The University Of The South Pacific

School of Information Technology, Engineering, Mathematics and

Physics (STEMP)

28th October, 2024

CV322: Hydraulic Engineering

Assignment 2

Submitted By:

Vishanth Krishna- S11197376

Teriakai Ueanna- S11162417
Eritabeta Rubi- S11190509
Deborah Fong-S11197221

Year 3- Bachelor in Civil Engineering

Due Date: 27th September, 2024

Course Coordinator: Dr. Asif Zaman

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Question 1
Theory and Assumption

This formula is based on the Darcy-Weisbach equation, which takes into account both major
(frictional) and minor losses and assumes steady, incompressible flow. Friction causes significant
losses along the pipe's length, while bends, valves, and fittings cause minor losses.

Explanation of Each Term

ℎ, -is the total head loss measured in meters, m. This is the total of the small losses in the
piping system and the head loss from friction.

𝑓- is the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor which is dimensionless. This variable is dependent on the
Reynolds number (flow conditions) and the pipe's surface roughness.

𝐿- is the length of the pipe measured in meters, m. This is the pipe's overall length when frictional
losses are taken into account.

𝐷- is the diameter of the pipe measured in meters, m. This is the pipe's internal diameter, which
influences head loss and flow.

∑ 𝐾 - is the sum of loss coefficients for minor losses which is dimensionless. These coefficients
take into consideration losses brought on by bends, fittings, valves, and other pipe components.

𝑉- is the flow velocity measured in meters per second m/s. The fluid's average speed as it passes
through the pipe.

𝑔- is the gravitational acceleration measured in meters per second squared, . A constant value

that represents the acceleration brought on by gravity is roughly 9.81 m/s.

Numerical Example

A pipe length with following specifications:

 Length of pipe, 𝐿 = 60𝑚

 Diameter of pipe, 𝐷 = 0.2𝑚
 Flow velocity, 𝑉 = 3𝑚/𝑠

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 Friction factor, 𝑓 = 0.02

 Sum of minor loss coefficients, ∑ 𝐾 = 2.5

When calculating the total head loss, it is calculated by substituting the above values into the
formula as follows:

𝐿 𝑉
ℎ , = (𝑓 + 𝐾)
𝐷 2𝑔
60 3
ℎ , = 0.02 + 2.5
0.2 2(9.81)
ℎ , = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟗𝟗𝒎
therefore, the total head loss for this system is 3.899m.

Question 2
Name of Chart

The displayed graph is known as a pump characteristic curve or performance curve. In fluid
mechanics and pump engineering, this kind of chart is frequently used to illustrate the connection
between a pump's head (pressure), flow rate, and efficiency.

Explanation of each Term

1. Head (m)- the head, expressed in meters (m), is represented by the vertical axis on the left.
The head is the maximum height at which the fluid can be raised by the pump. It stands for
the pressure or energy that the pump produces.

2. Flow rate ( )- the flow rate, expressed in cubic meters per second, is represented by the

horizontal axis. This is the maximum amount of fluid that the pump can move in a given
amount of time.
3. System Curve - the relationship between head and flow rate for the piping system where
the pump is used is depicted by the system curve (dashed pink line). This curve shows the
system's resistance or pressure loss as a result of fittings and pipe friction.
4. Supply Curve- the head that the pump can generate at various flow rates is displayed by
the pump curve (solid magenta line). This curve is unique to a given pump and varies based
on the pump's speed and design.

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5. Efficiency (𝜂 )- the pump's efficiency, expressed as a percentage (%), is displayed by

the dashed blank line. This shows the pump's efficiency at various flow rates and how well
it transforms mechanical energy into fluid energy.
6. Operating Point - the operating point is represented by the point where the pump and
system curves intersect. The actual head and flow rate that the pump delivers to the system
is defined at this point, where the pump and system are in equilibrium.
7. Shutoff Head - the maximum head generated when the flow rate is zero, such as when the
pump exit is closed, is known as the shutoff head. It stands for the highest pressure that the
pump is capable of producing.
8. Free Delivery- when there is no resistance (no piping attached), the maximum flow rate is
known as free delivery. In this case, the head is almost zero because neither elevation nor
pressure are needed.

