
representation and producing data) – application algorithms
belong to this type.
❑ a: rep→rep (take representations and produce
representations) – algorithm that converts CSG to B-rep.

105
 BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION (B-rep)

❑ A B-rep solid is represented as a volume contained in a set of faces together with

topological information which defines the relationships between the faces.
❑ Unlike wireframe representation, boundary representation (b-rep) is based on the
concept that a solid body is bounded by a set of faces.
❑ Thus, it is an extension of the wireframe by adding the face information.
❑ The main advantage of a b-rep model is that a solid is bounded by its surface and has its
interior and exterior clearly defined.
❑ Because b-rep includes such topological information, a solid is represented as a closed
space in 3D space.

106
 BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION (B-rep)

❑ Vertex It is a unique point (an ordered triplet) in space.

❑ Edge A finite, non-intersecting space curve bounded by two vertices that are not necessarily distinct.
❑ Loop It is an ordered alternating sequence of vertices and edges.
A loop defines a non-self intersecting closed space curve, which may be a boundary of a face.
❑ Face It is defined as a finite connected, non-self intersecting, region of a closed oriented surface
bounded by one or more loops.
Normally, a face is a bounded region of a planar, quadratic, toroidal, or sculptured surface.
The bounded region of the surface that forms the face is represented by a closed curve that
lies on the surface.
❑ Genus It is the topological name for the number of handles or through holes in an object.
❑ Body It is an entity that has a set of faces that bound a single connected closed volume.
A minimum body is a point.

107
BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION (B-rep)

108
 BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION (B-rep)

❑ The total information present in a b-rep model is classified into topological and geometric
data.

❑ The topological part of the data provides the relationships among its objects such as
vertices, edges and faces similar to that used in a wireframe model, along with the
orientation of edges and faces.

❑ Geometric information is usually equations of the edges and faces.

❑ It is based on the topological notion that a physical object is bound by a set of faces.

❑ The database of a B-rep model consists of both the geometry as well as the topology of
the object.

109
 BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION (B-rep)

❑ Topology – by Euler operations.

❑ Geometry- by Euclidean calculations.
❑ Euler operations - to create, manipulate and edit the faces, edges and vertices.
❑ Geometry – includes coordinates of vertices, rigid motion and transformation (translation,
rotation) and metric information (distances, angles, areas, volumes).
❑ Geometry and topology are interrelated and cannot be separated.

110
 BASIC ELEMENTS OF B-rep

❑ Primitives are used to create both polyhedral as well as curved objects.

❑ A polyhedral object consists of planar faces (or sides) connected by straight (linear)
edges, which in turn are connected at the vertices.
❑ A curved object is like a polyhedron but with curved faces and edges

Classification of Polyhedral objects

✓ Simple Polyhedron (no inner loops, holes or handles)
✓ Polyhedrons with inner loops.
✓ Polyhedrons that have holes but not through holes.
✓ Polyhedrons with handles or genus

111
TYPES OF POLYHEDRAL OBJECTS

112
 BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION (B-rep)

❑ Euler (1752) a Swiss mathematician proved that polyhedra that are homomorphic to a
sphere are topologically valid if they satisfy the equation:

F–E+V–L=2(B–G) General
F–E+V=2 Simple Solids
F–E+V–L=B–G Open objects

Where
F = No of Faces E = No of Edges
V = No of Vertices B = No of Bodies
L = No of Loop G = No of Genus or handles

113
 BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION (B-rep)

❑ A connected structure of vertices, edges and faces that always satisfies Euler’s formula is
known as Euler object.
✓ The process that adds and deletes these boundary components is called an Euler
operation.

❑ Applicability of Euler formula to solid objects:

✓ At least three edges must meet at each vertex.
✓ Each edge must share two and only two faces.
✓ All faces must be simply connected (homomorphic to disk) with no holes and bounded
by single ring of edges.
✓ The solid must be simply connected with no through holes.

114
VALIDITY CHECKING FOR SIMPLE SOLIDS

115
BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION (B-rep)

Interior hole (void)

116
 BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION (B-rep)

Surface hole Through hole

117
 BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION (B-rep)

Handles/through hole

118
 CURVED SURFACES

❑ Curved objects such as cylinders and spheres are modelled similar to the polyhedral objects.
❑ The major difference to be noted between these two types of objects is the existence of closed
curved edges or faces.
❑ A closed cylindrical face has one vertex and no edges.
❑ The boundary model of a cylinder has three faces (top, bottom and cylindrical face, itself), two
vertices, and three edges connecting the two vertices.
❑ The other ‘edges’ are for visualisation purposes, and are called limbs or virtual edges
❑ These models satisfy Euler law: F – E + V = 2 for simple polyhedra.
❑ In exact b-rep scheme, the curved objects are represented by storing the equations of the
underlying curves and surfaces of the object edges and faces respectively.

