CHAPTER THREE

MEASURING VERTICAL DISTANCE

3.1 Introduction to Levelling
 Levelling is the process of measuring vertical distances above or below a given reference surface
and a point on near or below the earth’s surface. It can also be defined as the processes of
determining elevation differences between various points on, near or below the surface of the
earth. The elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or below a reference level, called
datum. The most commonly used datum is the mean sea level (M.S.L).
 Leveling is an important method of surveying for many engineering works and construction
projects. Leveling is needed for the design of highways, railways, and canals etc. and for
locating the gradient lines. The results of leveling can be used to determine the catchments area,
volume of the reservoir.
 The vertical direction is parallel to the direction gravity at any point; it is the direction of a freely
suspended plumb-bob cord or string. The vertical distance of a point above or below a given
reference surface is called the elevation of the point. The most commonly used reference surface
for vertical distance is mean sea level (MSL). (The words altitude, height, and grade are
sometimes used in place of elevation). Vertical distances are measured by surveyors in order to
determine the elevations of points, in a process called running levels, or simply leveling.
 The importance of leveling cannot be overestimated with a few exceptions, it must always be
considered in every form of design and construction.
 The determination and control of elevations constitute a fundamental operation in surveying and
engineering projects. Leveling provides data for determining the shape of the ground and
drawing topographic maps. The elevation of new facilities such as roads, structural foundations,
and pipelines can then be designed. Finally, the designed facilities are laid out and marked in the
field by the construction surveyor.
 The surveyors’ elevation marks (such as grade stakes) severs as a reference points from which
building contractors can determine the proper slope (‘’rate of grade’’) of a road the first floor
elevation of a building, the required cut off elevation four foundation piles, the invert elevation
for a storm sewer, and so on.

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 This chapter covers the fundamentals of leveling, including the types and proper use of leveling
equipment, leveling field procedures and field notes, differential leveling, profile leveling, cross
section leveling and other related topics.

Basic Definitions
The following are a few introductory definitions that are necessary for the understanding of this
chapter
i. A vertical line- is the line parallel to the direction of gravity. At a particular point it is the
direction assumed by a plumb-bob sting if the plumb-bob is allowed to swing freely. Because
of the earth’s curvature, plumb-bob lines at points some distance apart are not parallel, but in
plane surveying they are assumed to be.
ii. A level surface- is a surface of constant elevation that is perpendicular to a plumb line at
every point. It is best represented by the shape that a large body of still water would take if it
were unaffected by tide.

Figure 1
iii. The elevation of a particular point- is the vertical distance above or below a reference level
surface (normally, sea level)
iv. A level line- is a curved line in a level surface all points of which are of equal elevation.
Every element of the line is perpendicular to gravity.
v. A horizontal line- is a straight line tangent to a level line at one point.
3.2. Principle of direct levelling
 When the levelling instrument has been properly levelled, the bubble tube axis and the line of
sight are horizontal and the vertical axis of the instrument is truly vertical. When the telescope
of the instrument is rotated, the line of sight remains in the horizontal plane. In practice, the
leveling instrument is set up at a convenient position, and the one staff is kept at a point of
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 known elevation. The reading is taken on the staff and the level of the line of sight is
determined. Now the 2nd staff is kept on the point of the unknown elevation and a reading is
taken. The level of the point is determined from the level of the line of sight already computed
and from the 2nd staff reading.

Figure 2
3.3. Terms used in direct leveling
The following terms are commonly used in leveling.
1. Station. The station is the point where the staff is held for taking reading (observation) from
a leveling instrument. The point where the instrument is set up is not important so far the
booking of the readings in a level field book is concerned.
2. Height of the instrument. (H.I): It is the elevation of the line of sight with respect to the
datum. It should be noted that the height of instrument is not the height of the line of sight
above the ground where the leveling instrument is set up.
3. Back sight (B.S.): It is the reading taken on a staff held at point of known elevation or at the
point whose elevation has already been determined. The back sight is usually the first
reading taken after setting up the instrument. The back sight is taken on a bench Mark
(B.M) for the first setting of the instrument and on a turning point (T.P.) for the subsequent
settings because the level of turning point can be determined before the shifting of the
instrument.
4. Fore sight (F.S.): It is the reading taken on the staff either held at the last point whose
elevation is required or held at the turning point just before shifting the instrument.
5. Turning point. (T.P.): For leveling over a long distance, the instrument has to be set up a
number of times. A turning point is the point selected on the route before shifting the
instrument. The turning point should be selected on a firm ground or rock.

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Figure 3
6. Intermediate sight. (I.S.): It is the reading taken on a staff held at point whose elevations is
required, but which is not a turning point or the last point.
7. Balancing of sight: To reduce the effect of instrumental and other errors, the distance of the
point where a back sight is taken and the distance of the point where a fore sight is taken, as
measured from the instrument station, should be approximately equal. This is known as
balancing of sights.
3.4. Leveling Instruments
3.4.1. Levels
Levels are categorized in to three groups.
1) Dumpy levels 2) Tilting levels 3) and Automatic levels

1. Dumpy levels
In dumpy level, the line of sight is perpendicular the vertical axis. Once the instrument is leveled
the line of sight becomes horizontal and the vertical axis becomes truly vertical provided the
instrument in adjacent.