Numerical Example

By contrasting the required system curve with the available pump curves, this chart can be used to
choose the right pump for a given application. Here's an illustration:

Let's say a system needs a head of 20 m and a flow rate of 3 .

 Find the system curve on the chart that travels through a 20-meter head at 3 m/s.
 Determine the operating point at which the pump curve and this system curve intersect.
 To ascertain the pump's efficiency at this stage, examine the efficiency curve.
 For instance, the pump is functioning at 70% efficiency under the necessary circumstances
if the efficiency curve shows 70% at this point.

The actual hydraulic power output can be computed as follows if the pump's operating point

efficiency is 70% (3 and 20 m head) and the power input is 50 kW:

Hydraulic Power = Efficiency x Input Power

Hydraulic Power = 0.7 × 50kW
Hydraulic Power = 35kW

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Thus, the pump uses 35 kW of hydraulic power to reach a flow rate of 3 at a 20 m head. This

illustration shows how to estimate operating conditions and efficiency using the pump
performance curve.

Question 3
Flow measurement techniques are crucial for measuring the flow rate or velocity of fluid in a pipe,
for significant purpose. There are so many types of flow measurement and operate on different
physical, mechanical and electrical principles. There are three main techniques commonly used in
the system, there are orifice flowmeter, ultrasonic flowmeter and electromagnetic flowmeter.

Ultrasonic flowmeter one common technique of flow measurement that highly used, that a meter
was attached with the exterior of a pipe, and the meter activated to transmit sound wave from one
side of the meter to the other. The transmitted sound waves are then collected and measure the
flow. There are two types of these measurement, these are transit time flowmeter and doppler
effect ultrasonic flowmeter. Transit time flowmeter is a soundwave send in opposite direction on
a diagonal, one signal sends upstream and the other downstream. The time difference its takes to
reach the opposite side is used to determine the flow. However, doppler type flowmeter is when
the sound wave transit by a meter through the fluid to measure the wave reflects. The frequency
of the reflect sound can be same or different, but different if the liquid is moving, the reflected
wave is different, and which can be used to calculate flow rate. The measurement of this meter can
highly its accuracy due to the presence of bubbles in the pipe. Moreover, this technique widely
used because its easy and quick to install by just clamping the meter outside the pipe. Measurement
is highly accuracies compared to other techniques such as orifice. They are nonintrusive. Since the
meters clamp on, there is no need to stop operation and drill holes into piping, and no production
downtime. There are no moving parts, and thus the meters provide reliable and maintenance-free
operation. Ultrasonic flowmeters perfectly operate, but also has issues associated with higher cost
and substance limitations. This technique accuracy perform lead to expensive, and also can not be
used for liquid that are heavily contaminated or slurry.

In addition, orifice flowmeter is a device that usually used to measure the flow rate application in
oil and gas industry. An orifice plate is used to create the differential pressure in the process line
by acting as a barrier for flow. The drop in pressure is relate with the flow rate. The limitation of
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CV322 Assignment 2

this device is easily gets clogged due to impurities in gas. The minimum pressure that can be
achieved for reading the flow is sometimes difficult to achieve. The discharge co-efficient obtained
is low. Furthermore, these techniques mostly utilized because it cheap and easily installed. It is
available in any size, can be ordered in various sizes to suit the requirement of the users. Easy
maintenance, it has a very low maintenance requirement when compared to other types of flow
meter. Nevertheless, this device cannot be used for non-Newtonian and highly fluids viscosity.
Orifice meters design is not considering high fluid viscosity, so it not suitable to measure these
kinds of fluid. The measurement accuracy can be low due to pressure loss and clogging.

Also, in electromagnetic flow meter a current is applied to wire coils mounted within or outside
the meter body to generate a magnetic field. The liquid flowing through the pipe acts as the
conductor and this induces a voltage which is proportional to the average flow velocity. This
voltage is detected by sensing electrodes mounted in the magnetic flow meter body, and sent to a
transmitter which calculates the flow rate. The use of this device is limited by their relatively high
cost, power consumption, and the restriction on the types of suitable fluid with they can be used.
Electromagnetic flowmeters are ideal for measuring the flow rates of fluid metals like mercury,
sodium, and potassium used in some nuclear reactors. They can also be used for fluids that are
poor conductors, like water, as long as they have a sufficient amount of charged particles. Blood
and seawater contain sufficient particles, allowing electromagnetic flowmeters to measure their
flow rates. Electromagnetic flowmeters can also measure the flow rates of chemicals,
pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, corrosive fluids, beverages, fertilizers, and various slurries and
sludges, as long as the substances have high enough electrical conductivities. Electromagnetic
flowmeters are not suitable for use with distilled or deionized water. Electromagnetic flowmeters
measure flow velocity indirectly, and thus careful calibration is important during installation.

