Experiment-6

LEVEL OF PROCESSING

ABSTRACT

The Levels of Processing Theory, proposed by Craik and Lockhart in 1972, sheds light on how
information encoding affects memory retention. This model suggests that the deeper information is
processed, the longer a memory trace will last. According to this theory, memory is just a by-product
of the depth of information processing, and there is no clear distinction between short-term and
long-term memory. This experiment is used to study the levels of processing with the method of
recall. In order to study the effect of level of processing of words on the number of correct recall a
single subject design was employed. The hypothesis of this experiment is to Recall of words in
semantic category will be better than the recall of words in the phonemic category. Recall of words in
semantic category will be better than the recall of words in the structural category. Recall of words in
phonemic category will be better than the recall of words in the structural category. A PowerPoint
presentation was made, with a list of 30 randomized words. These words were utilized to construct a
list of questions to include 10 from each category of encoding: Semantic, Phonemic and Structural, in
a randomized manner. The sample size is taken between 12-25 age group. There will be 2 subjects on
whom the experiment will be conducted. Category 1: words under this category will be followed by
the question like is the word in capital (structural). Category 2: words under this category will be
followed by the questions like does the word rhyme with (phonemic). Category3: words under this
category will be followed by questions like does the word belong to the category of bird for instance
(semantic).

keywords: retention, encoding, semantic, structural, phonemic, randomized.

PROBLEM STATEMENT: To study the levels of processing with the method of recall.

INTRODUCTION

Memory is today defined in psychology as the faculty of encoding, storing, and retrieving information
(Squire, 2009). Psychologists have found that memory includes three important categories: sensory,
short-term, and long-term

Retention, Factors involved in retention.

Research shows that six important factors in employee retention are people and culture,
acknowledgement at work, providing meaningful benefits, ongoing training, workplace environment,
and mission and values alignment. persistence of learned behavior or experience during a period
when it is not being performed or practiced, as indicated by the ability to recall, recognize,
reproduce, or relearn it the storage and maintenance of a memory. Retention is the second stage of
memory, after encoding and before retrieval. the inability or refusal of an individual to defecate or
urinate.

Memory (types of memory): Sensory / STM / LTM

Sensory Memory Sensory memory allows you to remember sensory information after the stimulation
has ended. Researchers who classify memory more as stages than types believe that all other
memories begin with the formation of sensory memories. Typically your sensory memory only holds
onto information for brief periods. Remembering the sensation of a person’s touch or a sound you
heard in passing is sensory memory.

There are three types of sensory memory: iconic, which is obtained through sight; echoic, which is
auditory; and haptic, which is through touch.

Short-term Memory

As the name implies, short-term memory allows you to recall specific information about anything for
a brief period. Short-term memory is not as fleeting as sensory memory, but it’s also not as
permanent as long-term memory. Short-term memory is also known as primary or active memory.
For example, if you need to recall a string of numbers, you might keep repeating them to yourself
until you input them. However, if you are asked to recall those numbers about 10 minutes after
inputting them, you’d most likely be unable to.

Working Memory

Working memory is a type of memory that involves the immediate and small amount of information
that a person actively uses as they perform cognitive tasks. While some experts view working
memory as a fourth distinct type of memory, working memory can fall under the classification of
short-term memory and, in many cases, is even used interchangeably

Long-term Memory

We store a vast majority of our memories in our long-term memory. Any memory we can still recall
after 30 seconds could classify as long-term memory. These memories range in significance—from
recalling the name of a friendly face at your favorite coffee shop to important bits of information like
a close friend’s birthday or your home address.

There is no limit to how much our long-term memory can hold and for how long. We can further split
long-term memory into two main categories: explicit and implicit long-term memory.

Explicit Long-term Memory

Explicit long-term memories are memories we consciously and deliberately took time to form and
recall. Explicit memory holds information such as your best friend’s birthday or your phone number.
It often includes major milestones in your life, such as childhood events, graduation dates, or
academic work you learned in school.

In general, explicit memories can be episodic or semantic.

●Episodic memories are formed from particular episodes in your life. Examples of episodic memory
include the first time you rode a bike or your first day at school.