119
CURVED SURFACES

120
Approximate B-rep or Faceted B-rep

➢ Curved face is divided into planar facets.

➢ Faceted cylinder is generated by rotating a line

incrementally about the axis.

121
GENERAL DATA STRUCTURE FOR B-rep

122
DATA STRUCTURE FOR B-rep

123
DATA STRUCTURE FOR B-rep - Example

124
BUILDING OPERATIONS B-rep

125
BUILDING OPERATIONS

126
EULER OPERATIONS

127
Create the boundary model of solid S

128
Create the boundary model of solid S

129
Boundary model of solid S

Boundary model of solid S

130
 ADVANTAGES OF BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION

❑ Complex engineering objects can be modelled very easily compared with CSG.
❑ Some examples are aircraft fuselage and automobile body styling.
❑ Since the topology and geometry are treated separately, incorporating new geometries in the existing
model is easy.
❑ It is particularly suitable for modelling parts having internal symmetry.
❑ Computational effort and time required to display the model are less compared with CSG.
❑ Combining wireframe and surface models are possible.
❑ This format gives efficient picture generation and easy access to other geometric information.
❑ The b-rep model is more widely used because in CSG, the number of basic primitives available is
limited.
❑ It is easy to create objects by ‘sweeping’, i.e., a complex two-dimensional profile may be translated or
rotated about an axis to give a shape in three dimensions.

131
 PROBLEMS WITH BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION

❑ The data to be stored is more and hence it requires more memory. It is also a verbose
scheme.
❑ In addition, faceted b-rep is not suitable for many applications such as tool-path generation.
❑ There is no guarantee that the object created is valid (i.e., complete, unambiguous, and
uniquely defined).
❑ Additional checks for validity, such as Euler’s rule, will be needed to ensure this.
❑ It is usually less robust than the half-space method.
❑ Each object is defined independently, without reference to other objects in the system.
❑ It is not easy to define ‘generic’ or ‘parametric’ models for families of parts.
❑ Conversion of CSG to b-rep is possible, but conversion from b-rep to CSG is not possible.

132
 CONSTRUCTIVE SOLID GEOMETRY (CSG)

❑ This is one of the most widely researched and understood methodology because
of the applications.
❑ For example, the intersection operation is useful in understanding the
interference problem in assemblies while the difference operator is useful for the
material removal processes in CNC toolpath planning.
❑ A CSG model is held as a tree structure whose terminal nodes are primitive
objects together with an appropriate transformation and whose other nodes are
Boolean set operations with block and cylinder as primitives.

133
 CSG - BUILDING OPERATIONS

❑ The main building operations are regularised set operations like union (U*), intersection
(∩*) and difference (-*).
❑ Hence the CSG models are known as set-theoretic, Boolean or combinatorial models.

134
BUILDING OPERATIONS

135
CSG – Solid Primitives

136
 CSG SCHEMES

Primitive Based CSG:

✓ It is based on bounded valid solid primitives, r-
sets.
✓ It is the most popular CSG scheme.
Half space Based CSG :
✓ This scheme uses unbounded half spaces (non r-
sets).
✓ Bounded solid primitives are considered
composite half spaces and the boundaries of
these are the surfaces of the component half
spaces.

137
 CSG - Bounded and un bounded primitives

The solid model is represented by three bounded primitives and seven half spaces

138
 DATA STRUCTURE OF CSG

❑ Like in B-rep, the database stores topology and geometry.

❑ The validity checking in CSG scheme occurs indirectly.
❑ Each primitive that is combined using a Boolean operations to build the CSG model is checked for its
validity.
❑ The common data structures used for CSG are graphs and trees.
❑ A graph is defined as a set of nodes connected by a set of branches or lines.
❑ If the pairs of nodes in a graph are ordered pairs then the graph is called digraph.
❑ CSG tree is called as inverted ordered binary tree, where the leaf nodes are primitives, and the interior
nodes are regularised set operations.
❑ The total number of nodes in a CSG tree indicates the number of primitives the solid is composed of.
❑ If the solid has n primitives then it will have (n – 1) Boolean operations.
❑ The CSG tree then will have a total of (2n – 1) nodes.

139
 CSG DATA STRUCTURE

Graph: A graph is defined as a set of nodes connected by a set of branches or lines.

Path: Each node in a tree belongs to a path E.g. Path A to G is given by (A,B,G) or (A,C,B,G) (in digraph)

Cycle: If starting and ending nodes are the same the path is called a cycle E.g. Path (A,C,B,A) or (B,E,C,B)

Graph Digraph

140
 DIRECTED GRAPH OR DIGRAPH

❑ These pairs are unordered, that is, no relation exist between the elements of each pair.
❑ Pair {A B} can also be {B A}.
❑ Pairs of nodes that make up the branches are ordered pairs

❑ Branches have directions and

arrows going from one node to
another.
❑ The tail of each arrow represents
the first node in the pair and its
head represents the second node.
Ordered
Unordered

141
 CSG DATA STRUCTURE

Cyclic Graph: If a graph contains a cycle it is called cyclic otherwise it is acyclic.

