BANC 102: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

(TMA)
Course Code: BANC 102
Assignment Code: BANC 102/ASST/TMA/July 2024 and January 2025
Total Marks: 100
There are three Sections in the Assignment. You have to answer all questions in all the
Sections.
Assignment — 1
Answer the following in about 500 words each. 2X20=40
a. Discuss the history and development of the British and the American schools of
anthropology.
b. Write a note on the political and religious institutions.
Assignment — IT
Answer the following in about 250 words each. (Write Short Notes) 2X10=20
a. Discuss conflict theories.
b. Write a note on the tradition of Fieldwork in Anthropology with emphasis on
the emerging trends.

Answer the following questions in about 75 words each. 5X2=10

Interview Schedule and Questionnaire
o

Ethics in fieldwork
Structuralism
© a0

Tribe and Caste

Literature review
Assignment — I11
Prepare an interview guide for a study on Gender and Child Labour. 20
Write the reference of one book and a journal in APA style alphabetically 5X2=10
o
 BANC 102: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL AND
CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Course Code: BANC 102

Assignment Code: BANC-102/TMA/2024-25
Total Marks: 100
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There are three Sections in the Assignment. You have to answer all questions in
all the Sections.

Assignment — 1

Answer the following in about 500 words each.

a. Discuss the history and development of the British and the American schools
of anthropology.

The study of anthropology, the scientific study of human societies, cultures, and their
development, has evolved through various schools of thought. Two of the most
influential schools in the development of anthropology are the British and American
schools. These schools have distinct historical roots, methodological approaches, and
theoretical perspectives.

British School of Anthropology

Historical Background
The British school of anthropology emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
primarily influenced by British colonial expansion and the need to understand the
diverse cultures encountered in the colonies. Its foundations were laid by early
anthropologists such as Sir Edward Burnett Tylor and James George Frazer, who are
often associated with the development of social anthropology in Britain.

1. Early Pioneers:
o Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917) is considered one of the founding
figures of cultural anthropology. His work, Primitive Culture (1871),
introduced the concept of culture as a complex whole encompassing
knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs, and any other capabilities
acquired by humans as members of society. Tylor's theory of cultural
 evolution proposed that societies progress through stages of
development from savagery to civilization.

o] James George Frazer (1854-1941) is renowned for his work The

Golden Bough (1890), which examined the similarities between
mythologies and rituals across different cultures. Frazer's comparative
approach aimed to identify universal patterns and stages of religious
development.
2. Functionalism and Structural Functionalism:

< The British school was notably shaped by Bronislaw Malinowski

(1884-1942) and A.R. Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955). Malinowski's
fieldwork in the Trobriand Islands set a new standard for ethnographic
research with his emphasis on participant observation and the study of
social practices in their context. His functionalist perspective argued that
every element of a culture serves a function to maintain the stability and
continuity of the social system.
Radcliffe-Brown, on the other hand, developed structural functionalism,
focusing on the ways social institutions and practices contribute to the
maintenance of social order. His approach emphasized the social
structures and their roles in sustaining societal equilibrium.

3. Post-War Developments:
o] In the post-World War II period, British anthropology continued to
evolve, with contributions from scholars like E.E. Evans-Pritchard
(1902-1973) and Victor Turner (1920-1983). Evans-Pritchard’s work
among the Nuer and Azande people demonstrated the importance of
understanding indigenous categories of thought and social organization.
Turner’s research on rituals and symbols, particularly in the context of
the Ndembu people, expanded the study of symbolic anthropology.

The later 20th century saw the emergence of new theoretical

approaches, including post-colonial critiques and feminist anthropology,
which challenged traditional perspectives and sought to address issues
of power, representation, and identity.

American School of Anthropology

Historical Background

The American school of anthropology developed alongside the expansion of the

United States and was heavily influenced by the diverse cultural landscape of the
country. It has been characterized by a focus on both cultural and physical
anthropology and has contributed significantly to the development of anthropological
theory and practice.

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 1. Early Influences:
O Franz Boas (1858-1942) is often regarded as the father of American
anthropology. His approach, known as historical particularism, rejected
the evolutionary models of his time and argued that cultures should be
understood based on their own historical contexts and development.
Boas emphasized rigorous fieldwork and the collection of empirical
data, laying the groundwork for modern anthropology.

