MAC 851- INTERCULTURAL AND INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Compiled by: Matthew D. M. Banda BMC, MA, PDME, PDLM

Understanding Culture

Culture is a broad concept that encompasses many important aspects of human life.
It is challenging to provide an adequate definition of cultural characteristics since the
word "culture" has several meanings and are numerous elements that comprise any
culture. Culture may be understood as a system of people, places, and practices.

While some cultures are formed around geographical and ethnic similarities, other
cultures or subcultures might be based on shared religion, behaviours, or preferences.
Cultures may change over time, with some dying out and others being created.
Generally, the main characteristics of culture are the beliefs, behaviours, material
objects, and values shared by a group of people.

Culture is learned. Culture is not genetic; we are not born with culture. A baby can
be raised in any culture, and he or she will learn that culture, that religion, that
language, and the skills that are important in that culture, whether it’s spear-throwing
or computer programming. We learn our culture as we grow up in it, through a process
called enculturation.

Culture is shared. Culture is something that a group of people shares through shared
practices and shared understandings. If one person thinks something or behaves a
certain way, that is not culture–it is a personal habit. But if most of the people in a
society, do it, then it is culture. Culture is shared between members of a group,
meaning they all think and behave the same way because they grew up in the same
culture.

Culture is symbolic. Culture is based on symbols, and culture is spread from

generation to generation through symbols. People learn their culture’s beliefs and
behaviours through symbols.

Culture is a complex system, made up of many parts that are interconnected and
related to each other. When one part of the system changes, other parts also change,
since everything is connected. One part can influence the others.

Cultures are not static therefore it changes over time. One way culture changes are
through diffusion. Diffusion is the spreading of an idea, thing, or behaviour between
cultures. Cultures are not isolated therefore different cultures have been in contact
with each other throughout history resulting in changes within it.

Concept of Multiple Cultures (Subcultures)

Within every culture there are different layers of groups known as subcultural
groupings. This important to note because though people may be in the same

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environment, they may not entirely be homogenous. The main groups under
consideration are; race, ethnicity, age, gender and social class.

Race: Though the races are similar in their basic needs they are different in
appearance and physical features. These variations may be seen in how they tend to
vary in their values, aspiration and beliefs which get reflected in their consumption
priorities, spend save patterns, purchase behaviour, use of credit, social norms and
customs

Ethnicity refers to difference in geographical location which results in difference in

language. These variations are seen in how values are expressed and what is deemed
important and unimportant. Some ethnic groups are more agricultural and pastoral
while others value hunting or fishing more than the others. These variations may be
expressed through proverbs, folklore and the artistic patterns they hold dear.

Gender is another interesting cultural grouping. Men and women traditionally are seen
to be different in terms of dominant traits they possess, information search and
processing norms they follow. While the traditional role identification of men as bread
earners and women as homemakers are getting blurred, life can still be seen as being
strongly associated or as exclusively developed for one sex or the other. Assignment
also in terms of predominant decision-making roles, tend to relate to gender
subcultures. In behavioural terms, it has been found that consumers lend to assign a
gender to products, in term of the perceived meaning of the product it may either be
seen as a feminine or a masculine product.

Age is another interesting subcultural group that is based purely on age differences of
people living in the same country and belonging to the same main culture. It is likely
that those who belong to the teen age group will behave quite differently than those of
middle age or elderly. Because the outlooks, experiences, attitudes and other aspects
vary among people of different age groups, their consumption patterns are likely to
vary.

The final subcultural grouping worth noting is social class or simply class. The
subculture of a social class serves to adapt people to the life style they lead and to
prepare their children to assume their class status. The passing of sub-cultural patterns
of behaviour and the related values and norms to the next generation takes place
through the process of socialisation.

Introduction to Intercultural Communication

Culture isn’t only about the language you speak, the foods you eat, and the way you
dress. There are much more nuanced aspects of our everyday life that can be
attributed to culture. Our lifestyle, including ways of personal life, family life, and social
life are all part of our culture.

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Intercultural communication is much more than just your typical types of
communication such as verbal and nonverbal. It is about the broader exchange of
ideas, beliefs, values, and views. is a discipline that studies communication across
different cultures and social groups, or how culture affects communication. It
describes the wide range of communication processes and problems that naturally
appear within an organization or social context made up of individuals from different
religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds.

In this sense, it seeks to understand how people from different countries and cultures
act, communicate, and perceive the world around them. Intercultural communication
focuses on the recognition and respect of those with cultural differences. It promotes
the development of cultural sensitivity and allows for empathic understanding across
different cultures.

