MANUFACTURING AND INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES WITH PLANT

VISITS

1.1 What is Manufacturing?

Definition:
 Derived from Latin manus (hand) and factus (make), initially
meaning "made by hand."
 Modern Definition: Application of physical and chemical
processes to alter materials' properties, forming parts or
products.
 Economic Role: Adds value to raw materials, crucial for a
nation's wealth.  Manufactured Products
Manufacturing's Dual Definition: Consumer goods are products purchased directly by consumers,
 Technological: The application of physical and chemical such as cars, smart phones, TVs, tires, and tennis rackets.
processes to alter the geometry, properties, and/or Capital goods are those purchased by companies to produce goods
appearance of a given starting material to make parts or and/or provide services.
products; manufacturing also includes assembly of multiple
parts to make products. The processes to accomplish  Production Quantity and Product Variety
manufacturing involve a combination of machinery, tools, Annual production quantities can be classified into three ranges: (1)
power, and labor. Manufacturing is almost always carried out low production, quantities in the range 1 to 100 units per year; (2)
as a sequence of operations. Each operation brings the medium production, from 100 to 10,000 units annually; and (3) high
material closer to the desired final state production, 10,000 to millions of units.
 Economic: The transformation of materials into items of
greater value by means of one or more processing and/or Manufacturing Capability - refers to the scope of technical and
assembly operations. The key point is that manufacturing adds physical capabilities and limitations of a manufacturing company and
value to the material by changing its shape or properties, or by each of its plants.
combining it with other materials that have been similarly  Technological Processing Capability - is its available set of
altered. The material has been made more valuable through manufacturing processes. Technological processing capability
the manufacturing operations performed on it. is closely related to material type.
o Transforming raw materials into items of higher value.  Physical Product Limitations - A plant with a given set of
Manufacturing Industries and Products processes is limited in terms of the size and weight of the
 Manufactured Industries products that can be accommodated.
Primary industries cultivate and exploit natural resources, such as  Production Capacity - is the production quantity that can be
agriculture and mining. produced in a given time period (e.g., month or year). This
Secondary industries take the outputs of the primary industries and quantity limitation is commonly called plant capacity, or
convert them into consumer and capital goods. production capacity, defined as the maximum rate of
Tertiary industries constitute the service sector of the economy. production output that a plant can achieve under assumed
operating conditions.
1.2 Materials in Manufacturing 4. Composites
 Categories of Engineering Materials: is a material consisting of two or more phases that are
1. Metals processed separately and then bonded together to
Metals used in manufacturing are usually alloys, which achieve properties superior to those of its constituents.
are composed of two or more elements, at least one of
which is a metallic element. 1.3 Manufacturing Processes
o Ferrous metals are based on iron; the group Types of Operations:
includes steel and cast iron. a. Shaping Operations: Processes that change the
o Nonferrous metals include the other metallic geometry of the starting material. Includes casting, forging,
elements and their alloys. The nonferrous metals and machining.
include the pure metals and alloys of aluminum,  Solidification processes: Start with molten material and
copper, gold, magnesium, nickel, silver, tin, solidify into shapes.
titanium, zinc, and other metals.  Particulate processes: Begin with powder and use heat
2. Ceramic and pressure to form parts.
Is a compound containing metallic (or semimetallic)  Deformation processes: Materials are shaped using
and nonmetallic elements. mechanical forces (e.g., forging, extrusion).
o Crystalline ceramics (traditional ceramics like clay)  Material removal processes: Excess material is removed
o Glasses (used in casting or molding processes) to shape the part (e.g., machining, grinding)
3. Polymers
Is a compound formed of repeating structural units b. Property-Enhancing Operations: Aim to improve
called mers, whose atoms share electrons to form very mechanical or physical properties without changing the
large molecules. Polymers usually consist of carbon part's shape, like heat treatment.
plus one or more other elements such as hydrogen, c. Surface Processing Operations: Modify the surface,
nitrogen, oxygen, and chlorine. including cleaning, coating, or plating to improve
o Thermoplastic polymers can be subjected to performance or appearance.
multiple heating and cooling cycles without
substantially altering the molecular structure of the 1.4 Production Systems
polymer. Common thermoplastics include Two Main Components:
polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, Production Facilities: The factory layout and machinery used
polyvinylchloride, and nylon. for processing.
o Thermosetting polymers chemically transform Manufacturing Support Systems: Managing production
(cure) into a rigid structure upon cooling from a logistics (e.g., material flow, quality control).
heated plastic condition, hence the name
thermosetting. Members of this type include 1.5 Manufacturing Economics
phenolics, amino resins, and epoxies. Although the Key Concepts:
name “thermosetting” is used, some of these Production Cycle Time Analysis: Total time to manufacture
polymers cure by mechanisms other than heating. a product, considering setup, processing, and handling time.
o Elastomers are polymers that exhibit significant Cost Models: Estimation of costs using cycle time and
elastic behavior. They include natural rubber, material cost, plus tooling expenses.
neoprene, silicone, and polyurethane.
FEEDERS & STORAGE SILOS
 Screw Feeders
Feeders – machineries used in assembly and manufacturing
applications to move or “transport” materials or products to a
designated storage or to other processing equipment.