Cycles are some times called loops or rings.

The digraph shown below is cyclic as it has two cycles.

Indegree: In a digraph, number of arrows entering a node

Outdegree: number of arrows going out of a node

142
 TREE AND BINARY TREE

Tree:
❑ A tree is an acyclic digraph in which a single node
called root node has a zero indegree and every other
nodes has an indegree of one.

Binary Tree:
❑ In a tree if the descendent of each node are in order
(from left to right) and each node except the leaf node
has two decedents (left and right), then the tree is
called a binary tree.

143
 BINARY TREE AND SUBTREE

Subtree:
❑ Any binary tree can be thought of as joining together of 2 subtrees at any given node.
❑ A left subtree and a right subtree rooted at two successor nodes.
❑ A perfect binary tree is one which has (nL-nR)=0.

144
 INVERTED BINARY TREE

Inverted Binary Tree: If the direction of each connector (arrow) is reversed then we get an
inverted binary tree wherein each node has one outdegree except the root node.
Root node: A node with outdegree = 0. Any node that does not have descendent.
Leaf node: Any node that does not have a predecessor or indegree = 0.
Interior node: Any node with outdegree > 0 is an interior node.

145
CSG – Data structure of a Primitive solid

146
 CSG – Typical Solid and its Primitives

A block and a cylinder primitive are enough to create CSG model of the solid.

147
 CSG - Steps

A user can construct the CSG model using the following steps:

B1= block positioned properly

B2= block positioned properly

B3= block

B4= B3 moved properly in X direction

C1= cylinder positioned properly

C2= C1 moved properly in X direction

C3= cylinder positioned properly

C4= C3 moved properly in X direction

148
CSG Tree Structure

S1 = B1 *B3
S 2 = S1 *C1
S3 = S 2 *C3
S 4 = B2 *B4
S 5 = C2 *S 4
S 6 = C4 *S5
S = S3 *S6

CSG graph
149
CSG Example

150
Some CSG Solid Modelers in Practice

151
Comparison – Wire frame and Solid Modeling

152
 EXCHANGE OF MODELLING DATA

❑ Since the CAD/CAM software is available from a number of vendors, it becomes necessary that

there should be a means by which different systems are able to interchange information to avoid

the duplication of effort involved in the geometric model creation, which often happens to be the

highest.

❑ This means that the data format used by all the software should be the same.

❑ The database formats are identified on the basis of the modelling requirements and is therefore

not possible to have identical format for all the systems.

❑ However, it is possible to identify a certain format for drawing exchange and make it a standard so

that the various systems can convert their internal format to this standard format or vice versa.

153
 NEED OF DATA EXCHANGE

❑ Design projects require data to be shared between suppliers.

❑ Different companies often used different CAD systems

❑ All CAD systems have their own database formats

❑ They are mostly proprietary and often confidential

❑ Data is stored in different ways e.g. 1.0, 2.0,3.0 or X1.0, Y 2.0, Z3.0, etc.

154
EXCHANGE OF MODELLING DATA

155
EXCHANGE OF MODELLING DATA

156
 Different Data needs to be EXCHANGE

❖ Shape data:
❑ Both geometric and topological information, part or form features.
❑ Fonts, colour, annotation are considered part of the geometric information.
❖ Non-shape data:
❑ Graphics data such as shaded images, and model global data as measuring units of the
database and the resolution of storing the database numerical values.
❖ Design data:
❑ Information that designers generate from geometric models for analysis purposes.
❑ Mass property and finite element mesh data belong to this type of data.
❖ Manufacturing data:
❑ Information as tooling, NC tool paths, tolerancing, process planning, tool design, and bill
of materials (BOM).
157
 TYPES OF TRANSLATORS

Direct Translators Indirect Translators

Need n(n-1) translators for n software Need 2n translators for n software

158
 NEED OF NEUTRAL FILE FORMAT

❑ In order to make this model transfer possible, a method named neutral file is used.
❑ Although by theory only one neutral file is required, there are several neutral files available in
market.
❑ They have been developed by various countries and organizations. By general, these neutral files
can be in categories as follows:
❑ This standard, established by the initiative of National Bureau of Standards ( NBS), USA is termed
as Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES).
❑ Some other formats which have been used because of the popularity of the corresponding systems
are, Drawing Exchange Format ( DXF) of AutoCAD software on IBM PC compatibles.
❑ Neutral files developed by specific applications e.g. lithography, VRML, VDAFS and graphics.