Cultural values impact how people speak, write, and act — all essential aspects of
communication. Culture also has a lot to do with how people think about and judge
other people. Being aware of our own cultural biases, and others’ biases goes a long
way in being able to effectively communicate with anyone.

Intercultural communication theoretical approaches

There are many different intercultural communication types and theories. The most
important ones are:

Social science approach

This model focuses on observing the behavior of a person from a different culture in
order to describe it and compare it with other cultures. It also examines the ways in
which individuals adjust their communication with others in different situations,
depending on who they are talking to. For example, we would tell the same story
differently to our best friend than we would to our grandmother.

Interpretive approach

This theory focuses on accumulating knowledge about a culture through

communication in the form of shared stories based on subjective, individual
experiences. The main focus is on intercultural communication as it is used in
particular speech communities, so ethnography plays a major role here. Because the
individual context is so important for this model, it does not strive to make generalized
predictions based on its findings.

Dialectical approach

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This method examines aspects of intercultural communication in the form of six
dichotomies, namely cultural vs. individual, personal vs. contextual, differences vs.
similarities, static vs. dynamic, history vs. past-present vs. future, and privilege vs.
disadvantage. A dialectical approach helps us think about culture and intercultural
communication in complex ways, so we can avoid categorizing everything in either-or
dichotomies by adopting a broader approach and acknowledging the tensions that
must be negotiated.

Critical approach

This approach examines cultures according to their differences compared to the

researcher’s own culture and, in particular, how these cultures are portrayed in the
media. The critical approach is complex and multifaceted and therefore leads to a rich
understanding of intercultural communication.

THEORIES OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Strategic Flexibility Theory

Intercultural communication has a direct and noticeable effect on strategic flexibility.

In the first step (anticipate), you will have a new slant or angle from which to think about
potential communication situations. The needs and requirements will be different than
without this new knowledge, and forecasting may require the introduction of new or
different skills and abilities.

In the second step (assess), the factors, elements, and conditions of situations in which
you find yourself will be different. Becoming alert to the introduction of these new
ingredients will become easier as your experience broadens.

In the third step (evaluate), you will more accurately be able to determine the value
and worth of the factors, elements, and conditions and how they bear on your own
skills and abilities.

In the fourth step (select) you will find it easier to select those most likely to affect the
situation. In the fifth step (apply), you will take greater care and concern and give
greater attention to the factors that are likely to be affected. You will understand how
to judge their relevance with greater accuracy, and when you reassess and re-evaluate
your actions you will have increased sensitivity to the intercultural demands of
communication situations.

Co-cultural Theory

A co-cultural theoretical approach provides a lens to understand how traditionally

underrepresented group members communicate within societal structures governed
by cultural groups that have, over time, achieved dominant group status.

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The co-cultural theory is based on a specific set of assumptions and related factors
that help individuals understand how co-cultural group members use different
strategies that are part of a larger communication orientation.

Co-cultural theory is based on five assumptions. The first assumption states that a
hierarchy of power exists in each society which enables certain groups of people to
have greater access to power than others do. These dominant group members may
include men, able-bodied persons, and heterosexuals, those in the middle or upper
classes, the educated and certain ethnic groups.

The second assumption is based on the idea that dominant group members occupy
most positions of power throughout society. These positions of influence are used to
create and maintain societal structures that inherently benefit their interests.

The third assumption of co-cultural theory explores how the reality of dominant group
power impacts members of non-dominant groups. In particular, it states that dominant
group members’ societal structures work overtly and covertly against individuals
whose cultural realities are different from the cultural realities of those in power.

The fourth assumption acknowledges the differences that exist within and between
different co-cultural groups; however, it simultaneously recognizes the similarities that
also exist within and across groups that occupy similar social positions.

The fifth, and final, assumption states that co-cultural group members will be more
aware of the importance of strategically adopting communication behaviours that help
them negotiate dominant societal structures. Such behaviours will vary within, and
across, different co-cultural group.

INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Introduction to International Communication

International communication (global communication or transnational communication)

is the communication practice that occurs across international borders. The need for
international communication was due to the increasing effects and influences of
globalisation. As a field of study, international communication is a branch of
communication studies, concerned with the scope of government-to-government,
business-to-business, and people-to-people interactions at a global level. International
communication encompasses political, economic, social, cultural and military
concerns.

When communicating internationally it is important to take culture into consideration.

It is important to understand that intercultural and international communication are
used interchangeably. Effective communication between international business
partners is critical for global success, and underlying national and organisational
cultural differences in international business-related relationships can create hurdles

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to effective communication, which can hinder performance. The New World
Information and Communication Order (NWICO) was one of the major shifts in the
history of international communication.

