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Module No: ENGR7015 Module title: Advanced Vehicle Dynamics

Assessment title: Coursework 2 – Portfolio

Due date and time: Monday 18 December at 17.00 (Week 13)

th

Estimated total time to be spent on assignment: 80 hours per student

LEARNING OUTCOMES
On successful completion of this assignment, students will be able to achieve the module
following learning outcomes (LOs): LO numbers and text copied and pasted from the module
descriptor
LO 1: Demonstrate a systematic and ordered understanding of vehicle performance backed up with analytical
determination of performance
LO 2: Perform complex analyses on whole vehicle performance and critically assess one vehicle against another
LO 3: Critically examine current methods of vehicle performance evaluation
LO 4: Use numerical and analytical techniques to critically analyse different aspects of vehicle performance
LO 5: Make rational and informed decisions to select methods for improving vehicle performance over a wide
range of situations
LO 7: Undertake independent learning of ‘new vehicle dynamics related problems at an advanced level

Engineering Council AHEP4 LOs assessed (from S2 2022-23)

LOs copied and pasted from the AHEP4 matrix (add rows as required)
LO LO text Met? (Y/N)
number
M1 Apply a comprehensive knowledge of mathematics, statistics, natural science and Y
engineering principles to the solution of complex problems. Much of the knowledge will be
at the forefront of the particular subject of study and informed by a critical awareness of
new developments and the wider context of engineering
M2 Formulate and analyse complex problems to reach substantiated conclusions. This will Y
involve evaluating available data using first principles of mathematics, statistics, natural
science and engineering principles, and using engineering judgment to work with
information that may be uncertain or incomplete, discussing the limitations of the
techniques employed
M3 Select and apply appropriate computational and analytical techniques to model complex Y
problems, discussing the limitations of the techniques employed
M4 Select and critically evaluate technical literature and other sources of information to solve Y
complex problems
M17 Communicate effectively on complex engineering matters with technical and non-technical Y
audiences, evaluating the effectiveness of the methods used

School of Engineering, Computing & Mathematics

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● Propose further work that would offer improvements and enhancements.
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ASSIGNMENT IN DETAIL

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Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1

1. Bicycle model and handling analysis (single track) ........................................... 1

1.1 Introduction: ................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Model development and working: ................................................................ 4

1.3 yaw rate study: ............................................................................................ 5

1.4 Overdamped underdamped and critically damped: ..................................... 7

2. extension twin track bicycle model (four wheel) ................................................ 8

2.1 Lateral force study ....................................................................................... 9

2.2 Change in steering angle: .......................................................................... 10

2.3 Oversteer and understeer: ......................................................................... 10

3.Suspension and ride optimization .................................................................... 12

3.1 SDOF model analysis: ............................................................................... 12

3.2 TDOF model analysis: ............................................................................... 15

3.3 FDOF model analysis: ............................................................................... 17

4. References ................................................................................................... 20

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Introduction
Understanding and analyzing how cars maneuver and behave is the main goal of
vehicle dynamics. To get maximum performance, stability, and handling, out of the
car, vehicle dynamics focuses on the study of forces, moments, and motions
operating on it. Vehicle dynamics analyzes parameters like steering, braking, and
acceleration to improve overall driving comfort, and safety of the passenger
mathematical models and physical concepts are used to create cars with
remarkable handling and comfort capabilities. In this report these models are
discussed.
bicycle model: The bicycle model is a simplified half-car model used for studying
maneuverability and handling of the vehicle along with the damped and
underdamped response. The aim is to study these responses.
Twin track model: The extended twin track model is the full car model, which is
used for lateral force calculation, understeer, and oversteer study aim is to study
these concepts through Adams model.
suspension SDOF, TDOF, FDOF: suspension models are very important in
studying vehicle ride and comfort as suspension absorbs and damps forces acting
on the vehicle, three models are discussed in the report. Each model has different
uses and limitations. These models can be used for suspension optimization by
simulating realistic vehicle behavior. The aim is to simulate and optimize SDOF,
TDOF, FDOF Adams model.

1. Bicycle model and handling analysis (single track)

1.1 Introduction:
The single-track bicycle model is a simplified vehicle model designed to
understand the basic behavior of the vehicle in the steady state cornering
condition. this model consists of four wheels merged into two wheels and one
chassis and force is applied at the center of the mass neglecting pitch yaw and
roll. model can be further extended to a full car model with four wheels. The model
is beneficial for understanding cornering and stability performance with the help of
underdamped overdamped and critically damped situation analysis.