Types of Feeders:
 Rotary Feeders

o used for handling bulk materials, in which a rotating

helicoid screw moves the material forward, toward and
into a process unit.
o very similar to screw conveyors in their basic structure,
both of which are based on the principles of the
Archimedean screw
o rotating element or vane discharges powder or o capable of delivering dense slurries and dry granular
granules at a predetermined rate products with great accuracy at a range of operational
o often used with large amounts of solid material speeds
o power comes from an internal combustion engine or an o drive is controlled by servo motors capable of precise
electrical motor stop-start and speed control
 Vibratory Feeders VOLUMETRIC SCREW FEEDERS
 amount of material transported is carefully
calculated and controlled by adjusting the speed at
which the screw turns.
 very accurate feed values to be maintained
 rotational speed may be preset or constantly
adjusted
GRAVIMETRIC SCREW FEEDER
 delivery rate is controlled by adjusting the rate at
o use both vibration and gravity to move material which the material is introduced into the machine
o used to transport a large number of smaller objects
o uncontrolled recovery of the material from top of feeder  Apron Feeders
o controlled delivery of the material from bottom of feeder
 o a limited-length version of apron conveyor bowls
o also known as plate-belt feeder; plate feeder. Polyamide bowl Small components with
o allows automatic control the volume of materials that (conical or stepped) simple geometry and
are added to a process where mass production
o construct is from heavy, durable materials like steel of feeders is required
o the belt portion of the apron feeder is made from thick
steel trays or pans Storage Silos
o can be found in mining operations, factories, and A silo is a structure for storing bulk materials. Silos are used in
concrete plants agriculture to store grain (see grain elevators) or fermented feed
o cannot be used in applications where precise feeding known as silage. Silos are more commonly used for bulk storage of
and measuring is required grain, coal, cement, carbon black, woodchips, food products and
sawdust. Three types of silos are in widespread use today - tower
 Bowl Feeders silos, bunker silos and bag silos. Missile silos are used for the storage
and launching of ballistic missiles.