2. Tilting levels
It has the telescope that can be tilted about a horizontal axis. This design enables the operator to
quickly and accurately centre the bubble and brings the line of sight in to a horizontal plane. In
tilting levels the line of sight is or should be parallel to the axis of the telescope. It is only horizontal
when the bubble of the spirit level is central.

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3. Automatic levels
One of the most significant improvements in leveling instrumentation has been automatic level or
self-leveling levels. It has an internal compensatory that automatically makes horizontal the line of
sight and maintains the position through the application of the force of gravity. As soon as the
instrument is levelled by a means of a circular bubble, the movable component of the compensatory
swings free to a position that makes the line of sight horizontal. The compensatory can operate
within the range of  10 minutes of arc from the horizontal.

A) Dumpy level b) Tilting level c) Automatic level

Figure 4
3.4.2. Tripods
A tripod is a three- legged stand used to support a level or other surveying instrument during field
measurements. There are two models of tripods.
(1) The extension leg tripod and
(2) The fixed leg tripod.

Figure 5a the extension leg tripod Figure 5b Fixed leg tripod

3.4.3. Level rods (leveling staff)

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They are used to measure the vertical distance between a line of sight and a survey point and a
height different between two points.

Figure 6 leveling staff

3.5. Preparing levels for work

1. Setting up: Set up the tripod at a convenient height and press the tripod feet firmly into the
ground. The tripod head should be approximately horizontal. Fix the instrument on it.
2. Leveling up: Level the instrument with the foot screws until the circular bubble is in the
centre.

Figure 7c shows the procedure how to level an automatic level

The movement of the circular bubble can be divided into two directions. One direction is parallel to
line joining any two of the foot screws. The second direction is then parallel to a perpendicular line
from the third foot screw to the line joining the two other foot screws.
Turn the instrument until the telescope axis is parallel to any two foot screws. The screws are held
by the thumb and forefinger of each hand and turned equally and simultaneously in the opposite
direction until the bubble has moved to the line AB (fig. 7a). Line AB is perpendicular to the line
through the two foot screws. By using the third screw the bubble is moved towards the centre of the
circle (fig. 7b). The leveling procedure is completed when the bubble is in the centre of the circle
(Figure 7c).

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 Figure7a figure 7b figure 7c

Left thumb rule: the bubble is always moving towards the direction of movement of the left
thumb!

3. Focusing: First focus the eyepiece until the cross hairs appear sharp and clear then point the
telescope towards the object (staff) and focus until you see clearly the graduation of the staff.

3.6. Methods of Leveling

3.6.1. Differential leveling
 Differential leveling is required for the determination of the difference of elevation of two
points, which are quite apart. A number of setting ups of the instrument are required in
differential leveling.
 In fig. 1 BM1 represents a point of known elevation (benchmark) and BM 2 represents a
benchmark to be established some distance away. It is desired to determine the elevation of BM 2.
The level is placed in such a location that a clear rod reading is obtainable, but no attempt is
made to keep on the direct line joining BM 1 and BM2. A back sight is taken on BM1. The rod-
man chooses a turning point TP1 at some convenient spot with in the range of the telescope along
the general route BM1 to BM2. It is desirable, but not necessary, that each foresight distance as
I1–TP1 is approximately equal to its corresponding back sight distance as BM 1-I1. The chief
requirement is that the turning point shall be a stable object at an elevation and in a location
favourable to a rod reading of the required precision. The rod is held on a turning point and a
fore sight is taken. The observer then set up the instrument at some favourable point as I 2 and
takes a back sight to the rod held on the turning point TP 1. Then the rod-man establishes the
second turning point TP2 and the observer takes a fore sight. The process is repeated until
finally a foresight is taken on the terminal point BM2.
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 To check whether there is an error or not the leveling work should always be started from a
known point and should be finished at a known point. The leveling field book should be checked
immediately in the field.
 Note: While taking the readings the staff rod has to be held vertically!

Figure 8 Compound differentials leveling

3.6.2. Profile leveling
 The process of determining the elevation of points at short measured intervals along a fixed
line is called profile leveling. The need of profile leveling arises during the location and
construction of highways, railroads, canal, and sewers.

Figure 9 illustrates the steps in leveling for profile

The instrument is set up in some convenient location not necessarily on the line (as at I 1) and the rod
is held on benchmark (BM3). A back sight is taken and the height of instrument is obtained as in
differential leveling. Readings are then taken with the rod held on the ground at successive stations
along the line. These rod readings, being for points of unknown elevation, are foresights regardless
of whether they are in front or ahead of the level. They are frequently designated as intermediate

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fore sights to distinguish them from foresights taken on turning points or benchmarks. The
intermediate foresights subtracted from the height of the instrument give ground elevations of
stations. When the rod has been advanced to a point beyond which further readings to ground points
cannot be observed, a turning point (TP 1) is selected and a foresight (3.440m) is taken to establish its
elevation. The level is set up in an advanced position (I 2) and a back sight (2.988m) is taken on the
turning point (TP1) just established. Rod readings on ground points are then continued as before.
3.6.3 Reciprocal leveling
When a line of levels crosses a broad body of water it is impossible to balance the back sight and
foresight distances, it is necessary to take sights much longer than permissible. Under such a
measurement errors due to curvature and refraction become significant. To obtain the best results we
should have to use the procedure termed as reciprocal leveling.