Boas’s students, such as Margaret Mead (1901-1978) and Ruth

Benedict (1887-1948), further developed the field with their work on
cultural relativism and the role of culture in shaping individual behavior.
Mead’s studies in Samoa and New Guinea explored adolescence, gender
roles, and the impact of culture on personality.

2. The Development of Cultural Anthropology:

< The mid-20th century saw the rise of cultural anthropology as a

dominant subfield, with scholars like Clifford Geertz (1926-2006)
contributing to the development of symbolic and interpretive
anthropology. Geertz’s concept of "thick description" emphasized the
importance of understanding cultural practices within their broader
social and symbolic contexts.

The American school also saw significant contributions from Leslie

White (1900-1975), who developed the theory of cultural evolution
based on the role of technology and energy in cultural development.

3. Contemporary Trends:

o In recent decades, American anthropology has diversified and

incorporated a range of theoretical perspectives, including feminist
anthropology, postmodernism, and critical anthropology. Scholars like
Michael Taussig and Keith Hart have explored issues related to
globalization, power, and the impact of economic changes on cultural
practices.

The focus on applied anthropology has grown, addressing contemporary

1ssues such as public health, development, and human rights. This
practical orientation reflects the discipline’s engagement with real-world
problems and its commitment to contributing to social change.

Comparative Analysis
The British and American schools of anthropology, while sharing some common
theoretical and methodological concerns, have distinct differences shaped by their
historical and cultural contexts.

3]
 Methodology: British anthropology has traditionally emphasized structural-
functional analysis and the study of social systems and institutions. American
anthropology, while also valuing fieldwork, has been more eclectic,
Incorporating various theoretical perspectives and focusing on both cultural and
physical anthropology.

Theoretical Focus: The British school has been more oriented towards
understanding the functions of social institutions and practices, while the
American school has emphasized the importance of cultural relativism and the
subjective meaning of cultural practices.

Historical Context: The British school’s development was influenced by

colonial experiences and the need to understand diverse cultures within the
British Empire. In contrast, the American school emerged in a context of
cultural diversity and domestic social 1ssues, leading to a focus on
understanding and interpreting the complexities of American and indigenous
cultures.

In conclusion, both the British and American schools of anthropology have

significantly shaped the field, each contributing unique perspectives and
methodologies. Their development reflects broader historical and cultural contexts,
and their ongoing evolution continues to influence contemporary anthropological
research and practice.

b. Write a note on the political and religious institutions.

Political and religious institutions are foundational elements in human societies,

shaping governance, social organization, and cultural values. Their development,
functions, and interplay influence the stability, identity, and direction of communities
and nations. This note explores the characteristics, functions, and interrelationships of
political and religious institutions.

Political Institutions

Definition and Functions

Political institutions are formal structures and systems through which power and
authority are exercised in a society. They encompass the various mechanisms and
organizations that govern societal functions, create and enforce laws, and manage
public resources. The primary functions of political institutions include:

1. Governance and Administration:

o Political institutions provide frameworks for governance, including the

establishment of governments, creation of laws, and implementation of
policies. They ensure that societal rules are adhered to and that public
services are delivered efficiently.
 2. Law and Order:

o Institutions like the judiciary and law enforcement agencies maintain

social order by resolving disputes, punishing crimes, and ensuring that
legal norms are followed.

3. Representation and Participation:

o Democratic political institutions facilitate citizen participation in

governance through elections, representation, and public debate. They
ensure that different segments of society have a voice in decision-
making processes.
4. Policy Development:

o Political institutions are responsible for formulating and implementing

policies on various aspects such as economic development, education,
healthcare, and foreign relations.

Types of Political Institutions

1. Government Structures:

o Democracies: Governments where power is derived from the people,

typically through elected representatives. Examples include
parliamentary systems (e.g., the UK) and presidential systems (e.g., the
US).

Authoritarian Regimes: Governments where power 1s concentrated in

the hands of a single ruler or a small group. Political freedoms are often
limited, and dissent is suppressed.

2. Legislative Bodies:

o Parliaments and Congresses: Bodies that create and amend laws. They
may be unicameral (one legislative chamber) or bicameral (two
chambers, such as the Senate and House of Representatives in the US).