Types of Silos
1. Tower Silos
 Most common type of silo
 Can be made of concrete, brick, metal, wood, and
other materials
 Loading and unloading is done with automated
systems
o used to feed parts to an assembly line or piece of 2. Bunker Silos
manufacturing equipment  Are trenches, usually with concrete walls
o individual components exit the feeder at specific  Covered with a plastic tarp to make it airtight
intervals and enter the next step in the assembly  Automated systems for loading and unloading
process
 More low profile than tower silos
o Each bowl feeder uses special sensors to spot jams or
 Better insulated
parts that may be misaligned.
3. Bag Silos
o one drawback is its precise operation.
 8 to 12 ft in diameter
Types of Bowl Feeders  Unloaded using a tractor and loader or skid-steer
Type Material Suitable for: loader
Cylindrical Aluminum/Steel/Stainless Continuous transport  Require little capital investment
Steel of components and for  Temporary measure when growth or harvest conditions
handling small parts require more space
Conical Aluminum/Stainless Steel Heavy sharp-edged 4. Skid-steer Loader
components
Larger Loads 5. Bins
Automatic pre-
 Shorter than a silo
separating
Stepped Aluminum/Stainless Steel Larger loads and larger  Used for holding dry matter
components  Shape is either round or squared
Similar to conical  Contain a hollow perforated or screened central shaft
  Lightweight, foldable, and extendable.
 These are more common for small scale
production, where use is temporary
CONVEYORS  Can handle loads up to 1000 lbs.
- a mechanized device used to move materials in relatively  Benefits: Easy to transport and versatile.
large quantities between specific locations over a fixed path.
- There are over 400 types of conveyors 4. Vibrating Conveyors
Use vibration to move materials along belts or troughs.
Types of Conveyors Common uses: Food processing, chemical production,
manufacturing.
1. Roller Conveyors Key features:
Consist of a series of parallel rotating bars that move  Speed and vibration intensity can be adjusted.
goods.  Can handle objects from 1 lb to 90 lbs.
Common uses: Warehouses and manufacturing.  Benefits: Efficient for small and misshaped items.
Key features:  Drawbacks: Can be noisy; requires safety gear for
 Often gravity-powered or manually moved. workers.
 Can handle heavy loads (up to 25,000 lbs).
 Most common are free floating, no mechanical or 5. Screw/Spiral Conveyors
electrical system used Used mainly for heating, cooling, or accumulation.
 Cost: $60 - $1000 depending on size. Common uses: Agricultural applications, food processing.
 Speed: Up to 60 feet per minute (fpm). Key features:
 Benefits: Simple, inexpensive, and reliable.  Flexible and can move material through floors or
around obstacles.
2. Chain Conveyors  Ideal for vertical or inclined transport in limited
Material is transported along solid pans by chains. spaces.
Common uses: Heavy industries (e.g., mining, steel
production). 6. Belt Conveyors
Key features: Loops of material that transport items between locations.
 Flexible and can follow tight curves. Common uses: Manufacturing, food processing, heavy
 Suitable for heavy loads (up to 20,000 lbs). industry.
 Cost: $2000 - $60,000 depending on control Key features:
systems.  Versatile and common in various industries.
 Speed: Up to 60 fpm.  Speed and load capacity depend on the
 Benefits: Efficient, flexible, reliable, and easily application.
maintainable.  Cost: $500 - $30,000 depending on size and
customization.
3. Portable Conveyors
Used when mobility and space-saving are priorities. 7. Overhead Conveyors
Common uses: Construction, bulk material handling, Elevated system used to transport items over facility
office relocation. space.
Key features:
 Common uses: Painting, washing, oven processing,  Grinding Circuit
transporting between workstations. Open Circuit Grinding: Material passes once through the
Key features: crusher.
 Efficient use of vertical space. Closed Circuit Grinding: Oversized material is returned for re-
 Suitable for light to moderate loads (up to 1200 crushing, which enhances efficiency.
lbs).
 Speed: Ranges from 3 to 60 fpm.