159
DATA EXCHANGE USING NEUTRAL FILES

160
 DATA EXCHANGE FORMATS

IGES – Initial Graphics Exchange Specification

DXF - Drawing Exchange Format

VDA - Verband der Automobil industrie, the German Automotive Industry Association

SET - settings file

PDES - Product Data Exchange Specification

STEP - Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Data

STL - Stereolithography

VRML - Virtual Reality Modeling Language

161
 IGES – INITIAL GRAPHICS EXCHANGE SPECIFICATION

❑ The IGES is the most comprehensive standard and is designed to transmit the entire

product definition including that of manufacturing and any other associated information.

❑ Developed by Boeing, GE, and National Institute of Standards and Technology in 1980.

❑ CAD-to-CAD exchange: for both shape and non shape data (no design and manuf. Data)

❑ In IGES, the records are present with 80 column fields, with columns 1 to 72 providing the

data and columns 73 to 80 providing a sequence number for the record with identification

as to the location of the sub-section.

❑ This sequence number is utilised as a pointer for the data.

162
IGES – INITIAL GRAPHICS EXCHANGE SPECIFICATION

163
 IGES – INITIAL GRAPHICS EXCHANGE SPECIFICATION

1. Flag section (optional)

2. Start section -S

3. Global section -G

4. Directory Entry (DE) - D

5. Parameter Data (PD) - P

6. Terminate Section -T

164
 IGES – INITIAL GRAPHICS EXCHANGE SPECIFICATION

Flag Section
❑ This is optional and is used to indicate the form in which the data is specified.
❑ Originally, the initial versions contained the data in ASCII format with a very detailed structure.

Start Section
❑ This section contains a man-readable prologue to the file.
❑ The information contained in this section is essentially for the person who would be
postprocessing this for any other application.
❑ Any number of lines can be contained in this section.
❑ Comment, filename, data name, etc.

165
IGES – INITIAL GRAPHICS EXCHANGE SPECIFICATION

166
 IGES – INITIAL GRAPHICS EXCHANGE SPECIFICATION

Global Section
❑ This contains information about details of the product, the person originating the product, name of
the company originating it, date, the details of the system which generated it, drafting standard used
and some information required for its postprocessing on the host computer.
Directory Entry Section
❑ For each entity present in the drawing is fixed in size and contains 20 fields of 8 characters each.
❑ The purpose of this section is to provide an index for the file and to contain attribute information.
❑ Some of the attribute information such as colour, line type, transformation matrix, etc., may be
present directly or through a pointer (to a record in the same file) where the necessary information is
stored.
❑ It also contains the pointer to the parameter data section entry which actually contains the requisite
parameter data.

167
 IGES – INITIAL GRAPHICS EXCHANGE SPECIFICATION

Parameter Data Section

❑ This contains the data associated with the entities.
❑ A free format is allowed for maximum convenience.
❑ It may contain any number of records.
❑ The total number of entities that are present in IGES version

(a) Geometric Entities

(b) Annotation Entities
(c) Structure Entities

168
IGES – INITIAL GRAPHICS EXCHANGE SPECIFICATION

169
 IGES – INITIAL GRAPHICS EXCHANGE SPECIFICATION

Terminate Section
❑ This contains the sub-totals of the records present in each of the earlier sections.
❑ This always contains a single record.
❑ Though all the geometric entities such as line, arc, circle are defined in a number of ways
depending upon the construction facilities provided by the geometric modeler, the IGES
provides for a single type of geometric transformation.
❑ Thus, it is possible that some design technique used would be lost in the process of IGES
conversion which is inevitable, so is the accuracy of internal representation.

170
IGES – File Structure

An IGES file is composed of 80-character

ASCII records

171
 DRAWING EXCHANGE FORMAT (DXF)

❑ The DXF format has been developed and supported by Autodesk for use with

the AutoCAD drawing files.

❑ It is not an industry standard developed by any standards organisation, but in

view of the widespread use of AutoCAD made it a default standard for use of a

variety of CAD/CAM vendors.

❑ A Drawing Interchange File is simply an ASCII text file with a file extension of

.DXF and specially formatted text.

