Yahia Fares University of Médéa

Faculty of Sciences
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science
1st Year Mathematics and Computer Science Licence Degree (L.M.D)

Algorithms and Data structure 1

2023/ 2024

1
 Chapter I

Introduction to computing

2
1. Definition of Computer Science : it is the science of processing
information by automatic means.
- Information: is an element of human knowledge capable of being
represented using a coding system in order to be stored, processed or
communicated.
There are two types of information: data and instructions.
• Data: is a representation of information for automatic processing,
such as a student's data: first name, last name, age and address.
• Instruction: is a form of information that allows you to describe the
action that must be taken carried out (executed) by the computer.
- Automatic information processing: is a series of operations transforming a
representation of this information into another representation that is easier
to manipulate or interpret.

Information automatic Information

( Data ) Treatment ( Results )

Information
3
( Consulted )
2. Evolution of computing and computers
2.1 History of computing:

1945

4
Before 1945

5
2. Evolution of computing and computers
2.1 History of computing:
Before 1945???
• The history of computing begins with the invention of
machines (before the appearance of computers) which
initially corresponded to different lines of thought.
1. Calculating machines
-Pascal's Pascaline, 17th century: Pascal invents the
Pascaline, the first calculating machine (addition and
subtraction only), for his father's calculations.
-Leibniz's multiplication machine, 17th century.
- Leibniz improves Pascal's machine to have the four basic
operations (+,-,*, /).

6
Pascaline

7
Leibniz machine

8
2. Automata
• Automata, astronomical clocks, military machines
from the 12th century.
3. Programmable machines
• Jacquard's loom , 1752-1834
• Start of marketing of scientific mechanical
machines (military use in general).
• Babbage invents the first programmable analytical
machine. 1834

9
Astronomical clock

10
Jacquard loom

11
Babbage programmable analytical
machine

12
After 1945

13
After 1945: the birth of the computer

• It is generally accepted that the computer era, which covers a few decades, is divided
into several generations essentially marked by technological advances.

1. First generation 1945 – 1954 : computers were vacuum tube machines

→ large, heavy, power-hungry.
→ very slow , unreliable,
2. Second generation 1955-1965 : computers were transistor machines
→ smaller, faster, more reliable
→ development of new programming languages applications like data
processing and accounting systems
3. Third generation 1966-1974 : computers were integrated circuit machines
→ Reduction in size, power consumption, cost of computers
→ Use operating systems simplified their use of users
4. Fourth generation from 1975-1990 : introduction of microprocessors
→ creation of PC
→ more affordable and accessible
→ Use GUI, computers easier to use for non-technical users.
5. Fifth generation (1990-present) : emergence of AI and ML systems
→ computers mobile, connected
→ use of wireless technology and social networks.

14
3. Information coding systems
• Today our computers, telephones and other
devices can handle numbers and text as well
as images, video or music...
• But how can we represent, within a digital
system, this diversity of objects in the real or
virtual world? What techniques are used to
digitally represent the magnitudes that
surround us?

15
3.1 Definitions
• Coding Unit
• The components constituting a computer system
react, internally, to “all or nothing” signals.
• The two stable states thus defined are
represented by the symbols “0” and “1” or by “L”
( Low ) and “H” (High) The numbering system
adapted to the representation of such signals is
base 2, we then speak of binary coding.
• The information coding unit is an element that
can only take the values 0 or 1; the bit
(contraction of Binary Digit).

16
▪ Transfer Unit
• For data exchanges, elementary information (bits) are
manipulated in groups which thus form binary words.
• The size of these words is most often a multiple of
8 = 2³.
• The transfer unit used for data exchange is the 8-bit
word called byte.
• A byte is a particular byte (binary digit) containing 8
bits. To facilitate manipulation, a byte can be divided
into two 4-bit words called quartets: the one on the
left is the most significant quartet, MSQ (Most
Significant Quartet ) , and the one on the right, the
nibble low weight, LSQ ( Less Significant Quartet).

17
Computer system
A computer system is a system composed of two
distinct parts :
Hardware which includes the central unit as well
as all the other devices connected to it and the
software .

18
4. Hardware

19
A computer is an information processing
machine.
It is capable of acquiring information, storing it,
transforming it by carrying out any type of
processing, then restoring it in another form.