Summary of Conveyor Benefits

Rollers: Cheap, handle heavy objects.
Chain: More expensive but versatile for complex tasks.
Portable: Easy to store, useful for small-scale jobs.
Vibrating: Ideal for small or irregularly shaped items.
Screw/Spiral: Great for vertical space-saving and specific
functions like drying or heating.
Belt: Most common, highly adaptable. Nature of the material to be crushed
Overhead: Space-efficient, effective for vertical material The choice of machine for a given crushing operation will be
handling. influenced by the nature of the product required and the quantity and
size of material to be handled. The more important properties of the
feed apart from its size are as follows:

 Hardness
SIZE REDUCTION OF SOLIDS
The hardness of the material affects the power consumption and the
Objective of size reduction: Increasing surface area for better
wear on the machine. With hard and abrasive materials it is necessary
reaction rates, especially in chemical industries.
to use a low-speed machine and to protect the bearings from the
abrasive dusts that are produced.
Energy Requirements
Pressure lubrication is recommended. Materials are arranged in order
Rittinger's Law: Energy is proportional to the increase in surface
of increasing hardness in the Mohr scale.
area. Best for fine grinding.
The first four items rank as soft and the remainder as hard.
Kick's Law: Energy is proportional to the size reduction ratio. Suitable
for coarse crushing.
Bond's Law: Intermediate between Rittinger and Kick's, used for a
broader range of size reduction applications.

Methods of Operating Crushers

There are two distinct methods of feeding material to a crusher.
1. Free Crushing: Material escapes easily, reducing time in the
crusher, preventing fines.
2. Choke Feeding: Material accumulates in the crusher,
increasing crushing time and energy consumption.
  Structure Types of Crushing Equipment
Normal granular materials such as coal, ores and rocks can be
effectively crushed employing the normal forces of compression,
impact, etc. With fibrous materials it is necessary to effect a tearing
action.

 Moisture content
It is found that materials do not flow well if they contain between about
5 and 50 per cent of moisture; under these conditions the material
tends to cake together in the form of balls. Grinding can be carried out
satisfactorily, in general, outside these limits.

 Crushing strength
The power required for crushing is almost directly proportional to the
crushing strength of the material.

 Friability COARSE CRUSHER

The friability of the material is its tendency to fracture during normal Jaw Crusher
handling. In general, a crystalline material will break along well-  Blake Jaw Crusher
defined planes and the power required for crushing will increase as Jaw Pivot Location: The moving jaw is pivoted at the top.
the particle size is reduced. Movement: Maximum movement is at the bottom of the
crushing chamber.
 Stickiness Crushing Action: Intermittent, leading to uneven loading on
A sticky material will tend to clog the grinding equipment and there the machine.
fare it should be ground in a plant that can be readily cleaned. Feed Handling: Larger material is introduced at the top,
where the highest pressure is exerted.
 Soapiness Capacity: Wide variation in jaw widths (50 mm to 1.2 m) and
This is, in general, a measure of the coefficient of friction of the speed (1.5 to 6 Hz).
surface of the material. If the coefficient of friction is low the crushing Design: Includes a weak toggle plate for protection from
may be more difficult. overloading.
Output: Some uncrushed material may fall through and need
 Explosive materials must be ground wet or in the presence of re-crushing. Produces a coarser product due to the large feed
an inert atmosphere. opening and lower likelihood of choking.