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 DXF- File Structure

DXF file is an ASCII test file and consists of six sections

HEADER Section
❑ This section contains general information about the drawing similar to the Global section
of IGES.
❑ It consists of the AutoCAD database version number and a number of system variables.
❑ Each parameter contains a variable name and associated value.
❑ This information is used for database conversion purpose.
CLASSES Section
❑ It holds the information for application-defined classes, whose instances appear in the
BLOCKS, ENTITIES and OBJECTS sections of the database.
❑ A class definition is permanently fixed in the class hierarchy.
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 DXF- File Structure

TABLES Section
❑ This contains definitions for the following symbol tables which directly relates to the object
types available in AutoCAD.
✓ Linetype table
✓ Viewport configuration table
✓ Layer table
✓ Dimension style table
✓ Text style table
✓ Application identification table
✓ View table
✓ Block reference table
✓ User coordinate system table

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 DXF- File Structure

BLOCKS Section
❑ This contains block (symbol) definition and drawing entities that make up each block reference
in the drawing.
ENTITIES Section
❑ This contains the graphical objects (entities) in the drawing, including block references (insert
entities).
OBJECTS Section
❑ This contains the non-graphical objects in the drawing.
❑ All objects that are not entities or symbol table records or symbol tables are stored in this
section.
❑ Examples of entries in the OBJECTS section are dictionaries that contain mline (multiple lines)
styles and groups.

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 Limitations of IGES and DXF

➢ IGES and DXF files were developed to exchange product definition data instead

of product data.

➢ By product data we mean the data relevant to entire life cycle of a product (eg:

design, manufacturing, quality assurance, testing and support)

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 PDES (Product Data Exchange Specification)
then Product Data Exchange using STEP)

STANDARD FOR THE EXCHANGE OF PRODUCT MODEL DATA (STEP)

❑ Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Data ( STEP), officially the ISO standard 10303, Product
Data Representation and Exchange, is a series of international standards with the goal of defining
data across the full engineering and manufacturing life cycle.
❑ The ability to share data across applications, across vendor platforms and between contractors,
suppliers and customers, is the main goal of this standard.
❑ The broad scope of STEP is as follows.
1) The standard method of representing the information necessary for completely defining a
product throughout its entire life, i.e., from the product conception to the end of useful life.
2) Standard methods for exchanging the data electronically between two different systems.

177
STANDARD FOR THE EXCHANGE OF PRODUCT MODEL DATA
(STEP)

Product Product
Data Data

Discipline Three Layer Data Post Discipline

Preprocessor processor
Model Architecture Exchange Unit Model

Source (Sending) System Target (Receiving) System

Archival
product
Data

178
 STEP- ARCHITEXTURE

Mechanical Electrical
Products Products
AEC Products Application Application layer

Application Specific Logical Layer

Generic Entities
entities

Physical layer
File Format and Data structure

179
STANDARD FOR THE EXCHANGE OF PRODUCT MODEL DATA
(STEP)
Overview
❑ It gives the general introduction and overview of the standard and forms part one of the ISO
standard 10303.
Description Methods
❑ The application protocols planned in STEP are far reaching compared to any other existing
standard or models.
❑ Hence, a new descriptive formal information modelling language called EXPRESS is developed
such that the protocols be properly defined. These are given in parts 11 to 13.
Implementation Methods
❑ This provides specifications as to how the STEP information be physically represented for
the exchange environment.
❑ This, therefore, refers to the actual implementation levels. Details can be found in parts 21 to 26.

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STANDARD FOR THE EXCHANGE OF PRODUCT MODEL DATA
(STEP)
Conformance and Tools
❑ This part provides the specifications for conformance testing of the processors used for
STEP information.
❑ They provide information on methods for testing of software-product conformance to the STEP
standard, guidance for creating abstract-test suites and the responsibilities of testing
laboratories. These are given in parts 31 to 35.
Integrated-generic Resources
❑ These contain the specifications of the information models that support various
application areas that form part of STEP.
❑ The topics that form part of this specification are: geometric and topological representation,
product structure organisation, materials, visual presentation, tolerances, form features
and process structure and properties. These are given in parts 41 to 46.

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STANDARD FOR THE EXCHANGE OF PRODUCT MODEL DATA
(STEP)

Application Information Models

❑ These specify the information models to be used for specific application areas such as
draughting, finite element analysis, kinematics, building core model and
Engineering analysis core.
❑ These are given in part numbers 101 upwards.

Application Protocols
❑ These are the main protocols to be used as subsets of STEP information model for
exchange of data between specific application systems (such as between two
finite element systems or between a CAD and Process Planning system).
❑ These are given in part numbers 201 upwards.
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STANDARD FOR THE EXCHANGE OF PRODUCT MODEL DATA
(STEP)

Application Interpreted Constructs

❑ These relate to the specific resources useful for defining the generic structures useful
for applications.
❑ These are reusable groups of information resource entities that make it easier to express
identical semantics in more than one application protocol.
❑ Examples include edge-based wireframe, shell-based wireframe, geometry-bounded 2D
wireframe, draughting annotation, drawing structure and administration, draughting
elements, geometry-bounded surface, non-manifold surface, manifold surface,
geometry-bounded wireframe, etc.