3. Judicial Systems:
o Courts and Tribunals: Institutions responsible for interpreting laws,
resolving disputes, and ensuring justice. They vary in their structure and
jurisdiction depending on the legal system of the country.

4. Administrative Agencies:

o Bureaucracies: Organizations that implement government policies and

manage public services. They operate at various levels, from national to
local.

Religious Institutions
Definition and Functions

Religious institutions are organized systems of beliefs, practices, and rituals related to
the divine or sacred. They play a crucial role in shaping spiritual life, moral values,
and cultural traditions. The primary functions of religious institutions include:

1. Spiritual Guidance:

o Religious institutions provide spiritual direction and support, helping

individuals and communities understand their relationship with the
divine and the meaning of life.

2. Moral and Ethical Standards:

o They establish and promote moral codes and ethical standards, guiding
behavior and fostering a sense of community and shared values.

3. Rituals and Worship:

o Institutions facilitate religious rituals and worship practices, which are

central to expressing faith and maintaining religious traditions.

4. Community and Identity:

o Religious institutions often serve as centers for community building,

providing social support and a sense of belonging. They contribute to
the formation of cultural and religious identity.

Types of Religious Institutions

1. Churches, Temples, and Mosques:

o Places of worship for various religious traditions, such as Christianity,
Hinduism, and Islam. They serve as gathering spaces for communal
worship and religious activities.

2. Religious Orders and Denominations:

o Groups within a religion that follow specific doctrines or practices.

Examples include Catholic orders (e.g., Jesuits), Protestant
denominations (e.g., Baptists), and Islamic sects (e.g., Sunni, Shia).

3. Religious Leaders and Clergy:

o Individuals who lead religious services, provide spiritual counsel, and

administer religious rites. Their roles and titles vary across different
religions (e.g., priests, rabbis, imams).

4. Religious Schools and Institutions:

 o Organizations dedicated to religious education and scholarship. They
include seminaries, madrasas, and theological colleges that train future
religious leaders and scholars.

Interplay Between Political and Religious Institutions

The relationship between political and religious institutions can be complex and varies
significantly across different societies. Key aspects of this interplay include:

1. Secularism vs. Theocracy:

o Secularism: A principle where political institutions operate

independently of religious influence, ensuring freedom of religion and
preventing the establishment of a state religion. Examples include
France and the United States.
Theocracy: A system where religious institutions wield political power
and religious leaders govern the state. Examples include Iran and
Vatican City.
2. Influence of Religion on Politics:

o In some societies, religious institutions exert significant influence on

political decisions, shaping policies and laws based on religious
doctrines. This can impact issues such as education, family law, and
social norms.

3. Political Influence on Religion:

o Political institutions may influence religious practices and organizations,

either through regulation, support, or restriction. This can affect
religious freedoms, funding for religious institutions, and the role of
religion in public life.

4. Religious Movements and Political Activism:

o Religious groups and movements may engage in political activism to

advocate for social change, human rights, or policy reforms. This can
lead to significant political and social transformations.

Conclusion

Political and religious institutions are integral to the functioning of societies, each
playing distinct yet interconnected roles. Political institutions govern and administer
socletal functions, while religious nstitutions provide spiritual guidance and moral
frameworks. The relationship between these institutions can shape the governance and
cultural fabric of societies, influencing everything from individual behavior to
national policies. Understanding their development, functions, and interactions offers
insight into the complexities of human societies and the diverse ways in which they
organize themselves.

Assignment — I1

Answer the following in about 250 words each. (Write Short Notes)

a. Discuss conflict theories.

Contflict theories are a set of perspectives within social theory that emphasize the role
of conflict and competition in shaping social structures and relations. These theories
challenge the notion of social harmony and consensus, suggesting mstead that societal
progress and change arise from conflicts between different groups. Here’s a detailed
overview of key conflict theories:

1. Karl Marx's Conflict Theory

Karl Marx's conflict theory is perhaps the most influential of all conflict theories.
Marx argued that society is fundamentally divided into classes with conflicting
interests. His theory primarily focuses on the economic dimensions of conflict,
positing that the capitalist system creates inherent class struggles between the
bourgeoisie (the owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (the working
class). According to Marx, the bourgeoisie exploits the proletariat, extracting surplus
value from their labor. This exploitation leads to social inequality and eventually fuels
revolutionary movements aimed at overthrowing the capitalist system and establishing
a classless society.