Despite the reason for international communication, it is important to understand that

international communication is not limited to the language spoken during
communication. There are two broadly conceived approaches to the creation of
international communications regulations. The first would be internationalising a
minimum standard by agreement among the parties. The second is to allow the parties
to denote exceptions for specific points about which they may be unable to reach
agreement. Though the second approach falls short of uniformity it permits higher
standards by allowing some parties to opt out.

Globalisation and Technology in International Communication

The process of globalisation has widely increased the availability of information for
people across the world. By the use of internet and advanced mobile services, people
are able to discuss business plans and proposals on an international level as well as
exchange private data securely. Global communication services have also contributed
to the enlightenment and development of the political process in a number of
countries.

The three major impacts of globalisation on global communication are: availability of

information, business conduct and social awareness. The availability of information is
a major effect of the process of globalisation. With the spread of businesses delivering
internet, satellite tv and mobile services, the costs of such information technologies
dropped. The decreased price makes it easier for people across the world to make
use of the World Wide Web and the resources available.

Globalisation has influenced global communication by implementing new techniques

for business conduct among workers at international corporations. Long distance
travels are no longer as necessary for business people should they require a meeting
with a business partner overseas. Internet technology makes it possible to exchange
business information and conduct video conferences. Additionally, enhanced
communication allows businesses to promote their products more efficiently in the
international market.

The availability of information, which is a direct effect of the development of global

communication systems, has led to increased social awareness of people across the
world. Information technology and networks enable them to share opinions, views,
work on projects and research different areas.

These are among the main reasons why the process of globalisation and advances in
technology are creating a sense of a global society. For example, through the use of
communication, many people from places like Zambia can access a wide array of

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services such as online purchases and applications to foreign universities. Other
effects, like social determination, have also occurred among others.

Country Reputation in International Communication

The relationship between country reputation and corporate reputation is one of the
most important contemporary issues among reputation and international business
scholars. Some corporations with favorable country reputations (e.g., German
companies) can have competitive advantages in the global market despite their low
corporate reputation. On the other hand, corporations from countries with unfavorable
country reputation try to overcome their associations with the countries by focusing
on corporate reputation. For example, China is challenged to sell Chinese brand
products because of its unfavorable country reputation. In this regard, understanding
the relationship between country reputation and corporate reputation will provide
implications for both governments and corporations.

One tool in country reputation is the Fombrun-Reputation Institute Country Reputation

Index. The Fombrun-RI country reputation index was developed by scholars among
them Fombrun in conjunction with the reputation institution to be used as a model for
measuring a country’s national image. National image itself is simply meant the mental
picture a person forms and has about a foreign country. Exactly what that image is, the
immediate and relative meaning a person attaches to interpreting the image of that
foreign country.

National image interpretation can as well be explained from the point of view of
perceptive theory some psychologists posit refers to the way a person assigns a
meaning or an inference to information obtained through their sense. Applying this
reasoning to the context of national image, it is argued that when a foreign country’s
name is brought to the senses of a person, that person will assign a meaning based
on their own perceptions, and these perceptions are rooted in their foreknowledge or
experience about that country. It means a person already had information to make that
picture, if not, will visualize and make a meaning based on that information received to
come up with an imagery of that country.

The Fombrun-RI was developed to critically analyse and look at various dimensions
from which such an image of a foreign country is based in the context of that person,
these being but not limited to the following; The esteem and liking for that foreign
country people have – this is based again, on how information about that country is
managed and presented about a country.

Thus, negative statements about a country will result in a negative picture about the
country, while the opposite is the reality. Africans admire sky-scrappers in Dubai, New
York, excellent roads and networks in America, England, UAE, China, Namibia, and
more recently, our own Zambia to credit of four modern fly over bridges, what more,
the recently opened Kazungula Bridge which has spurred to the hilt the country’s

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image in physical/ infrastructure appeal. Many good roads have been constructed,
new shopping malls, have been built and operation. Countrywide, new districts have
been opened and with them infrastructure in housing, education, health and
administration is being witnessed, and to these, roads are being formed and built.

From the telecom side of physical infrastructure, on major roads, communication

towers are all over. These and more are what make a country appealing from the
physical side of it. It is about outsiders’ perception of a country that helps them form a
picture.

Financial stability is one of the aspects that aid people assign an image about that
foreign country. How financially sound and stable to finance national infrastructure, the
transport sector, how well the economy is performing, the inflation levels, GDP and
value of the currency, all speak louder than what may even be portrayed an image of
a country as may be intended. Levels of indebtedness sends a wrong picture of
country. This speaks to the economic or final appeal.

