BASIC HISTOLOGY

REVIEW
L.J. GUMAHAD, RMT
BASIC HISTOLOGY
• Histology
• Study of normal tissues
• 3 Germ layers
• Ectoderm
• Endoderm
• Mesoderm
• Hierarchy of arrangement
• Cells -> Tissues -> Organ -> System
CATEGORIES OF TISSUE
• Epithelial
• Derived from the 3 germ layers
• Connective tissue
• Mesoderm
• Muscular tissue
• Mesoderm
• Nervous tissue
• Ectoderm
EPITHELIAL
• Covering epithelia
• Glandular epithelia
Covering epithelia
• Cellular arrangement
• Simple
• One cell layer
• Pseudo stratified
• Cells rest at a common basement membrane
• Appears to be more than one-cell thick
• Stratified
• Many layers of cell
Covering epithelia
• Cell shape
• Squamous
• Flat cells (paving stone)
• Cuboidal
• Cube-like (isodiametric cells)
• Columnar
• Tall-rectangular like cells
• Transitional
• Cells that change shape when epithelium is stretched
Covering epithelia (Combination)
• Simple Squamous • Stratified cuboidal
• Bowman’s capsule • Sweat gland ducts
• Endothelium of blood vessels • Stratified columnar
• Loop of Henle • Male urethra
• Alveoli of the lungs
• Stratified transitional
• Simple cuboidal • Urinary tract
• Walls of thyroid follicles
• Pseudostratified columnar
• Ducts of glands
• Nonciliated: Female reproductive tract
• Simple columnar • Ciliated: Trachea
• Nonciliated: Gallbladder
• Ciliated: Uterine tube
• Stratified squamous
• Epidermis of the skin (keratinized)
• Vagina (Nonkeratinized)
• Esophagus (nonkeratinized)
• Cervix (nonkeratinized)
Glandular epithelia
• Exocrine
• With ducts
• Tubular- stomach, uterus
• Acinar (Alveolar)- pancreas, salivary glands
• Tubuloacinar- prostate
• Endocrine
• Without ducts
Methods of gland secretion
• Merocrine
• No loss of cytoplasm
• Secretions accumulate below the free surface of the cell through which it is
released
• E.g. Goblet cells, sweat glands
• Apocrine
• With cytoplasmic loss
• Secretions accumulate below the free surface but can only be released by breaking
away of the distal part of the epithelium
• E.g. Mammary glands in milk secretions
• Holocrine
• Complete breakdown of secretory cells
• E.g. Sebaceous tissue
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Used for support and framework
• Cells are widely separated by a large amount of intercellular
substance
• Major component: Collagen
• 2 kinds
• General connective tissue
• Special connective tissue
General Connective Tissue
Special Connective Tissue
• Cartilage
• Mostly present in embryonic stages- supporting skeleton
• Replaced by bones in adulthood
• Usually present between the bones of the vertebral column, external eat,
nose, and hands
• Types
• Hyaline- smooth, flexible
• Elastic- flexible, resilient
• Fibrocartilage- tough and resilient
Special Connective Tissue
• Bones
• Hardest connective tissue
• Maintains shape and posture
• Protects internal organs
• Rich in collagen fibers and calcium
• Types:
• Compact (Outer layer/ Diaphysis)
• Composed of osteons
• Provides strength and rigidity
• Spongy (AKA: Cancellous, trabecular); (Inner layer/ Epiphysis)
• Network of interconnected bony plate (trabeculae)
Special Connective Tissue
• Blood
• Made of various cells
• Lymph
• Drains into the blood and transports absorbed fat to the blood
• Hematopoietic tissues
• Myeloid- Bone marrow
• Lymphoid- Spleen
MUSCLE TISSUE
• Composed of cells specialized for contractions
• Contractility is due to myofilaments
• Organization: Fascicles (group of fibers) are enclosed within
epimysium (dense connective tissue) and is surrounded by
perimysium
• Internally, each muscle fiber is filled with myofibrils, composed of
thousands of thick myosin filaments and thin actin filaments,
highly organized into contractile units called sarcomeres.
MUSCLE TISSUE
(TYPES)

• Skeletal
• Striated
• Voluntary
• Cardiac
• Striated
• Involuntary
• Smooth
• Nonstriated
• Involuntary