183
STANDARD FOR THE EXCHANGE OF PRODUCT MODEL DATA
(STEP)

Application Protocols
❑ These define the context for the use of product data for a specific industrial need.
❑ These are more complex data models used to describe specific product-data
applications.
❑ These parts are known as application protocols and describe not only what data is to be
used in describing a product, but how the data is to be used in the model.
❑ The application protocols use the integrated information resources in well defined
combinations and configurations to represent a particular data model of some phase
of product life.

184
STANDARD FOR THE EXCHANGE OF PRODUCT MODEL DATA (STEP)

185
 VRML - VIRTUAL REALITY MODELLING LANGUAGE

❑ Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML) is an open-standard programming language created to

design three-dimensional (3-D) and Web-based models, textures and illusion.

❑ VRML is used to illustrate 3-D objects, buildings, landscapes or other items requiring 3-D structure

and is very similar to Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).

❑ VRML also uses textual representation to define 3-D illusion presentation methods.

❑ VRML language permits the description of 3D objects and their combination in virtual scenes and

worlds.

❑ It can be used to create interactive worlds which contain: images, animations, audio or video clips.

186
 VRML - VIRTUAL REALITY MODELLING LANGUAGE

❑ In a VRML world it is the user, not the computer, which has the control.

❑ Objects in a scene may interact with one another via events or they may interact with user events.

❑ In order to visualise a VRML world, the Internet browser (Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, HotJava,

Opera etc.) needs a VRML browser (under the form a plugin) that allows the user (called visitor in VRML)

to surf the virtual world, to obtain different views of the scene according to the chosen point of view, to

interact with the elements of the scene, etc.

❑ The facilities that are offered differ from one browser to another.

❑ Among the best known VRML browsers we mention Cortona, CosmoPlayer, CC3D, OpenWorlds and

FreeWRL

187
 VRML - VIRTUAL REALITY MODELLING LANGUAGE

❑ The new standard is based on the concepts of components and profiles.

❑ A component contains one or more nodes from the same category (e.g. geometric nodes,
for illumination etc.).
❑ A VRML world is created by an ASCII text file containing VRML language commands.
❑ Graphic files can be added to this world as well. Because the virtual world is only an
ASCII file, with few graphic files, it can be downloaded quickly to your computer from the
Internet.
❑ VRML files are text files that contain instructions for drawing the VRML world. These files
end in the ".WRL" extension. After a file is created, it is posted on a Web server.

188
 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING

❑ The finite-element-modelling process allows for discretising the intricate geometries into

small fundamental volumes called finite elements.

❑ It is then possible to write the governing equations and material properties for these

elements.

❑ These equations are then assembled by taking proper care of the constraints and loading,

which results in a set of equations.

❑ These equations when solved give the results that describe the behaviour of the original

complex body being analysed.

189
 APPLICATION OF FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING

❑ Stress analysis

❑ Dynamic analysis

❑ Deformation studies

❑ Fluid-flow analysis

❑ Heat-flow analysis

❑ Seepage analysis

❑ Magnetic-flux studies

❑ Acoustic analysis

190
 FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING

❑ Mesh: Subdivided part geometry is called a mesh. The

process of subdivision is called meshing.

❑ Element: In finite element analysis, part geometry is divided

into small volumes is called an element.

❑ Node: Each element has a set of points called nodal points

or nodes for short. Nodes are usually located at the corners
or endpoints of elements.
❑ In the higher-order elements, nodes are also placed on sides
or faces, as well as possibly the interior of the element.

191
STEPS INVOLVED IN THE USE OF FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

192
 PREPROCESSOR

The preprocessor of FEM software allows for the following functions:

❑ Modelling of the geometry.

❑ Defining the element types to be used.

❑ Generating the finite element mesh by making a suitable approximation to the geometry.

❑ Calculating the nodes and elemental properties

❑ Allowing for the specification of the support condition and loading conditions for the

individual element position

❑ Allowing the material properties to be specified

193
ELEMENT TYPES

194
FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING

195
 MESH GENERATION

❑ Mesh generation forms the backbone of FEM.

❑ Mesh generation refers to the generation of nodal coordinates and elements.
❑ It also includes the automatic numbering of nodes and elements based on a minimal
amount of user supplied data.
❑ Automatic mesh generation reduces errors and saves a great deal of user time, therefore
reducing the FEA cost.
❑ The most important criterion in mesh generation is to ensure the validity and
correctness of the resulting mesh.
❑ It is important to list the requirements that makes a mesh valid, that is, produces the correct
FEA results.