The global village has set at the highest level, indicators of a good country such as
good governance – respect for human rights, rule of law, absence of corruption,
absence of extra-judicial killings, and so forth, all these being a product of good
leadership. Good leadership appeal is the basis for good governance and therefore
economic development. These variables help a person form a picture about a foreign
country and ultimately mar its image in the international audience.

Security appeal refers to perceptions of a country as being capable of providing

security to its people and visitors. An example of an item that measured this dimension
was "Zambia is a secure place."

Emotional appeal refers to the extent to which a country is liked, respected, and
admired by others. An example of an item used to measure this dimension is "I respect
Zambia."

Cultural appeal refers to the country's distinct values and historical past. An example
of an item used to measure this dimension is "Zambia is socially and culturally diverse."
Finally, we have the social appeal which refers to perceptions of a country's high
standards in "its dealings with global community, good causes, and environmental
policies.

A country with a good record in all or some of these will definitely leverage its influence
at international level in building alliances of both international relations and economic
growth and development, and trade and investment. The Formbrun-RI therefore helps
countries understand how they are perceived by the international audience. This
information is helpful for a country in its national image building and global
communication programmes. It is helpful information as it is not subjective, it comes
from external observers.

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This does not however mean that every picture held about a foreign country is truth,
but such misinformation or disinformation aiding such a flawed picture about a foreign
country is helpful in creating global communication programmes for international
audiences.

Diversity in Communication

Communication is a tool organisation use to build and cultivate good relations between
and among different groups. Broadly, these groups are either internal or external
audiences. These groups usually have their own selfish interests which must be
satisfied if the purpose of communication is to be attained. Such interests are
multicultural, ethnocentric, individualistic, social strata, and religious for instance.

Critically of importance in the first place is that the group must first satisfy the interests
of its members through a sense of belong and collectivism to the group as these are
critical in efforts towards group’s efforts in image building outside. Within the group,
lies the challenge of cultural diversity, multiculturalism, individualism, ethnocentrism,
and so on, all that present an array of challenges to the global communicator.

Such groups present a horde of expectations and blending them into an interwoven
fabric of staff with a shared conscious is relative to how the global communication
specialist will devise communication programmes and ensure a steady flow of
information aimed at building a shared conscious.

The job of the global communication specialists is to ensure individual subjection of

self to unity of purpose in a culturally diverse environment. Building bridges of
communication, breaking barriers of self-isolation to one’s own ideals culturally or
otherwise without being sensitive to those of others. After all, the culture being
propped up in this case, is that of the organisation through its principles which become
a mirror for every member of the group. The role of the specialist herein is ensuring
that the organisation builds and has its own culture which ultimately becomes the
benchmark of conscious identification for all internal groups to ensure harmony in the
organisation.

This does not mean that internal groups must undress their culture, beliefs and
attitudes they are entitled to, but that their standard of conduct conforms to ideals
which the whole country cultivates and nurtures. No organisation can manage to send
a different message other than what really exists internally, a picture that is projected
to the outside publics will fail if there is a serious issue in-house. What internal groups
say about that organisation, feel about it, is what they say about it to their friends and
families within the community where an organisation is located or situated.

Therefore, to give a different message other than exists, will be preposterous and a
futile communication campaign or programme. This however does not mean that not

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until the internal public are fully on board and ascribe to the ideals, policies and
strategies of the organisation will there be put in place external communication.

International communication entails that the specialist must understand in context the
cultural barriers or challenges in each individual country or territory, even different
market segments within that country in order to derive messages and plan
communication strategies, which may be adverts on national image, building and so
forth.

The specialist must broadly understand and distinguish global cultural diversities in
different countries so that no messages and campaign programmes thereof are
injurious to the feelings, social status or esteem of a section of a population or market
in that country where the communication activities are made available. This is where
diplomacy comes in to aid the country to be effective in managing cultural diversity at
home and abroad.

Cultural diversity has now meant that the practice of communication must adapt to the
needs and expectations of global audiences to whom messages are targeted. The
taste of the global audiences is different, that is, the message itself must first pass the
taste of good language, but even more, packaging must also conform to the interests
of the niche audiences in the global sphere.

Sexist language, deeply ingrained misogynistic attitudes and presentations of

messages in language, pictures, text and so forth are red flags to beware of in global
communication. It goes without saying that as far expected, communication specialists
must stay apolitical given the different political ideologies and philosophies to which
the global audiences are beholden to.

Culture being what it is, means food, dress, beliefs and attitudes, and as such,
messaging, media campaign programmes and adverts in this case must be culture
sensitive.

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