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NERVOUS TISSUE
• Basic structure: neurons and neuroglia
• CNS:
• Brain and spinal cord
• PNS:
• Peripheral nerves
• Special receptors:
• Eye, ear, and nose
BASIC CONCEPTS OF
DISEASES
Pathology
• “Pathos”- pain or suffering
• “Logos”- study of
• Bridges discipline of basic sciences and clinical practice
• Study of the structural and functional changes in cells, tissues,
and organs that underlie a disease
• Divisions:
• Gross and Microscopic Pathology
• Anatomic Pathology
• Clinical Pathology
INFLAMMATION
• “-itis”
• Protective response
• Important in tissue repair
• Complex reaction to various injurious agents
• Consist of vascular responses, migration, and activation of WBCs
and systemic reactions
• Can be either acute or chronic
INFLAMMATION
• Rubor
• Calor
• Tumor
• Dolor
• Functio Leesa
Acute Inflammation
• Rapid response to an injurious agent that aims to rapidly bring
mediators of inflammation to site of injury
• Hallmark: Increased vascular permeability
• Infiltration is done by PMNs
• May progress to chronic inflammation if agent is not eliminated
• Exudation
• Process of leaking fluid out of blood vessels due to inflammation
• Fluid often cloudy or yellow
• Edema
• Refers to an excess fluid in the interstitial tissue
• Fluid is often clear and watery
Inflammation According to Characteristics of
Exudate
• Serous Inflammation • Allergic reactions
• Secretions from serosal • Hemorrhagic inflammation
mesothelial cells • Consist of blood and exudates
• E.g. Pulmonary TB • E.g. Bacterial infections
• Fibrinous inflammation • Purulent inflammation
• Fibrinogen (thick and sticky) • Pus-like fluid containing PMNs
• E.g. Early stage of pneumonia and necrotic tissue debris
• Catarrhal inflammation • E.g. Pustules and abcess
• Excessive production of mucus at
mucosa
Granulomatous
Inflammation
• A distinctive pattern of chronic
inflammation
• Characterized by formation of
granulomas
• Granuloma
• Focal aggregations of
activated macrophages
which are transformed in an
epithelial-like cells, have
abundant pink cytoplasm,
and are surrounded by
numerous cells
Healing
• Resolution of inflammation
• Simple resolution
• No destruction of tissues, agent is removed or neutralized, vessels return
to normal state, excess is reabsorbed, clearance of mediators and
inflammatory cells
• Regeneration
• Replacement of lost or necrotic tissue with new tissues similar to
destroyed ones
• Intact, healthy, neighboring cells surrounding the dead cells will
proliferate to replace affected cells
• Scarring
DEVELOPMENTAL DEFECTS
• Aplasia
• Incomplete or defective development of tissue or organ
• Common: breast, kidneys, adrenal, ocular
• Atresia
• Failure to form an opening
• Esophageal atresia, duodenal atresia, colonic atresia
• Hypoplasia
• Failure of organ to reach or achieve full mature or adult size
• Microcephaly, limb hypoplasia
• Agenesia
• Complete non-appearance of an organ
• Renal agenesia, ocular agenesia, limb agenesia
CELL ADAPTATION
• Atrophy
• Shrinkage of cells by loss of cell substance
• Physiologic
• Natural occurring
• May be due to decreased workload
• E.g. Thymus, brain, sex organs, reduction of uterus after childbirth
• Pathologic
• Due to denervation of muscles, decreased blood supply, nutritional deficiency, age,
disuse, exhaustion, pressure
• E.g. Broken leg that is immobilized, Parkinson’s disease, stroke, liver cirrhosis,
coronary heart disease
CELL ADAPTATION
• Hypertrophy
• Increase tissue size due to increase cell size or increased workload
• Note: There is no mitosis
• Cause by increased functional demand or specific hormonal stimulation
• Can be seen in skeletal and heart muscles
• Can be reverted if the cause is removed
• Physiologic
• Exercise, size of uterus when bearing a child
• Pathologic
• Systemic hypertension, myocardial hypertrophy
CELL ADAPTATION
• Hyperplasia
• Increased tissue size due to increased cell number
• Occurs if the cellular population is capable of synthesizing DNA
• Physiologic
• Resulting from a stimuli
• Can be a result from hormonal changes (breast and uterus in pregnancy)
• May be compensatory- regeneration of liver after partial hepatectomy,
• Pathologic
• Stimulation of growth factors
• May give rise to neoplasms
• Lymphoid tissue hyperplasia occurring after localized infection
• Viral infection (HPV)
CELL ADAPTATION
• Metaplasia
• Change of one adult cell type to another adult cell type
• Reversible
• May be due to adaptation to abnormal localized environmental changes
or demands
• Examples
• Squamous metaplasia in smokers
• Keratinizing metaplasia of skin
• Barrett’s esophagus
CELL ADAPTATION
• Dysplasia
• AKA: Atypical hyperplasia
• Pleomorphism
• Change of one cell type to changes in structural components
• May lead to cancer in some cases
• Keyword: Abnormal variation
CELL ADAPTATION
• Anaplasia
• AKA: Undifferentiated cell
• Irreversible
• Loss of differentiation of cells
• Criterion towards malignancy
• May release tumor markers
CELL ADAPTATION
• Neoplasia
• Tumor
• Continuous abnormal proliferation of cells without control
• Remember: cells that proliferated has no distinct function
• Example: Leukemia
• Oncology
• Study of neoplasm
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 • Abnormal mass of tissues that can either be malignant or benign
• Parts of a tumor