20
4.1 Von Neumann architecture
The architecture, called Von Neumann architecture,
breaks the computer into four distinct parts:
1 Processor : is made up of an arithmetic and logic unit
(ALU) or processing unit: its role is to carry out basic
operations and a control unit, responsible for
sequencing the operations;
2 Memory that contains both the data and the program
executed by the control unit. Memory is divided into
volatile memory or RAM ( Random Access Memory)
which contains programs and data being processed,
and permanent memory or ROM (Read Only Memory)
which stores programs and basic data of the machine;
3 Input and Output devices, which allow communication
with the outside world.
21
22
4.2 Operating principles
• The two main components of a computer are the
central memory and the processor. The central
memory stores information (programs and data),
while the processor executes the instructions
making up the programs step by step.
• For each instruction, the processor schematically
performs the following operations:
1. Read from memory (MC) the instruction to be
executed;
2. Carry out the corresponding processing;
3. Go to the next instruction.

23
• The processor is divided into two parts, the control unit and
the processing unit (CU and ALU respectively):
- Control unit is responsible for reading into memory and
decoding instructions
- Processing unit, also called Arithmetic and Logic Unit
(ALU), executes instructions that manipulate data.

• CM : is the internal Central Memory of the microcomputer.

It allows you to store programs and data.
• CU : is the Control Unit coordinates the work between the
different bodies.
• ALU: It is the arithmetic and logical unit. It is used to
perform arithmetic and logical calculations.
• Program: A program is a series of elementary instructions,
which will be executed in order by the processor.

24
Computer hardware Components
25
Connection interfaces (ports)
Used to connect peripherals and expansion cards to the motherboard. There are
internal ports and external ports.
❑ Internal ports:
• PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) and PCI Express to connect all
expansion cards;
• AGP to connect graphics cards;
• IDE and SATA to connect hard disk drives and CD/DVD drives;
• Floppy for connecting floppy drives.
❑ External ports:
• PS2 to connect keyboards and mice;
• VGA to connect screens, data shows, etc.;
• HDMI to connect high resolution displays
• Series to connect measuring devices, routers, etc.;
• Parallel to connect old printers;
• LAN or (RJ45) to connect the network
cable;
• eSATA to connect external hard drives;
• USB is used to connect a generic number
of devices.

26
 B. Peripherals :

The term peripheral means any element located on the periphery of the computer which
is not not necessary for its operation but of which the user needs to communicate with
the computer .

▪ Input peripherals : allow data transfer from outside towards the computer (keyboard,
mouse, scanner, microphone, etc.).
▪ Output peripherals devices : allow transfer of computer data towards outside (
screen , printer , speaker , etc.).
▪ Input /output Peripherals : allow the computer to both directions ( floppy disk drive ,
modem, burner , … ( Examples : hard disk , floppy disk , USB key , etc.).

27
B - Part system ( software)
C. Programming languages

✓ In computing, a programming language is

used to produce or develop applications.
✓ A so-called high-level programming language
is easily understandable by a human being,
but not by machine. E.g. Java, C, C++, Pascal,
Fortran, PHP, HTML,… etc.
✓ A program written in a high-level
programming language is called source code.
✓ A computer (processor) only understands
machine language or machine code, which is
a sequence of bits.
✓ So, a program written in a high-level
language must be translated into a language
machine using a compiler or interpreter to
be executed by the computer (processor).

28
 Devices
A. Display devices : These are output devices, providing
a visual representation to the user, such as a monitor
(screen).

• B. Printer: it is a device allowing printed

output (on paper) of computer data.

29
• C. Storage devices : this is an input-output device
capable of storing information permanently (hard
disk, CD-ROM drive, DVD-ROM drive, etc.);

• D. Acquisition peripherals . They allow the computer

to acquire specific data, such as video data, we then
speak of video acquisition , digitized images (scanner)
or sound (micro);

30
E. Input devices : these are peripherals capable
only of sending information to the computer :
• Mouse : It is a pointing device. Its role is to
vary the position of the cursor on the screen
in order to communicate with the machine.

31
• Keyboard : This is the input element in interactive
mode. It is one of the interfaces between the user and
the machine. It is composed of three parts:
- the alphanumeric part
- The numeric keypad, which provides numbers and
direction keys
- The function keys, of variable importance, the role
of each key being specified for each program

32
• Modem : This is the device used to transfer
information between several computers via a
wired or wireless transmission medium
(telephone line, sim card)

33
• G. Internal components: represent the
elements that exist inside the central unit,
namely: the motherboard, memories, cards
(sound/graphics/network/…), readers (floppy
disks/CD/DVD/memory cards, etc...