A difference techniques of flow measurement has unique qualities and shortcoming. The best
device can be adopted in a system by looking specific factors such as fluid properties, budget and
required accuracy.

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Question 4

Assumption

 The flow is steady and incompressible.

 The elevation of the reservoirs remains constant
 No device in the system such as pump or turbine.
Properties

The density of water and dynamic viscosity are 𝜌 = 1000𝑘𝑔/𝑚 and 𝜇 = 1.307 ×
10 𝑘𝑔/𝑚.s. The roughness of cast iron pipe is 𝜀 = 0.00026𝑚. The sharped-edged
entrance (kL= 0.5), two standard elbows flanged (KL = 0.3), Gate valve fully open (KL =
0.2), and exit (KL = 1,06).

Analysis

Point 1 and point 2 are the two surface of reservoirs that open to the atmosphere, therefore
P1 =P2 =Patm. The fluid velocity nearly zero (V1= V2 = 0). Length of the pipe system (90 + 8
= 98m)

Z1 = Z 2 + h L

hL= hL total = hL major + hL, minor = 𝑓 + ∑ 𝐾𝐿

Given a flow rate of 7 L/s equal to 0.007m 3/s

̇ ̇ . ̇ /
V= = ( ) /
= ( . ) /
= 3.57 m/s

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( )( . )( . )
Re = = = 136,572.303 (turbulent flow Re greater than 4000)
. ×

𝜀 0.00026𝑚
= = 0.0052
𝐷 0.05𝑚
𝜀
1 2.51
= −2.0𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐷 +
𝑓 3.7 𝑅𝑒 𝑓

1 0.0052 2.51
= −2.0𝑙𝑜𝑔 +
𝑓 3.7 136,572.303 𝑓

𝑓 = 0.03140853
∑ 𝐾𝐿 = KL, entrance + 2KL, elbow + KL, valve + KL, exist

∑ 𝐾𝐿 = 0.5 + 2 (0.3) + 0.2 + 1.06 = 2.36

.
hL= 0.03140853 + 2.36 = 41.522m
. ( . )

Z1 = Z2 + hL= 3 + 41.522 = 44.522 m

Question 5
There are notable differences between centrifugal and positive-displacement pumps in terms of
their physical characteristics. Positive-displacement pumps use chambers to trap a constant amount
of fluid, which is displaced with each cycle by mechanical elements including pistons, diaphragms,
and gears. In general, this design produces a structure that is bigger and has more mechanical parts.
By contrast, centrifugal pumps give the fluid velocity by means of an impeller that revolves inside
a casing. They can be used in applications that need a simple and effective method of fluid
transmission because of their smaller, simpler construction.

Additionally, these pumps operate in different ways. Positive-displacement pumps are perfect for
high-viscosity fluids and applications requiring a steady flow rate since they move a constant
volume of fluid per cycle, independent of system pressure. However, if improperly managed, they
may be vulnerable to high pressure accumulation, which could result in mechanical failure. On the
other hand, centrifugal pumps use the impeller's velocity to transfer fluid. Although they work

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better with low-viscosity fluids, they are less dependable at sustaining steady flow in situations
that fluctuate because their flow rate changes in response to pressure variations.

Positive displacement pumps provide a flow rate that is calculated by multiplying the displacement
volume each cycle by the operating speed. Because it is mostly unaffected by system pressure, this
flow rate is quite predictable. Centrifugal pumps use speed and head (the pressure differential) to
determine flow rate; as a result, when pressure rises, their flow rate falls. In general, pump curves
are used to illustrate the relationships between efficiency, head, and flow rate.