196
 MESH GENERATION

Some of the mesh generation requirements

❑ Nodal Location
❑ Element type and shape
❑ Mesh generation
❑ Mesh conversion
❑ Element aspect ratio
❑ Mesh geometry and topology
❑ Compactability with representation scheme
❑ Cost effectiveness

197
MESHING

198
 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

❑ In the analysis part, computer solves the unknowns in the finite element problem,
❑ i.e., it solves the linear or non-linear system of equations based on the variational or the projective
formulation.
❑ Input to analysis module is the finite element model, the physical characteristics and the
boundary conditions (pre-processor file).
❑ Its output is the value of the unknown quantity at each of the nodes of the grid.
❑ Two large classes of methods are used to solve these sets of equations: point or block methods of
relaxation or global matrix methods. The latter, more popular today, requires several steps:
(i) Creation of sub-matrices and sub-vectors corresponding to each individual finite element;
(ii) Assembly of these elementary matrices and vectors to build the system matrix and right hand
vector;
(iii) Solution of the linear system of equations.

199
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

200
 POSTPROCESSOR

✓ Postprocessing involves the ability to go through a large amount of data generated during the
solving process and convert it into an easily understood form for the design purpose.
✓ The post processor presents the output of the problem in a manner which is easily understood
and interpreted by the user.
The postprocessor performs two tasks:
(i) Extraction of significant information: The information may be related to local quantities
(magnetic flux density, stress distribution) or global quantities (heat flux, electromagnetic forces).
(ii) Synthetic presentation of the numerical data via graphics facilities: This makes the data more
understandable and easier to interpret (stress plots, displacement plots, isothermal plots,
temperature Vs time curves, magnetic field along a line, etc.).

201
FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING

202
 SIMULATION IN MANUFACTURING

❑ Simulation in manufacturing refers to a broad collection of computer based applications to imitate

the behavior of manufacturing systems.

❑ Simulation is intended to study the model of this real world system by numerical evaluation using

software.

❑ Simulation is carried out to evaluate the performance of a system, product or process

before it is physically built or implemented.

❑ Simulation technology holds tremendous promise for reducing costs, improving quality, and

shortening the time-to-market for manufactured goods.

203
 TYPES OF SIMULATION

1) Static or dynamic simulation:

✓ In static simulation time does not have a role.
✓ However, most of the manufacturing systems are time dependent and are hence dynamic.
2) Continuous or discrete:
✓ A continuous system is one which continuously varies with time.
✓ Examples are refinery, thermal power plant and plate glass manufacturing plant where
production is continuous but may fluctuate over time.
3) Deterministic or stochastic:
✓ Systems which have no random inputs are deterministic.
✓ A design bureau or a rapid prototyping shop may receive orders at random.
✓ Several fabrication companies may also fall under this category.
✓ A manufacturing system may also have both deterministic and random inputs.

204
SIMULATION PROCESS FOR MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
ANALYSIS

The process of simulating a manufacturing system involves the following steps.

Model design: In this step the issues to be addressed are identified based on which the project
is planned. Next step is to develop a conceptual model.

Model development: The simulation engineer chooses a modeling approach suitable for the
problem. After building the model it is tested to verify and validate the model.

Model deployment: The model is used to carry out experiments like ‘What if” analysis. The
results are then studied and used for making decisions.

205
 MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

Material Flow Systems

❑ Assembly lines and Transfer lines

❑ Flow shops and Job shops

❑ Flexible Manufacturing Systems and Group Technology

Supporting Components

❑ Setup and sequencing

❑ Handling systems

❑ Warehousing

206
 MODELING MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEMS

Up to 85% of the time of an item on the manufacturing floor is spent in material handling.
❑ Subsystems
❑ Conveyors
❑ Transporters
❑ Storage Systems

207
 GOALS OF MANUFACTURING MODELING

Manufacturing Systems
❑ Identify problem areas
❑ Quantify system performance
Supporting Systems
❑ Effects of changes in order profiles
❑ Truck/trailer queueing
❑ Effectiveness of materials handling
❑ Recovery from surges

208
PERFORMANCE MEASURES IN MANUFACTURING MODELING

❑ Throughput under average and peak loads

❑ Utilization of resources, labour and machines
❑ Bottlenecks
❑ Queueing
❑ WIP storage needs
❑ Staffing requirements
❑ Effectiveness of scheduling and control

209
 APPLICATION AREAS

❑ Manufacturing/ Materials Handling

❑ Public and Health Systems
❑ Military
❑ Natural Resource Management
❑ Transportation
❑ Computer Systems Performance
❑ Communications

210
 CASTING SIMULATION

❑ Many defects occur in castings due to bad casting design or improper methoding.
❑ Usually these defects are observed after the casting is made.
❑ Considerable time and money would have already been invested in the design, methoding
and pattern manufacture.
❑ At this stage correction may entail redesign of the castings, patterns, runners or risers.
❑ These problems can be solved by simulating the solidification of castings.
❑ Using the simulation software, the design of castings, runners and risers can be tested for
castability even before the first casting is made.
❑ The simulation will bring out hot spots and other defects pertaining to solidification and
necessary corrections could be made at the design stage itself.