1
 Fig1. Model Representation (Balkwill, 2017)
Equations used:
Two differential equations stated below are implemented to simulate the
maneuvering of the vehicle (Balkwill,2017):

𝑚𝑉(𝑟 + β) = (𝐶f + 𝐶r)β + 𝑟/𝑉 (𝐶f.𝑎 – 𝐶r𝑏) – 𝐶fδ -------------- (1)

𝐼𝑟 = (𝐶f𝑎 – 𝐶r𝑏)β + 𝑟/𝑉 (𝐶f𝑎 2 + 𝐶r𝑏 2 ) − 𝐶fbδ -------------- (2)
To steer the vehicle and simulate the steering motion, the equation stated below
was implemented.
δ= (L/R)+ αF – αR -------------- (3)
(𝑚= vehicle mass, β = slip angle, r = yaw rate, 𝐶r=- cornering stiffness rear
𝐶f= cornering stiffness front, αR- rear tire slip angle, αF- front tire slip angle
δ- steering input angle, R- cornering radius, L- wheelbase of car)
It can be seen that If all other variables in equation (3) are constant for any
vehicle, the steering angle depends on the slip angle difference between the front
and back of that car.
Therefore, it can be said that the slip angles should be equal (αF = αR) for an
optimized steering δ= (L/R)
It implies that, as the slip angles also rise with speed, the car's corner radius will
remain constant for a given steering angle at all speeds. Additionally, this indicates
that there is an equal lateral force at the front and rear (Fyf = Fyr).

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So, it can be said that the torque produced by aFyf equals bFyr For the vehicle in
equilibrium. and for the front slip and rear slip angle, they are equal a/b = CR/CF.
aFyf + bFyr ------------- (4)
aCFαF = bCRαR ------------(5)
for a neutral steer car slip angle of the front and rear are equal (αF = αR) and
center of gravity of the car is at the center.
when the car is in understeer condition center of gravity is towards the front axle
and the slip angle of front is bigger than rear (αF > αR).
for oversteer condition the center of gravity is towards the rear axle of the car and
slip angle of rear is bigger than the front slip angle (αF < αR).

Fig.2 Bicycle Model Adams (author,2023)

The model contains one chassis and two wheels. front wheel is fixed to the chassis
with revolute joint to simulate steering motion. The chassis is locked with the rear
wheel using a fixed joint, and to simulate longitudinal motion of the vehicle planner
joint is connected to the chassis with respect to ground.
The model is simulated with steep steer input of 10 degrees at steady state speed
of 64 kmph to study underdamped, overdamped, and critically damped behavior
of the vehicle.

Inputs baseline model

Weight 900 kg

Wheelbase 2600 mm

Steering angle 10°

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 Center of gravity front axle 900 mm

Center of gravity rear axle 1600 mm

Yaw moment inertia 1100 𝑘𝑔𝑀2

Cornering stiffness – front -1100 N/deg

Cornering stiffness – rear -900 N/deg

Table 1 (author, 2023)
1.2 Model development and working:
1.Forward and drag force were applied on the COG of the vehicle. Forward force
is used to attain longitudinal velocity, but applying only longitudinal force would
keep vehicle accelerating until the simulation ends, to make simulation more
realistic drag force was introduced in the model to attain the required maximum
velocity of the vehicle.

Fig4. Vehicle velocity with only forward force (author, 2023) Fig5. Vehicle velocity after drag force (author, 2023)

Fig6. drag force equation (author, 2023)

drag force, which is the result of the forward chassis velocity multiplied by a
constant to represent the resistive force, increases with the squared velocity value.
2. step steer input: To simulate steering motion, step steer input was given to the
front wheel revolute joint. As shown in the Fig7 steer input was given at 3 sec
considering the peak velocity is achieved at 2.2 sec and ended at 3.02sec.

4
 Fig7. drag force equation (author, 2023)

3.Lateral force and linear spline input: Lateral force is defined by F lat = C*α
(cornering stiffness * slip angle) therefore slip angle was defined first (α= arctan
Vx/Vy), if conditions were given as initial velocity is actually zero and if conditions
can provide 0.001 magnitude to simulate slip and then these values and cornering
stiffness was used to define lateral force as shown in fig8 further as shown in fig9.
nonlinear spline was introduced to simulate realistic behavior of the car.

Fig8. Lateral force (author, 2023) Fig9. Lateral force (author, 2023

1.3 yaw rate study:

Fig.10: Yaw rate underdamped response without nonlinear spline. (author, 2023)

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 Fig.11: Yaw rate underdamped response with nonlinear spline. (author, 2023)

Comparing fig10 and fig11 graphs we can see the change in behavior of
understeering car. vehicle with the spline has more realistic output and can be
considered correct.