Inefficiencies in each pump type arise from a variety of factors. Leakage inside the pump chambers,
friction between moving parts, and pressure surges from insufficient control can all cause
inefficiencies in positive-displacement pumps. On the other hand, fluid slippage, impeller friction,
and the requirement to maintain ideal speeds for effective operation cause centrifugal pumps to
lose efficiency. They are particularly inefficient when dealing with high-viscosity fluids, which
disrupt with the centrifugal motion required to properly transport the fluid.

Their varying strengths are likewise reflected in the uses of these pumps. In hydraulic systems, for
the transfer of viscous fluids like oils or syrups, and in industries that need accurate dosage,
positive-displacement pumps are frequently utilized. On the other hand, centrifugal pumps work
better in settings where low-viscosity fluids must be moved, like chemical processing facilities,
HVAC systems, and water delivery systems. For irrigation and other large-scale fluid transfer
applications, these devices are suitable due to their straightforward design and efficient handling
of low-viscosity fluids.

Question 6
When predicting the performance of pumps with varying sizes or under varying operating
conditions using test data from a model pump, fluid mechanics' pump scaling rules are essential.
These laws, which maintain physical correlations, enable engineers to use dimensionless
coefficients to scale the behavior of a prototype pump to that of an actual pump. The correlations
between flow rate, head, and power are known as the key scaling laws, because they allow
engineers to enhance designs and predict operational results at different scales.

In pump scaling, a number of crucial coefficients are established. These are the most often used:
power coefficient (Π), head coefficient (Ψ), and flow coefficient (Φ). The flow coefficient makes

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it possible to compare various pumps or operating settings by connecting the volumetric flow rate
to the impeller diameter and rotational speed. Likewise, the head coefficient connects the generated
head to the pump's diameter and speed. Lastly, the power coefficient connects the input power to
the pump's size and speed. Since these coefficients are all dimensionless, it is possible to compare
various systems without taking into account the effects of particular units.

Scaling and pump testing frequently use the terms "dynamically similar" and "geometrically
similar." A system or model that differs in size but has the same shape is said to be geometrically
similar. Two pumps are geometrically comparable, for instance, if all of their dimension scale
according to the same ratio. The systems are said to be dynamically similar if they function under
circumstances where the forces in them—such as gravitational, inertial, and viscous forces—are
proportionate, in addition to having the same geometric proportions. Dimensionless parameters,
like the Reynolds and Froude numbers, must coincide for two systems to be dynamically similar.
Although it is required for dynamic similarity, geometric similarity is insufficient on its own.

Question 7
Froude number is known as the dimensionless number that is used to characterize the flow
regime in open channel flows. The Froude number was named after the a British engineer and
naval architect named William Froude, who had studied the hydrodynamic and fluid mechanic
in the early 19th, which represents the ratio of inertial forces to gravity and serves as a primary
measures of flow regime classification in open channels. The Froude number helps engineers
determine the flow regime in an open channel, which in turn affects design choice. The Froude
number is defined as:

where:

 v = flow velocity (m/s),

 g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s²),
 Lc = flow depth y for wide rectangular channel

The theory behind the Froude numbers revolves around the balance between the speed of the
flowing water and the speed of surface waves that can propagate through it. The Froude
number helps classify the flow into different regimes:

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CV322 Assignment 2

1. Subcritical Flow (Fr < 1): At low velocities (Fr < 1), a small disturbance travels
upstream (with a velocity Co – V relative to a stationary observer) and affects the
upstream conditions.
2. Critical Flow (Fr = 1): At this high flow velocities (Fr > 1) a small disturbance cannot
travel upstream and thus the upstream conditions cannot be influenced by the
downstream conditions. The flow in this case is controlled by the stream condition.
3. Supercritical Flow (Fr > 1): In this regime, the flow velocity is greater than the wave
propagation speed, and the flow behaves like a shallow, rapid stream (i.e., fast and
turbulent). In supercritical flow, the flow is typically controlled by upstream conditions.

Diagram for Froude Number Classification

 Subcritical Flow (Fr < 1): Deep and tranquil.

 Critical Flow (Fr = 1): Unstable and rapid transition.
 Supercritical Flow (Fr > 1): Shallow and fast.