Marx's theory highlights how economic inequalities and class struggles drive
historical change and societal evolution. The inherent contradictions within
capitalism—such as the concentration of wealth and the alienation of workers—are
seen as catalysts for social change.

2. Max Weber's Conflict Theory

Max Weber expanded upon Marx's ideas but introduced a more nuanced view of
social conflict. While Weber agreed that economic factors are significant, he also
emphasized the role of social status and political power in creating conflicts. Weber's
theory includes three dimensions of stratification: class (economic position), status
(social prestige), and party (political power). According to Weber, social contlict
arises not just from economic inequalities but also from the competition for prestige
and power.

Weber's approach allows for a broader understanding of conflict beyond the economic
realm, recognizing that social status and political influence can also be sources of
tension and struggle.

3. Conflict Theory in Feminism

Feminist conflict theories focus on the gender-based conflicts within society. Feminist
theorists argue that patriarchy—systematic male dominance over women——creates and
perpetuates gender inequalities. These theories examine how institutions, cultural
norms, and social practices contribute to the subordination of women and the
maintenance of gender hierarchies.

Notable feminist theorists like Simone de Beauvoir and Judith Butler have explored
how patriarchy impacts various aspects of life, including work, family, and personal
identity. Feminist conflict theory aims to challenge and dismantle these structures to
achieve gender equality.

4, Critical Race Theory

Critical Race Theory (CRT) extends conflict theory into the realm of race and
ethnicity. CRT argues that racism is a fundamental and ingrained part of social
systems and institutions. It examines how racial inequalities are perpetuated through
laws, policies, and social practices.

Developed by scholars like Derrick Bell and Kimberlé Crenshaw, CRT emphasizes
the intersectionality of race with other social categories such as class, gender, and
sexuality. It challenges the idea of colorblindness and seeks to expose and address the
systemic nature of racism in society.

5. Postcolonial Theory
Postcolonial theory addresses the conflicts arising from colonialism and its aftermath.
It explores how colonial powers exploited and oppressed colonized peoples, and how
these historical injustices continue to impact postcolonial societies.

Theorists like Edward Said and Homi K. Bhabha analyze how colonial legacies shape
contemporary social and cultural dynamics. Postcolonial theory highlights issues of
identity, power, and resistance in formerly colonized nations and seeks to deconstruct
colonial narratives and practices.

Conclusion

Conlflict theories provide a critical lens through which to examine social structures and
relations. They highlight the role of competition and struggle in shaping societal
dynamics, challenging the notion of social harmony and consensus. By focusing on
class, status, race, gender, and colonial legacies, these theories offer valuable insights
into the sources and impacts of social conflict, driving movements for change and
justice in various contexts.

b. Write a note on the tradition of Fieldwork in Anthropology with emphasis on

the emerging trends.

The Tradition of Fieldwork in Anthropology: Emphasis on Emerging Trends

Fieldwork is a cornerstone of anthropological research, defining the discipline through
immersive, long-term engagement with the communities being studied. This
methodological approach has evolved significantly since its inception, reflecting
changes in both anthropological theory and broader societal contexts. This note
explores the tradition of fieldwork in anthropology and highlights emerging trends
that are shaping contemporary practices.

Historical Context and Tradition

Anthropology’s tradition of fieldwork began in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
with proneering figures such as Franz Boas, Bronistaw Malinowski, and Margaret
Mead establishing the foundational methods of participant observation and
ethnography. Boas, often regarded as the father of modern anthropology, emphasized
the importance of understanding cultures in their own context, advocating for detailed
and empathetic engagement with subjects. Malinowski’s approach, particularly his
method of "living among" the people he studied, set a precedent for immersive
observation and long-term involvement. Mead’s work, focusing on adolescence and
gender roles in Samoa, highlighted the value of fieldwork in uncovering cultural
variations and psychological insights.

These early anthropologists laid the groundwork for fieldwork as an intensive, on-the-
ground research practice, emphasizing the importance of building rapport, learning
local languages, and participating in daily activities.

Emerging Trends in Fieldwork

1. Reflexivity and Ethical Considerations

In recent decades, anthropologists have increasingly recognized the need for

reflexivity—reflecting on how their own backgrounds, biases, and interactions impact
their research. This has led to a greater emphasis on ethical considerations, including
the negotiation of informed consent and the protection of participants’ privacy.
Researchers are more aware of the power dynamics at play and strive to address the
ethical implications of their work more comprehensively.