Fig.12: slip angle of front and rear tire. (author, 2023)

it can be seen in the figure 12 that slip angle of the rear wheel is smaller than the
slip angle of the front wheel and we know that center of gravity is in the front of the
car therefore this proves that the car is in understeer condition.

Fig.13: Lateral force on the front and rear tire. (author, 2023)

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In Figure 13 we can see that the force generated on the rear wheel is less than the
force generated on the front wheel which proves that the car is underdamped.
Limitation:
Bicycle models are helpful for understanding the cornering behavior of the vehicle,
but because of the simplified approach and limited degree of freedom it is unable
to analyze certain parameters.
1. Ackermann and Anti-ackerman geometry behavior
2. Lateral load transfer
3. Individual slip angle for each wheel
All these parameters are very important to understand the whole vehicle’s behavior
hence the model was further extended to twin track model.

1.4 Overdamped underdamped and critically damped:

Overdamped: in this condition, the vehicle enters a stable state with very few
oscillations, has very high damping, and responds to inputs slowly.
Underdamped: underdamped systems have low damping, very sensitive and high
responsiveness to input, and more oscillations.
Critically damped: this system shows flawless damping, flawless input less
responsiveness, and perfectly timed oscillation.
In this study, weight was shifted towards the rear and a simulation was run. The
following graph was obtained from the simulation.

Fig 36. Yaw rate response understeer overdamped and critically damped.

It can be seen in fig 36.

● for underdamped system oscillation and yaw rate is high
● for overdamped oscillation are low along with yaw rate
● for critically damped oscillation are moderate with perfect yaw rate

7
2. extension twin track bicycle model (four wheel)

Fig.14: twin track bicycle model. (author, 2023)

Twin track model is the extended version of single-track bicycle model and has
four wheels representing all four wheels of the car. it is very useful in analyzing
vehicle behavior in steady state cornering with different steering geometries along
with independent slip angles and lateral load transfer at each tire, by overcoming
the constraints of a bicycle model, it is possible to study the independent tire
behaviors under various conditions. The same fundamental equation and
modeling approach as single bicycle model was used to define motion of the car.
instead of two wheel four wheels were given input of lateral and longitudinal forces
and lateral weight transfer study was conducted using this model.
Input table twin track model:

Inputs baseline model

Weight 300 kg

Wheelbase 1550 mm

Track width 1200mm

Steering angle 10°

Center of gravity front axle 775mm

Center of gravity rear axle 775mm

Yaw moment inertia 1100 𝑘𝑔𝑀2

Cornering stiffness – front -1100 N/deg

Cornering stiffness – rear -900 N/deg

Table 2 (author, 2023)

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2.1 Lateral force study

Tire Static (normal load) Lateral force

Front right 735 871
Front left 735 536
Raer right 735 805
Rear left 735 500
Total value 2940 2712

Table 3 (author, 2023)

For lateral force comparison normal forces were calculated and compared with the
lateral force generated by the car in steady-state cornering simulation. It was
observed that there is an error of 7% error which is acceptable, and the model can
be considered correct.

Fig.15: front right and front left lateral force. (author, 2023)

From figure 15. Above we can see that after a car has entered the corner, due to
centrifugal force acting on the weight has been shifted towards the outer wheel
and we can see the difference in lateral force generated on front the right and front
left tire.

Fig.16: rear right and rear left lateral force. (author, 2023)

9
The same trend can be seen in the rear wheel of car in fig16, but we can see that
rate of weight transfer is less.
The car described above is understeering car which has bigger slip angle in the
front, this factor is contributing to the front wheel load transfer rate as front right
wheel is affected the most while cornering due centrifugal force generated at the
center of gravity.
2.2 Change in steering angle:

Fig.17: yaw rate at different steering angle. (author, 2023)

Steering angle is a very influential factor in the car's performance when steering
angle changes lateral force distribution and wheel torque also changes with it
which ultimately affects the yaw rate of the car.
Simulating different angles could help in determining optimum steering geometry
and handling to show how steering angle affects car performance. The inner angle
was varied with increment of 5 degrees and outer angle and speed of the car was
kept constant.
Iteration Inner angle Outer angle
1 5 10
2 10 10
3 15 10

As shown in the fig17 for medium speed cornering change in angle helps in gaining
more angular velocity than before and the steering.
2.3 Oversteer and understeer:
Oversteer and understeer are very important parameter as it affects the
performance and handling the car.
oversteer condition – in this case rear tire lose traction before front tire in this
condition vehicle tends to take sharper turns in terms of slip angle αFront < αRear.