 Materials yielding dusts that are harmful to the health must  Dodge Jaw Crusher:
be ground under conditions where the dust is not allowed to Jaw Pivot Location: The moving jaw is pivoted at the bottom.
escape. Movement: Minimum movement is at the bottom, producing a
more uniform product.
Crushing Action: Continuous, but the design is prone to
choking.
Feed Handling: Can handle large feed sizes with significant
size reduction due to the large top opening.
 Capacity: Usually made in smaller sizes compared to the  Material is fed to the center, and worked outward by the
Blake crusher due to the high fluctuating stresses. muller.
Output: Produces a more uniform product but is less  Continuous operation due to scraper action; material is
commonly used due to choking issues. removed through perforated rims when fine enough.
 Can operate wet or dry; used for grinding paints, clays, and
In summary, the Blake crusher handles large materials well and is sticky materials.
more commonly used due to its ability to handle fluctuating loads,
while the Dodge crusher provides a more uniform product but has
limitations due to its tendency to choke. End Runner Mill:
 Small lab-sized mill with rotating cast iron or porcelain mortar
Gyratory Crushers and vertical pestle.
Design: Features a crushing head shaped like a truncated cone,  Continuous scraping by a doctor knife, producing a fine
mounted on a shaft. The upper part is flexibly supported, while the product.
lower part moves in a circular motion driven eccentrically.  Hammer Mill:
Crushing Action: Continuous crushing occurs around the entire  Impact mill with a high-speed rotating disc and swinging
cone, with maximum movement at the bottom, similar to the Blake hammer bars.
crusher.
 Materials are crushed by being beaten between hammer bars
Efficiency: Lower power consumption and smaller stress fluctuations
and breaker plates.
compared to jaw crushers, due to its continuous operation.
 Suitable for brittle and fibrous materials; screens regulate
Capacity: High capacity per unit of grinding surface, especially useful
product size.
for finer, more uniform product size.
Feed Size: Handles smaller feed sizes compared to jaw crushers but  Requires careful maintenance to prevent dust entry and wear
produces finer output. on parts.
Cost: High capital cost, making it more suitable for large-scale 
operations. Pin-type Mill:
Force Type: Uses compressive force, similar to jaw crushers.  Consists of two horizontal steel plates with vertical projections.
 Centrifugal action breaks materials against projections.
INTERMEDIATE CRUSHERS  Produces a uniform, fine product with minimal dust, suitable
for chemicals and fertilizers.
Stamp Battery:  Similar action in the squirrel cage disintegrator, used for friable
 Used for moderately fine crushing in the past but now largely materials like coal and limestone.
replaced by more efficient machines.
 Heavy stamps (500-1000 kg) are mechanically raised and Single Roll Crusher:
dropped on the material.  Features a toothed crushing roll that compresses and shears
 The number of stamps affects the load distribution on the materials against a breaker plate.
mechanism.  Used mainly for coal crushing.
 Operates with water to continuously remove the product.  Material passes through multiple crushing stages.

Edge Runner Mill: Crushing Rolls:

 Consists of a heavy muller (cast iron or granite wheel)  Two rolls rotate in opposite directions; adjustable clearance
mounted on a horizontal shaft or stationary pan. between them.
 Used for small size reduction, often in series of rolls.
  Tyres with smooth or ridged surfaces are keyed to the rolls.  Spring-loaded rollers apply grinding force, and air flow
removes the product.
 Suitable for grinding limestone, gypsum, chemicals, and
Conical Crushers: explosive materials.
 Similar to gyratory crushers but produce a finer product.  Features cyclone separation for product collection.
 Operate at higher speeds; ideal for closed circuit grinding.
 Dry, uniformly sized material is required for efficient operation. Raymond Mill:
 Similar to Lopulco, but gives finer and more uniform product.
Symons Disc Crusher:  Employs heavy arms with rollers that bear on a circular bull
 Employs two saucer-shaped discs, one rotating and the other ring.
eccentric.  Low power consumption, but not suited for abrasive materials.
 Centrifugal action discharges the product when fine enough to  Often used for pulverized coal and in cement and pottery
escape through openings between the discs. industries.

FINE CRUSHERS Griffin Mill:

 A simplified version of the Raymond mill with one grinding
Buhrstone Mill: head.
 Oldest form of fine crushing equipment, largely replaced by  Separation of product is achieved using a screen.
roller mills.
 Grinding occurs between two heavy horizontal stones, one Ball Mill:
stationary and one driven.  Hollow rotating cylinder partially filled with balls; grinding
 Material is sheared between grooves on the grinding stones. occurs as the balls drop onto the material.
 Used historically for grain, pigments, pharmaceuticals,  Lined with abrasion-resistant materials, like rubber or
cosmetics, but now for small quantities. manganese steel.
 Used for coal, pigments, pottery, with efficiency increasing as
Roller Mills: the mill holds more material.
 Composed of two rollers rotating at different speeds, creating  Balls vary in size and are replaced as they wear; compound
compressive and shear forces. mills have multiple compartments with varying ball sizes for
 Extensively used in flour milling and pigment production. uniform grinding.
 Adjustable bearing allows for varying product size.
 Centrifugal Attrition Mills (Babcock Mill): Factors Influencing the Size of the Product:
 Cast iron balls rotate against a bull ring; material is ground by 1. Rate of Feed: High feed rates reduce size reduction as the
pressure and removed via an air stream. material spends less time in the mill.
 Used primarily for pulverizing coal, sometimes in cement 2. Feed Properties: Larger feed materials produce larger
production. product sizes; hard materials result in less size reduction.
 Air velocity and feed rate control product fineness. 3. Weight of Balls: Heavier ball loads produce finer products.
The optimal ball volume is about 50% of the mill volume.
4. Ball Diameter: Smaller balls produce finer material but are
Lopulco Mill (Ring Roll Pulveriser): less effective on large particles.
 High-speed bull ring throws feed under crushing rollers shaped 5. Slope of the Mill: A steeper slope increases capacity but
like truncated cones. results in a coarser product.
 6. Discharge Freedom: Easier discharge, such as through Hardinge Mill:
openings in the lining, also coarsens the product.  A ball mill where the balls segregate by size; large balls in the
7. Speed of Rotation: Low speeds result in little grinding; as cylindrical section and smaller balls in the conical section.
speed increases, balls are projected farther, causing wear. At  Provides successive crushing by progressively smaller balls.
very high speeds, balls are carried around the mill without  Gives a finer and more uniform product with lower power
effective grinding. consumption.
8. Level of Material: Lower levels reduce power consumption.  Commonly used for materials like cement, fuels, carborundum,
Raising the material level wastes power and leads to silica.
excessive fine product.
Vibration Mills:
Advantages of the Ball Mill:  Operates by imparting vibrating motion via out-of-balance
 Flexible Operation: Can be used for both wet and dry weights or electro-mechanical devices.
grinding.  Provides higher capacity compared to conventional mills.
 Cost Efficiency: Low installation and power costs.  Often used in continuous grinding systems and for high-speed
 Inert Atmosphere: Can be used for grinding explosive operations with small machines.
materials in an inert atmosphere.
 Inexpensive Medium: The grinding medium (balls) is Colloid Mills:
affordable.  Used for producing colloidal suspensions, emulsions, and fine
 Versatile: Suitable for materials of any hardness. dispersions.
 Operational Modes: Can operate in batch or continuous  Operates with a flat rotor and stator, applying shear force to
modes. reduce particle size.
 Open or Closed Circuit: Can be used in both open and  Can achieve submicron-sized droplets or particles.
closed circuits, allowing control over particle size distribution.  Very high power consumption; material must be pre-ground
before entering the mill.
Tube Mill:
 Similar to a ball mill but longer (length to diameter ratio of 3 or Fluid Energy Mills:
4:1).  Uses high-pressure jets of superheated steam or compressed
 Uses pebbles instead of balls; forms a self-renewing lining air for pulverizing solids.
inside.  Produces fine particles in the range of 1 to 10 µm through
 Produces a finer product due to the longer retention of shearing action.
material.  The microniser is a well-known type, using high-speed
collisions between particles.
Rod Mill:  Higher power consumption per kilogram compared to
 Uses high carbon steel rods (50 mm in diameter) instead of conventional milling systems.
balls.  The Wheeler fluid energy mill uses a vertical loop and
 Produces a uniform fine product with low power consumption. circulates oversize particles back for further grinding.
 Suitable for sticky materials, as rods prevent them from
sticking together.
 Not ideal for tough materials; feed size limited to about 25 mm.