2. Technological Integration

The integration of technology into fieldwork is another significant trend.

Anthropologists now use digital tools for data collection, such as smartphones, drones,
and audio recording devices. These technologies enable more efficient and precise
data gathering, from capturing real-time observations to conducting virtual interviews.
Social media platforms and online forums also offer new avenues for ethnographic
research, allowing anthropologists to study digital communities and virtual
Interactions.

3. Collaborative and Community-Based Approaches

There is a growing emphasis on collaborative and community-based fieldwork
approaches. Anthropologists increasingly work in partnership with local communities,
involving them in the research process and ensuring that their voices and perspectives
are central to the study. This participatory approach not only enriches the research but
also aims to provide tangible benefits to the communities involved, such as by
addressing local concerns or contributing to community development projects.

4. Interdisciplinary Approaches

Modern fieldwork often incorporates interdisciplinary methods, blending insights

from sociology, psychology, environmental science, and other fields. This holistic
approach allows anthropologists to address complex issues from multiple angles and
provides a richer, more nuanced understanding of the cultures they study.

5. Focus on Globalization and Transnationalism

Contemporary anthropological fieldwork frequently examines the impacts of

globalization and transnationalism. Researchers explore how global processes
influence local cultures and how transnational networks affect social dynamics. This
focus on interconnectedness reflects the increasing complexity of contemporary
societies and highlights the need to understand cultural phenomena within a global
context.

Conclusion

The tradition of fieldwork in anthropology, rooted in immersive and empathetic

engagement with communities, has evolved significantly over time. Emerging trends
such as increased reflexivity, technological integration, collaborative approaches,
interdisciplinary methods, and a focus on globalization reflect the dynamic nature of
the field. These trends not only enhance the depth and relevance of anthropological
research but also ensure that it remains responsive to the changing landscape of global
and local interactions.
Answer the following questions in about 75 words each.

a. Interview Schedule and Questionnaire

An interview schedule and a questionnaire are both essential tools in research,

especially in gathering data from respondents. While they may seem similar, they
serve distinct purposes and are used in different contexts depending on the nature of
the research.

Interview Schedule: An interview schedule is a structured outline of questions

prepared for an interview. It acts as a guide for the interviewer, ensuring that all
relevant topics are covered systematically. The schedule includes a series of open-
ended or closed-ended questions, which allows for flexibility and depth in the
responses. The interviewer can probe further into a respondent’s answers, clarifying
ambiguities and exploring new avenues that emerge during the conversation. This tool

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is particularly useful in qualitative research where understanding the nuances of
respondent’s opinions and experiences 1s crucial. The personal interaction involved in
using an interview schedule can lead to more detailed and insightful responses,
making it an effective tool for in-depth studies.

Questionnaire: A questionnaire, on the other hand, is a set of written questions

provided to respondents for them to answer independently, without the direct
involvement of the researcher. Questionnaires are typically used in quantitative
research to collect data from a large number of respondents efficiently. The questions
are usually closed-ended, allowing for easy quantification of responses. While
questionnaires lack the personal touch of interviews, they are advantageous in terms
of scalability and cost-effectiveness. They are ideal for surveys where the goal is to
gather data from a wide population and statistical analysis is required.

Conclusion: Both interview schedules and questionnaires are valuable tools in

research, each with its own strengths. The choice between the two depends on the
research objectives, the nature of the data required, and the resources available.
Interview schedules are more suited for qualitative studies, while questionnaires are
preferred for quantitative research.

b. Ethics in fieldwork

Ethics in fieldwork is a critical aspect of research, particularly when it involves human

participants, vulnerable communities, or sensitive environments. Adhering to ethical
principles ensures the protection of participants’ rights, dignity, and well-being while
maintaining the integrity of the research process.

One of the core ethical principles in fieldwork is obtaining informed consent.

Researchers must clearly communicate the purpose, methods, potential risks, and
benefits of the study to participants, ensuring they voluntarily agree to participate
without any coercion. This process respects the autonomy of participants and allows
them to make informed decisions regarding their involvement.