Specific Energy (E)

Specific energy is the sum of the pressure and dynamic heads of a liquid in an open channel.
Specific energy first begin in the early 19th and 20th, developing hydraulic engineering and fluid
mechanics. Specific energy theory is essential for analyzing flow conditions, energy dissipation,
and transitions between different flows regimes (such as subcritical and supercritical flow) in
channels. Specific energy gives a better understanding to engineers that. the specific energy Es
at any cross-section is given by:

where:

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CV322 Assignment 2

 y = depth of flow (m),

 V = velocity of flow (m/s),
 g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s²).

Specific energy plays a key role in analyzing critical flow conditions. The concept of specific
energy helps in understanding the flow behavior when the channel geometry or slope changes,
such as in transitions like a channel contraction or expansion.

Diagram for Specific Energy Curve

Below is a sketch of a specific energy diagram showing the relationship between depth and
energy for a given discharge:

It shows the curve which shows the variation of specific energy with depth of flow,
whereby it is obtained from the equation:

E=h+ v2 /2g

E=Ep +Ek

Where Ep= potential energy of the flow and Ek= kinetic energy of flow. The specific
energy reaches minimum value Es min at point called the critical point, characterized
by the critical depth yc and critical velocity Vc. The minimum specific energy is
called critical energy.

Relationship between Froude Number and Specific Energy

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The flow regime (subcritical, critical, or supercritical) is determined by the Froude number and
the specific energy helps in predicting critical flow situations and evaluating the energy
distribution of the flow.
For a given discharge, the specific energy is lowest when the Froude number is equal to 1 at
critical flow because they help in controlling and forecasting flow behavior under varied
circumstances, these ideas are crucial to the design of channels, spillways, and other hydraulic
structures in hydraulic engineering.

Question 8
The concept of "best hydraulic cross-sections" in open channel flow refers to the shape of a
channel cross-section that maximizes flow efficiency by minimizing energy losses due to friction
and other resistive forces. The best hydraulic cross section for a section for an open channel is
the one with the maximum hydraulic radius or, equivalently, the one with the minimum wetted
perimeter for a specified cross- sectional area.

Importance of Best Hydraulic Cross-Sections

The importance of best hydraulic cross-section would be the cost-effectiveness. This would
help look into the material saving, by improving the cross-section, channels with the same flow
capacity can be constructed with less material. Reduced Maintenance Costs, Compared to
poorly built sections, efficient cross-sections often erode less, encounter fewer obstructions, and
withstand sediment deposition better, which eventually lowers maintenance costs. Some other
reasons would be the energy efficiency whereby the reduced friction loss and maximizing flow.
velocity. Also could be for the flood control and safety.

Purpose of Best Hydraulic Cross-Sections

Best hydraulic cross-sections serve a variety of purposes, including increasing flow efficiency,
optimizing capacity, cutting expenses, maintaining stability, promoting environmental
sustainability, and adhering to legal requirements. These goals highlight how crucial careful
design is to hydraulic engineering since it greatly extends the life of infrastructure and facilitates
efficient water management.

Common Examples of Best Hydraulic Cross-Sections

1. Rectangular Cross-Section: A rectangular channel open should be designed such that

the liquid height is half the channel width to minimum flow resistance or to maximum the
flow rate for a given cross-sectional area. This also minimum the perimeter and thus the
construction costs.
2. Trapezoidal Cross-Section: Often used in irrigation channels; provides good efficiency
while being easier to construct and maintain.

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3. Semi-Circular Cross-Section: the best hydraulic cross- section for an open channel is a
semicircular one since it has the minimum wetted perimeter for a specified cross
sectional area, and thus the minimum flow resistance.

Numerical example

Let's consider a trapezoidal open channel and calculate the most efficient dimensions for a given
cross-sectional area.

Problem:

Design a trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 1:1 and a cross-sectional area of 10 m². Find the
base width that minimizes the wetted perimeter.

Solution:

The cross-sectional area A of a trapezoidal channel is given by:

A=b⋅y+m⋅y2

Where:

 b = base width (m),

 y = flow depth (m),
 m = side slope (horizontal to vertical, here 1:1).

For hydraulic efficiency, the wetted perimeter PPP should be minimized:

P=b+2⋅y⋅root (1+m2)

Given A=10 m2 and m=1m, we can solve for b and y that yield the minimum P.

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