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understeer condition – in this case front tire lose their traction before rear tire and
hamper maneuverability and vehicle tends to take wide turns in terms of slip angle
αFront > αRear.
Neutral steering – in this case lateral forces are balanced car takes accurate turns
as per the input in terms of slip angle αFront = αRear.
For this twin track model was designed with a 50/50 weight distribution which is
the ideal condition for a neutral steer, it was then varied by changing the speed of
the car gradually. two conditions were analyzed which are discussed below.

Fig.18: slip angle oversteers. (author, 2023)

For the first iteration speed was decreased gradually until the slip angles behavior
completely changed and we could see the car taking a small turning radius. in
fig18. you can see that the slip angle of the rear is bigger than the slip angle of slip
angle of the front tire which proves that the car is in oversteer condition

Fig.19: slip angle understeer. (author, 2023)

For the second iteration speed was increased until the slip angle behavior changed
and car was seen taking wider turns than before. in fig19. you can see that the slip
angle of front tire is bigger than the slip angle of the rear tire which proves that the
car is in understeer condition

11
3. Suspension and ride optimization
Introduction:
Overall vehicle handling ride and comfort of the passengers is very much
dependent on roll pitch and yaw of the car. To optimize this suspension plays a
crucial role in the vehicle design all the harness noise and vibrations generated
through car are damped using the suspension. It helps in achieving better tire and
road contact which ultimately helps in achieving more lateral force and
performance. The role of suspension may differ with need. For example, OEM cars
are more focused towards the safety and comfort of the passenger and race cars
are more focused towards the lateral force and effective contact patch of the tire
in cornering. Optimization of the suspension is dependent on parameters like
damping coefficient, tire model cornering stiffness and spring stiffness theses
parameters are varied to optimize suspension.
3.1 SDOF model analysis:

This is a simplified suspension model that considers the whole car as a single
lumped mass. similarly, 4 springs as a single spring and four dampers as a single
damper in this model body is connected to a spring and the spring is connected to
the road and only vertical displacement is allowed.

Fig20: FBD SDOF (author, 2023) Fig. 21 Adams model SDOF (author, 2023)

12
 Fig. 21 Road input spline implemented for Suspension simulation. (author, 2023)

To find optimum spring force, the suspension is tuned for damping. For this, design
variables are used along with the spline input. a range of variables for spring
stiffness and damping are simulated. The results are shown below.
Inputs:

Sprung mass 320 kg

Damping coefficient 2.5 N-sec/mm

Spring Stiffness (Rate) 66 N/mm

Sweep Frequency Range 0.5 to 4.0 Hz

Input Duration 100

Input Amplitude 25 mm
Table 4 (author, 2023)
The spring force is taken into consideration while optimizing the SODF model for
damping. The standard value for the damping range is 2.5, and it ranges from 1 to
10. The specified design variable is run through five iterations. Additionally, the
spring force is plotted against the graph above. It reaches its maximum damping
at about 3.5 Ns/mm which corresponds to 0.39 damping ratio.

13
 Fig22. Spring force Vs spring coefficient

By reducing the RMS of the contact patch vertical force variation, the above-
mentioned graphs demonstrate that tires in contact with the road will perform better
with softer springs. It can be observed in fig 22,23 and 24.

Fig 23. Spring force Vs damping without inclusion of road profile

Fig.24- Baseline vs Optimized suspension response graph

Fig 24 shows that optimization of the suspension for better ride comfort and mode
has decreased, the excitation gain gradually which will result in comfortable ride.
analytical natural frequency for the system is 3.14 Hz which is equal the value
obtained from the simulation.

Limitation:
in SDOF body is considered as a single lumped mass and does not consider the
sprung and unsprung mass as different entity which is the biggest limitation of the

14
SDOF. To analyze the model further and get accurate results TDOF (two degree
of freedom) model should be used

3.2 TDOF model analysis:

TDOF is an extension of SDOF which considers all 4 suspensions as a single
lumped mass, but it can distinguish between sprung and unsprung parts of the
vehicle.

Fig25: FBD TDOF (author, 2023) Fig. 26 Adams model TDOF (author, 2023)

The degrees of freedom model are made with 3 blocks: sprung, unsprung, and
input tire all three are connected to each other. The input tire block is connected
to the unsprung mass (wheel assembly) with spring without the damper and the
unsprung mass is connected to the sprung mass (chassis) with spring and damper.
road spline input is given to the input tire to simulate road profile.
INPUT TABEL

Sprung Mass 250 Kg

Unsprung mass 40 Kg
Damping coefficient 8.94
Spring Stiffness (Rate) 80 N/mm
Table 5 (author, 2023)

15
 Fig 27. Spring force Vs damping

To optimize suspension, TDOF suspension sprung mass acceleration and spring

forces were compared together. as we know that sprung mass with lowest
acceleration and low spring force is optimal for the ride comfort, it basically means
that we will have car which has good damping of vibrations and low vertical loads
on the wheel.