Confidentiality is another crucial ethical consideration. Researchers must protect

participants' identities and personal information, ensuring that data is securely stored
and only accessible to authorized personnel. This is particularly important in studies
dealing with sensitive issues, where the disclosure of information could lead to harm
or stigmatization of individuals or communities.

Respecting cultural norms and practices is also essential in fieldwork. Researchers

must be culturally sensitive, understanding and honoring the traditions, beliefs, and
values of the communities they study. This involves avoiding actions or questions that
could be perceived as intrusive, disrespectful, or harmful. Building trust and
maintaining open communication with the community are vital to conducting ethical
and successtul fieldwork.
Additionally, researchers have an obligation to avoid causing harm to participants,
either physically, emotionally, or psychologically. This principle, known as "do no
harm," requires researchers to carefully design their studies to minimize any potential
risks and to take immediate action if any unforeseen harm arises.

Lastly, transparency and accountability are key. Researchers should be honest about
therr intentions, methods, and findings, and they should be willing to share their
results with the communities involved. This not only ensures ethical conduct but also
fosters mutual respect and collaboration between researchers and participants.

In summary, ethics in fieldwork is about balancing the pursuit of knowledge with the
responsibility to protect and respect the individuals and communities involved. By
adhering to ethical guidelines, researchers can conduct their studies with integrity,
ensuring that their work contributes positively to the field and society.

¢. Structuralism

Structuralism is a theoretical framework that emerged in the early 20th century,

primarily in the fields of anthropology, linguistics, and psychology. It focuses on
understanding the underlying structures that shape human culture, language, and
thought. Structuralism posits that these structures are universal, meaning that despite
the diversity of human experiences, there are common patterns that can be identified
and analyzed across different cultures and contexts.

The origins of structuralism can be traced back to the work of Swiss linguist
Ferdinand de Saussure, whose ideas about language laid the foundation for the
structuralist approach. Saussure introduced the concept of the "sign," which 1s
composed of the "signifier” (the form of a word or expression) and the "signified" (the
concept it represents). He argued that the relationship between signifier and signified
is arbitrary and that the meaning of a sign is determined by its position within a
system of signs. This idea led to the understanding that language is a structure
governed by rules and relationships, rather than a collection of individual words with
fixed meanings.

In anthropology, Claude Lévi-Strauss 1s considered one of the key figures in the

development of structuralism. He applied Saussure’s linguistic concepts to the study
of culture, arguing that cultural phenomena, such as myths, rituals, and kinship
systems, could be understood as parts of a larger structure. Lévi-Strauss believed that
these structures were rooted in the human mind and that they operated through binary
oppositions, such as nature/culture, male/female, and raw/cooked. By analyzing these
oppositions, structuralists aim to uncover the deep, universal structures that shape
human culture.

Structuralism has had a profound impact on various disciplines, influencing the

development of literary theory, psychoanalysis, and even sociology. However, it has
also faced criticism, particularly for its perceived determinism and lack of attention to

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historical and individual variations. Despite these critiques, structuralism remains a
foundational theory in the study of human culture and thought.

d. Tribe and Caste

Tribe and caste are two distinct social structures deeply embedded in India's historical
and cultural fabric, each with unique characteristics and societal roles.

Tribe refers to a social group typically characterized by a homogenous culture,

language, and territory. Tribal societies are often seen as pre-industrial, with their
social, economic, and political structures closely tied to their natural surroundings.
Tribes in India, such as the Gonds, Santhals, and Bhils, have historically lived in
remote areas, maintaining a lifestyle that is closely linked to their environment and
traditional practices. They tend to have a simpler, egalitarian social structure with
communal ownership of resources. Tribal identity is closely tied to ethnicity, and the
sense of community is strong, with rituals, customs, and oral traditions playing a
crucial role in maintaining their way of life.
Caste, on the other hand, is a more complex and hierarchical system, deeply rooted in
Hinduism and prevalent across Indian society. The caste system is divided into four
broad categories: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders), and
Shudras (servants). Below these categories are the Dalits, previously referred to as
"untouchables," who have been historically marginalized. Unlike tribes, caste is not
associated with a specific territory or language but 1s more about the rigid social
stratification that dictates every aspect of life, including occupation, marriage, and
social interactions. Caste is hereditary, and mobility within the system has
traditionally been limited.