Set up 2 set up 1
Figure 10

The elevation of survey point A is to be determined by leveling from BM1. At a set up near BM1, a
back sight is taken on BM1 a fore sight on A. The difference in elevation is computed as (BS – FS).
Next the level is set up near point A. Assuming that atmospheric refraction remains constant during
the time between the two set ups, the correct differences in elevation is computed as the mean of the
two measured differences.
( a−b )+ ( c−d )
= +
El of A 2 El of BM1
Example:
If a = 1.442 m
b = 1.911 m
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 c = 1.768 m
d = 2.325 m
And El of BM1 = 1980.40 m so:
E1A = 1980.04 – 0.513 = 1979.887m

3.6.4 Cross Sectional leveling

Cross sections are lines of levels or short profiles made perpendicular to the center line of a project.
They provide the information necessary for estimating quantities of earth work. There are two
general types of cross-section: the ones required for route projects such as roads and the ones
required for borrow pits. This section is devoted to the first of these two types. For route surveys,
cross-sections are taken at regular intervals such as the 50-or 100 ft stations and at sudden changes
in the center- line profiles. To serve their purpose, the sections must extend a sufficient distance on
each side of the center line so that the complete area to be affected by the project is included. Where
large cut or fill seem probable greater distances from the center line should be sectioned.

3.7. Level field books and arithmetic check

A level field book or a level book is used for booking and reducing the levels of various points on
the surface of the earth. There are a lot of methods for reducing the levels: etc. The surveyor should
select the level book according to the method of reduction he proposes to use.
The following table shows a page of the more generalized level book.
Leveling

Observer: _________Instrument:_________Project:_______Date:________ Page:______

Inter mediate
Point Back sight sight Fore sight Ah Elevation Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

BM1 1.244 1680.20

TP1 0.662
2.101
TP2 1.021
1.000
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 BM.2 3.221
B.S= F.S=

Steps to be followed:

1. Sum up all back sight and fore sight readings

2. Calculate the difference between BS and FS (actual h)

3. Calculate all h`s following the way of subtraction indicated by an arrow.

4. Sum up all h`s

5. Check whether h is equal to the value in step no 2 (actual h) (First check).

6. Add each h to the previous elevations.

7. At the end you will get the elevation of B.M.2

The attached level field book contains seven columns. The first column indicates the point (station)
at which the staff is placed. The second column is for the back sight readings (BS) and the fourth
column is for the fore sight readings. For the illustration of differential leveling given in section 4.6
fig. 1 the back sight-reading for the station BM 1 is 1.244. The elevation of BM 1 is 1680.20m. All
the entries are shown in the field book.
3.8. Difficulties in leveling

1. Staff station above the line of sight

2. Staff station much below the line of sight

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 3. Staff to near the instrument

If the staff is too near the instrument, the graduations are not visible. If not visible, move a sheet of
white paper up or down on the staff, until its one edge is bisected by the line of sight. Read the staff
corresponding to the edge of the paper with naked eyes and note the staff reading.
3.9. Common Leveling Mistakes
i. Misreading the rod- unless the instrument man is very careful, he or she may occasionally
read the rod incorrectly; as, for instance, 3.72m instead of 4.72m. This mistake most
frequently occurs when the line of sight to the rod is partially obstructed by leaves, grass and
so on.
ii. Moving Turning points- A careless road man causes a serious leveling mistake if he or she
moves the turning points. The rodman holds the rod at one point while the instrument man
takes the foresight reading, and then while the level is being moved to a new position, the
Rodman may puts the level rod down while he or she does something else.
iii. Field Note mistakes- To prevent the recording of incorrect values, the instrument man should
call out the reading as he or she reads& records them.
iv. Mistakes with extended rod- When readings are taken on the extended portion of the level
rod, it is absolutely necessary to have the two parts adjusted properly.
Sources of Error in Leveling
1. Instrumental Errors – these errors are attributed to imperfections in the instruments either
from faults in their manufacture or from improper adjustment.
Examples:
• Instruments out of Adjustment
• Rod not Standard Length
• Defective Tripod

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 2. Personal Errors - occur largely due to the limitations of the senses of touch, sight or hearing
of individuals, skills, training, and teamwork of the members of a levelling party.
Examples:
• Bubble not centered
• Parallax
• Faulty Rod Readings
• Rod not Held Plumb
• Incorrect Setting of Target
• Unequal back sight and Foresight
3. Natural Errors – errors due to natural sources and could not be totally removed but their
effects can be reduced by applying corrections and using good judgment.
Examples:
• Curvature of the Earth
• Atmospheric Refraction
• Temperature Variations
• Wind, Settlement of the Instrument
• Faulty Turning Points

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