34
1. Motherboard : it is the main element of the
computer. The motherboard is the base
(support) which brings together all the
essential elements of the computer.

35
2. Microprocessor : The computer’s brain. It allows
you to manipulate digital information, that is to say
information encoded in binary form, and to execute
instructions stored in memory.

36
3. Memory : Electronic component capable of permanently or
temporarily storing data. There are two main categories of
memories

i. Volatile memory : also called Central Memory or RAM

(Random Access Memory) allows data to be temporarily
stored during the execution of a program. Their contents will
be lost once the power supply is interrupted.

ii. Mass memory (secondary or external) : allows

permanent storage of data even if the memory is no longer
electrically powered (when the computer is shut down).
- Magnetic storage devices (e.g. : Hard disk, floppy Disk,
Tape, pen drive, memory card),
- Optical storage devices (e.g.: CD-ROM or DVD-ROM);
- Read Only Memories (e.g. : BIOS chip which is used for
starting the computer). 37
38
4. Expansion card
• It is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into
expansion slot on computer motherboard to add
new input or output functionality to a computer
via expansion bus, it is also known as add-on card
or accessory card e.g, : graphics card, sound,
modem or network cards, … etc.

39
5. Software
• A software is a set of applications which consist of a set
of programs relating to the processing of information.
• There are two types of software:
– System software
– application software.

40
5.1 systems software:
• Operating system : is a set of programs that
controls how the hardware of a computer works.
An operating system provides a means of
communication between the user and the
computer, deals with the loading and running of
applications programs and manages the transfer
of data and files to and from peripheral devices.
Several operating systems have been developed:
Unix, MsDos, Windows, Linux, Mac OS,…

41
5.2 Application software

Programs that meet the needs of the human user.

They carry out very specific tasks such as word
processing, calculations, programming,
database management. We can cite for
example:
• Word processing - DTP: with layout,
justification, numbering, dictionary...
• Spreadsheet: table of 2-dimensional numbers
and calculations
• Database: set of files (name, address, etc.) and
search by section, direct mail, etc.
• CAD (computer Aided Design), Computer
drawing: clean, easy modification, archiving...
• Management: Payroll, Invoicing, Stock...
• Communication: transfer of programs by
modem and telephone line, minitel server, etc.
42
5.3 Programming languages

• In computer science, a programming language is a

conventional notation intended to formulate algorithms
and produce computer programs that apply them. Similar
to a natural language, a programming language is
composed of an alphabet, vocabulary, grammar rules, and
meanings.
• Programming languages make it possible to describe on the
one hand the structures of the data which will be
manipulated by the computing device, and on the other
hand to indicate how the manipulations are carried out,
according to which algorithms. They serve as means of
communication by which the programmer communicates
with the computer, but also with other programmers; the
programs are usually written, read, understood and
modified by a community.

43
A programming language is implemented by an automatic
translator : compiler or interpreter. A compiler is a
computer program which first transforms source code
written in a given programming language into target code
which can be directly executed by a computer, namely a
program in machine language or intermediate code 2,
while the interpreter carries out this translation.

44
• Each programming language
reflects a paradigm, a set of
notions that guide the
programmer's thinking.
• The first programming
languages were created in the
1950s. Many computer science
concepts were launched by a
language, before be improved
and extended in the following
languages. Most of the time
the design of a programming
language has been heavily
influenced by experience
gained with previous
languages.
45
Elements of the programming language

• A programming language is built from a formal

grammar, which includes symbols and syntactic
rules, to which semantic rules are associated.
• These elements are more or less complex
depending on language ability. The modes of
operation and definition of the complexity of a
programming language are generally determined
by their membership in one of the degrees of the
Chomsky Hierarchy.

46
I. The alphabet
The alphabet of programming languages is based on common
standards like ASCII, which has the letters A to Z without accents,
numbers and symbols, or Unicode for most modern languages.

II. Vocabulary
The vocabulary represents the set of instructions constructed
based on symbols . The instruction can be mnemonic or only
symbolic as when it is represented by operation symbols such as
arithmetic ("+" and "-") or Boolean operators.

III. Rules defined by a formal grammar, they govern the different ways
in which language elements can be combined to obtain programs

IV. Semantics
The meaning of each of the sentences that can be constructed in
the language (expressions, statements and program units).

47
48