While both tribe and caste have been subjects of extensive anthropological and
sociological study, they represent fundamentally different forms of social
organization. Tribes tend to be more fluid and community-oriented, while castes are
rigid and hierarchical, reflecting the broader social order in India. The interaction
between these two systems continues to shape Indian society, often leading to
significant social and political dynamics.

¢. Literature review

To conduct a literature review effectively, it is essential to explore and critically

analyze the existing body of research on a specific topic. A literature review serves
multiple purposes: it synthesizes previous studies, identifies gaps in the research, and
establishes the context for the current study. In academic research, literature reviews
often lay the groundwork for new research by demonstrating a thorough
understanding of the field.

The process of a literature review begins with identifying relevant sources, which can
include books, journal articles, conference papers, and other academic publications.
The selection of these sources should be guided by their relevance to the research

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question, their credibility, and their contribution to the field. It is important to use a
systematic approach to gathering literature, often utilizing academic databases such as
JSTOR, PubMed, and Google Scholar.

Once relevant literature has been gathered, the next step involves critically evaluating
the sources. This includes examining the methodologies used in the studies, the
results, and the conclusions drawn by the authors. A well-conducted literature review
does not merely summarize these studies but also critically analyzes them, identifying
strengths, weaknesses, and any contradictions in the findings.

The literature review should also identity any gaps or areas where further research is
needed. These gaps can serve as the basis for new research, allowing the researcher to
build upon existing knowledge. Additionally, the review should establish the
theoretical framework for the study, situating the current research within the broader
academic discourse.

In summary, a literature review is a foundational element of academic research that

synthesizes existing studies, identifies research gaps, and sets the stage for new
inquiries. By thoroughly reviewing the literature, researchers ensure that their work is
informed, relevant, and contributes meaningfully to their field of study.

Assignment — 111

a. Prepare an interview guide for a study on Gender and Child Labour.

Interview Guide for a Study on Gender and Child Labour

Introduction

« Introduction of the interviewer: Provide a brief introduction of yourself, your

role, and the purpose of the study.

Purpose of the Interview: Explain the study's aim, which is to understand the
impact of gender on child labour and to explore the gender-specific challenges
and experiences.

Confidentiality Assurance: Assure the participant that their responses will be

kept confidential and used solely for research purposes.

« Consent: Obtain verbal or written consent to proceed with the interview,

Section 1: Background Information

1. Can you please tell me a bit about your background?

o Age

o Gender

o Educational background
 o Occupation (1f applicable)

2. What is your relationship to child labour?

o Are you involved in any organizations that address child labour?

o Have you personally witnessed or encountered child labour?

Section 2: Understanding Child Labour

3. In your opinion, what are the main factors contributing to child labour in
your community or region?

o Economic factors

o Educational factors

o Social factors

4. How do you perceive the impact of child labour on children’s development

and future prospects?

o Physical health

o Educational attainment

o Social development

Section 3: Gender Dynamics in Child Labour

5. Do you believe there are differences in how male and female children
experience child labour?

o Specific types of work

o Working conditions

o Social perceptions and stigmas

. Can you describe any gender-specific challenges that female children face
in the context of child labour?

o Access to education

o Health and safety concerns

o Societal expectations and gender roles

. How does the community or society address gender differences in child

labour?

o Policies and programs

o Community awareness and support

 o Involvement of gender-specific organizations

Section 4: Interventions and Solutions

8. What existing interventions or policies are in place to combat child labour,

and how effective are they?
o Government policies

o NGO initiatives

o Community-based programs

9. What additional measures do you think could be implemented to address

gender disparities in child labour?
o Policy recommendations

o Educational initiatives

o Community engagement
10. Can you suggest any successful case studies or examples of gender-
sensitive approaches to tackling child labour?

Section 5: Personal Insights and Reflections

11.Have you personally been involved in efforts to address child labour or

gender issues related to it?
o Roles and contributions

o Personal experiences

12. What changes or improvements would you like to see in how gender and
child labour are addressed in your community or beyond?

13.1s there anything else you would like to add regarding gender and child
labour that we haven’t covered in this interview?

Closing
Thank the participant: Express gratitude for their time and insights.

Provide Contact Information: Share contact details if they have follow-up

questions or need further information.

Discuss Next Steps: Briefly explain the next steps in the research process and
any potential follow-up.

This guide aims to gather comprehensive insights into the intersection of gender and
child labour, considering various aspects from personal experiences to community and
policy-level interventions.