TUMORS • Parenchyma
• Consist of proliferating neoplastic cells (active elements)
• Determines rate of growth, invasiveness, and potential to metastasize
• Stroma
• Connective tissue framework
• Contains blood vessels
Types of
Tumor
• According to the
capacity to produce
death
• Benign
• Malignant

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Nomenclature of Tumor
• Benign: “–oma”
• Mesenchymal cells
• Fibroblast: Fibroma
• Chondroblast: Chondroma
• Osteoblast: Osteoma
• Lipoblast: Lipoma
• Epithelial cells
• Glandular pattern- adenoma
• Finger-like or warty projections- papilloma
• Large cystic mass- cystadenoma
Nomenclature of Tumor
• Malignant
• Mesenchymal tumors (-sarcoma)
• Fibrosarcoma
• Chondrosarcoma
• Osteosarcoma
• Leukemia (blood and bone marrow)
• Epithelial tumor (-carcinoma)
• Adenocarcinoma
• Squamous cell carcinoma
Metastasis
• Tumor implants discontinuous with the primary tumor
• Spread of cancer cells from the original tumor to other parts of the
body
• Most reliable feature of malignancy
• Cancer cells penetrate blood vessels, lymphatics, and body
cavities
• All neoplasm metastasize except glial cells and basal cell
carcinoma
• Lymphatic spread: carcinoma
• Hematogenous spread: sarcoma
Grading and Staging of Tumors
Broder’s Classification
Grade Differentiated cells Undifferentiated cells Treatment

I 75-100% 0-25% Surgery

II 50-75% 25-50%

III 25-50% 50-75%

IV 0-25% 75-100% Radiation

• Based on the degree of differentiation of the tumor cells

• Measure of how abnormal the cancer cells look under the microscope
Staging of Tumors
• Based on the size of the primary
lesion and its spread
• Measure of how large the tumor is,
how fast it has spread, and presence
or absence of metastases
• Most common scoring: TNM
classification
CELLULAR DEATH
• Patterns of cellular death
• Necrosis
• Pathologic cell death (usually by protein denaturation)
• Causes by external injury or damage
• Has inflammation reaction
• Apoptosis
• Programmed cell death
• Controlled and organized manner
• Involves cells shrinkage, fragmentation, and engulfment by other cells
• No inflammation reaction
Types of Necrosis
• Coagulative • TB infection, tularemia, syphilis, LGV
• Most common • Fat
• Outline of dead cells are maintained, • Due to release of pancreatic lipases
and the tissue is somewhat formed- • Chalky white precipitate due to release
“Tombstone formation” of fatty acid and calcium ions
• Myocardium, Lungs, Kidneys, Spleen
• Gangrenous
• Liquefactive • Sulfide gas production
• Autolysis or heterolysis • Types
• Complete destruction of cells • Dry
• Presence of pus formation • Caused by arterial occlusion
• Brain, spinal cord • Embolism of foot
• Wet
• Caseous • Result of venous occlusion
• Yellow, cheesy, crumbly material • Bacterial infection
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Remaining Topics
• Somatic Cell Death
• Biopsy
• Autopsy
• Tumor Markers
• Exfoliative and Hormonal cytology

• Sunday: Review Final exam

 References
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