211
 CASTING SIMULATION

❑ The conventional casting process is more of a sequential process.

❑ At different stages, the engineer encounters problems which make it necessary to go to previous
stages for design improvement or rectification.
❑ Corrections after the pattern or die is made are more costly.
❑ More important issue is the consequent increase in the development cycle time.
❑ In the CAE approach, the casting design and the casting process are verified through analysis and
simulation before the pattern or die is made.
❑ This considerably reduces the development cycle time and costly iterations.
❑ The casting simulation thus helps to shorten the lead times, produce high quality castings and improve
the yield, resulting in lower cost, higher profits and improved market share.
❑ Sand casting, investment casting, permanent mold casting, pressure die casting and continuous
casting of several materials can be analyzed using simulation.

212
 CASTING DESIGN SOFTWARE

❑ These software packages have modules to assist casting

❖ ProCAST
designers on proper gating and riser design.
❖ PASSAGE/PowerCAST ❑ The flow of molten metal in the mold cavity can also be
simulated.
❖ dieCAS
❑ The thermal modeling capabilities include conduction,
❖ MAGMA
convection and radiation.
❖ Alphacast-MAVIS FLOW ❑ Using simulation it is possible to minimize the defects due
to improper flow of molten metal, such as misruns,
❖ PAM-CAST
premature solidification, and oxide formation as well as
❖ SOLIDCAST,FLOWCAST,OPTICAST
mold erosion due to excessive velocity of molten metal
during filling.

213
 WELDING SIMULATION

❑ Welding involves very high temperatures to melt the metal in the weld zone whereas the metal at a
short distance from the weld pool will be at room temperature.
❑ As the weld cools, the residual stresses are produced in the weld zone.
❑ These residual stresses induce distortion of the welded structure, which is a major problem the
fabricating engineers would like to avoid.
❑ The prediction of residual stresses will yield a quantitative understanding of the thermal distortion.
❑ The simulation uses a sequentially coupled approach in which a thermal analysis is followed by a
stress analysis.
❑ The most important phenomenon in welding is heat conduction, which determines the thermal
history of the work piece.
❑ The thermal history has a significant influence on the microstructure and work piece distortion.
❑ The convective flow of the molten metal in the weld pool is also important in this respect.

214
 WELDING SOFTWARE PACKAGES

❑ A typical simulation covers single pass welding, multi

pass welding, friction welding and friction stir welding.
❖ PAM-Assembly

❖ SORPAS
❑ The procedure involves modeling the configuration of
❖ Virtual Fabrication Technology (VFT) the weld joint, creation of a global model consisting of
the component to be joined by welding, definition of
❖ WELD PRO
welding sequence and fixturing and finally the
❖ CRADA
calculation of distortion.

❑ The analysis of distortion may help to optimize the

process.

215
 METAL FORMING

❑ Metal forming comprises many processes like sheet metal forming (blanking, bending, drawing,
stamping, deep drawing, coining, forming etc), extrusion, rolling, forging etc.
❑ Forming a sheet metal part usually involves the deformation of the material by either one or a
combination of various sheet metal forming processes.
❑ Metal forming is a near net shape manufacturing process and has very wide application in many
industries.
❑ In particular, sheet metal work involving stamping, drawing and forming is very important activity
in automotive manufacturing.
❑ Approach to metal forming earlier was more empirical resulting in considerable trial and error,
rework of part design and tooling, wastage and long cycle time in product realization, not to
mention about the resultant increase in cost.

216
 METAL FORMING SIMULATION SOFTWARES

❖ HyperForm ❖ HyperBlank ❑ FEA based computer simulation software packages

❖ FemForm ❖ LS-DYNA for metal forming eliminate the trial and error
approach by allowing rapid modeling of the process
❖ AutoForm ❖ OPTRIS
at the blue print stage itself, resulting in the
❖ Fastform ❖ Dynaform reduction of development time and quick turn

❖ HypereXtrude ❖ MSC.SuperForge around of new products.

❖ PAM-STAMP ❖ Forge 2D, Forge 3D

❑ The high cost of prototyping, multiple tooling and
❖ DEFORM design iterations, process variability etc can be
substantially reduced, if not entirely eliminated.

217
 SIMULATION OF HEAT TRATMENT

❑ Important issue in heat treatment is the prediction of residual stresses and distortion.
❑ The heat treatment simulation requires simultaneous modeling of complex physical
phenomena: heat transfer, phase transformations, changes in microstructure and mechanics.
❑ The simulation of heat treatment is very essential because of the complex nature of the
constitutive behavior of the thermo-mechanical properties of the material.
❑ Considerable research is being carried out to simulate numerous heat treatment processes -
case hardening, through hardening, tempering and annealing.
❑ Some software products are already available in the market.
❑ However, there is still considerable scope for development work in this domain.

218