Fig.28- Baseline vs Optimized suspension response graph sprung and unsprung mass

Fig.29- phase sprung and unsprung mass.

After the optimization bode plots were plotted for unsprung and sprung mass
frequency to see the optimized results. for 0.1 and 0.3 damping coefficients it can
be seen in fig28 that the optimized sprung and unsprung mass have lower peaks
than before, which basically means that they have lower acceleration and higher
frequency
in the fig 28 we can see that we have different optimization graph for sprung and
unsprung mass which satisfies the goal of TODF.
Limitation:
● model is only focused on vertical motion and neglects lateral roll and yaw
dynamics.
● TODF is only focused on performance.

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 ● Both unsprung and sprung masses are considered as rigid bodies which is
not realistic.
Hence the model was further developed to 4 degrees of freedom.

3.3 FDOF model analysis:

Compared to the single-degree-of-freedom and two-degree-of-freedom models,
the 4-DOF suspension model offers a more detailed and accurate insight of a
vehicle's dynamic and handling behavior. This model helps us in analyzing roll
pitch, lateral longitudinal and vertical motion. It considers the front suspension as
a single entity and the rear suspension as another one which is why it is also called
a half-car model. by implementing design variables and spline in the model
suspension is tuned to get the desired performance from the car.

Fig. 30 Adams model 4DOF (author, 2023)

The model was optimized using the same conditions as two degrees of freedom.
Firstly, optimum damping coefficient was found and using the design variable. It
was optimized further to reduce the acceleration of the body which helped in
improving ride comfort of the car.

parameter Front axel Rear axel

Sprung Mass 250 Kg
Unsprung mass 15kg 15kg
Damping coefficient 8.94 8.94
Spring Stiffness (Rate) 80 N/mm 80 N/mm
Table 7 (author, 2023)
Two experiments were carried out, one simulating the pitch situation with the
opposite phase situation and the other the heave condition with the same phase.
Time lags were added to both studies to simulate how the car would respond to
actual road conditions, such as following behind another vehicle and hitting an
obstacle; the front wheels will feel the bump before the back wheels do. The

17
introduction of time lag clarifies many things for us, such as the vibrations
introduced because of the time lag, when they resonate, and numerous other
examples.

Fig. 31 chassis pitch (author, 2023)

The same spline input as single degree of freedom and two degree of freedom
was given as input to four degrees of freedom to analyze pitching moment in fig31
pitching moment of chassis can be seen.

Fig. 32 pure heave condition without time lag (author, 2023)

To understand the scope of four degrees of freedom, different experiments were

performed on the model by keeping the weight of the unsprung masses the same.
it was observed that with everything being same at front and rear and with no time
lag we get identical output for front and rear axle it can be seen in the fig 32.

Fig. 33 pure heave condition with time lag (author, 2023)

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For second iteration to make simulation more realistic time lag was given for the
rear tire of 0.1 sec and graph was plotted it was observed that we will get different
for results front and rear with delay of 0.1 sec it can be seen in the fig 33

Fig. 34 pure pitch without time lag (author, 2023)

For the third iteration both the front and rear axle were synced to observe phase
lag it can be seen in the image – that we have different phase output we can use
these outputs to design optimum suspension it can be seen in the fig 34.

Fig. 35 pure pitch with time lag (author, 2023)

For the last fourth iteration phase suspension was desynced and time lag between
front and rear was given graph was plotted for this simulation which can be
observed in the fig 35.
Limitation:
● Four degree of freedom model is simplified model which considers front
suspension as a single entity and rear suspension as one entity which is not
ideal for independent study of independent single wheel.
● This model does not consider the conditions of the roll.

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 4. References

Balkwill, J. (2018) Performance vehicle dynamics : engineering and applications.

Oxford Butterworth-Heinemann, An Imprint Of Elsevier.

Bereteu, L. and Perescu, A. (2012) ‘Quarter Car Suspension System With One Degree Of
Freedom Simulated Using Simulink’, Annals of West University of Timisoara - Physics,
56(1), pp. 88–93. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1515/awutp-2015-0013.

Gillespie, T.D. (2021) Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics.

Milliken, W.F. and Milliken, D.L. (1995) Race car vehicle dynamics. Warrendale, Pa,
U.S.A.: Sae International.

Vaishnav, A. et al. (2016) ‘Article’, Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research,

2(11), pp. 2454–1362.

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