17 |
b. Write the reference of one book and a journal in APA style alphabetically.

APA Style References: A Comprehensive Guide

When writing in APA (American Psychological Association) style, it is crucial to
follow specific guidelines for citing various types of sources, including books and
journal articles. Here, we'll look at how to reference both a book and a journal article
in APA style, followed by examples and explanations.

1. Book Citation in APA Style

To cite a book in APA style, the following format is generally used:

Format:
Author's Last Name, First Initial(s). (Year of Publication). Title of the book.
Publisher.
Key Components:

Author's Last Name, First Initial(s): This is the primary author's last name
followed by their first initial(s).

Year of Publication: The year the book was published.

Title of the book: The title should be italicized. Only the first word of the title,
subtitle, and proper nouns should be capitalized.
Publisher: The name of the publisher.

Example:

Smith, J. A. (2020). Understanding human behavior: A guide to psychology. Oxford

University Press.

2. Journal Article Citation in APA Style

To cite a journal article in APA style, the following format is generally used:

Format:

Author's Last Name, First Initial(s). (Year of Publication). Title of the article. Title of
the Journal, Volume(Issue), Page Range. DOI or URL (if available)

Key Components:

Author's Last Name, First Initial(s): This includes the last name followed by
the initials of the author’s first and middle names (if available).

Year of Publication: The year the article was published.

Title of the article: The title of the article is not italicized and only the first
word, subtitle, and proper nouns are capitalized.
 Title of the Journal: The journal title is italicized and uses title case (all major
words capitalized).

Volume(Issue): The volume number is italicized, while the issue number (if
present) is in parentheses and is not italicized.

Page Range: The page numbers of the article.

DOI or URL: The Digital Object Identifier (DOI) is a unique alphanumeric

string used to identify content and provide a persistent link to its location on the
internet.

Example:

Johnson, L. M., & Williams, K. (2019). The impact of social media on adolescent
mental health. Journal of Adolescent Psychology, 32(3), 245-260.
https://doi.org/10.1016/}.jad.2019.01.002

3. Alphabetical Order

In an APA reference list, entries are arranged alphabetically by the surname of the
first author. If multiple works by the same author are cited, they are ordered
chronologically, with the earliest work first. If the same author has multiple works in
the same year, these are ordered alphabetically by the title of the work, and a letter (a,
b, ¢) is added after the year of publication to distinguish them.

Example Reference List:

Jones, R. T. (2018). Cultural perspectives on education. Cambridge University Press.

Smith, J. A. (2020). Understanding human behavior: A guide to psychology. Oxford

University Press.

Zhang, Q. (2017). The relationship between sleep patterns and cognitive function in
older adults. Journal of Gerontology, 58(2), 110-120.
https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbx018

4. Detailed Explanation and Common Errors

a. Author Names:

« List up to 20 authors before using an ¢llipsis (...). For more than 20 authors,
list the first 19 authors' names, insert an ellipsis, and then add the last author's
name.

Common Error: Using "et al." in the reference list instead of listing all the
authors' names (up to 20).

b. Titles of Works:
 Books and articles: Only capitalize the first word of the title, subtitle, and
proper nouns.

Journals: Use title case for journal names, meaning all major words are
capitalized.

« Common Error: Capitalizing all the words in the title of a book or article.

¢. DOI and URLs:

DOI: Prefer the format https://doi.org/ followed by the DOI number.

URLs: Use "Retrieved from" before URLs only when a retrieval date is needed
(e.g., for webpages that may change over time).

Common Error: Including a retrieval date for journal articles and using the
old doi: format without the https:// prefix.
5. Conclusion

Correctly citing sources is essential in academic writing to avoid plagiarism, give

credit to the original authors, and provide readers with the information necessary to
locate the sources themselves. Understanding how to format references in APA style
1s an important skill for students, researchers, and professionals.

By following the guidelines provided in this guide, you can ensure that your
references are accurate and correctly formatted, helping to maintain the credibility and
professionalism of your work.

References:

Johnson, L. M., & Williams, K. (2019). The impact of social media on adolescent
mental health. Journal of Adolescent Psychology, 32(3), 245-260.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.01.002

Smith, J. A. (2020). Understanding human behavior: A guide to psychology. Oxford

University Press.