●Semantic memories are general facts and bits of information you absorbed over the years. For
instance, when you recall a random fact while filling in a crossword puzzle, you pull it from your
semantic memory.

Implicit Long-term Memory

We are not as deliberate with forming implicit memories as we are with explicit ones. Implicit
memories form unconsciously and might affect the way a person thinks and behaves.
Implicit memory often comes into play when we are learning motor skills like walking or riding a bike.
If you learned how to ride a bike when you were 10 and only ever pick it up again when you are 20,
implicit memory helps you remember how to ride it.

ENCODING

Encoding is the process of converting data from one form to another for various purposes such as
storage, transmission, or processing. It involves transforming information into a specific format that
can be understood by different systems or devices.

Here are some key points about encoding:

1.Data Representation: Encoding transforms data into a representation that can be properly
consumed by different systems. For example, text data can be encoded as ASCII or Unicode, which
represent characters as numbers.

2.Efficiency: Encoding can make data storage and transmission more efficient. For example, media
files like images, audio, and video can be encoded into compressed formats to save space and
bandwidth.

3.Compatibility: Encoding ensures that data can be correctly interpreted by different systems. For
example, encoding a document in UTF-8 ensures that it can be read correctly on any system that
supports UTF-8.

4.Security: While not its primary purpose, encoding can provide a basic level of security by obscuring
data. However, for strong security, encryption (a separate process) should be used.

In summary, encoding plays a crucial role in data storage, transmission, and processing by converting
data into a standardized format that can be understood by different systems or devices.

TYPES OF ENCODING

There are several types of encoding techniques used in different fields. Here are some of them:

1. Character Encoding: This technique encodes characters into bytes. It informs the computers
how to interpret the zeros and ones into real characters, numbers, and symbols. Examples include:

 ASCII Encoding: Represents text in numbers.

 Unicode Encoding: Represents text in different languages.
 HTML Encoding: Used to display an HTML page in a proper format.
 URL Encoding: Converts characters in such a format that they can be transmitted over the
internet.
 Base64 Encoding: Encodes binary data.
 Hex Encoding: Represents binary data in hexadecimal format.

2.Image & Audio and Video Encoding: This technique is used to convert media files into a format that
can be easily stored, transmitted, and decoded.

3.Semantic Encoding: Involves using meaning or context to store information.

4.Acoustic Encoding: Involves using auditory cues to store information.

5.Elaborative Encoding: Involves connecting new information to prior knowledge to remember it.
6.Tactile Encoding: Refers to using physical sensations and touch to store information.

7.Organizational Encoding: Involves organizing information into groups or categories.

These encoding techniques are used in various fields like computing, data transmission, and even
psychology. They play a crucial role in how information is stored, processed, and retrieved.

STORAGE

Storage in computing refers to a process through which digital data is saved within a data storage
device by means of computing technology. It is a mechanism that enables a computer to retain data,
either temporarily or permanently. Storage devices such as flash drives and hard disks are
fundamental components of most digital devices as they allow users to preserve all kinds of
information such as videos, documents, pictures, and raw data.

TYPES OF STORAGE

There are several types of storage, each serving different needs and use cases:

1.Primary Storage: Also known as internal memory or main memory, this is a section of the CPU that
holds program instructions, input data, and intermediate results. It is generally smaller in size. RAM
(Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) are examples of primary storage.

2.Secondary Storage: This is a memory that is stored external to the computer. It is mainly used for
the permanent and long-term storage of programs and data. Hard Disks, CDs, DVDs, Pen/Flash
drives, SSD, etc, are examples of secondary storage.

3.Tertiary Storage: This type of memory is rarely used in personal computers. Tertiary memory works
automatically without human intervention.

4.Magnetic Storage: These devices use magnetic fields to store data. Examples include hard disk
drives and magnetic tapes.

5.Flash Memory Devices: These are solid-state devices that use flash memory for storing data.
Examples include SSDs and USB flash drives.

6.Optical Storage Devices: These devices use lasers to read/write data. Examples include CDs and
DVDs.

7.Cloud and Virtual Storage: This type of storage allows users to store data on remote servers that
can be accessed via the internet.

Each type of storage has its own benefits and disadvantages, and the choice of storage depends on
the specific requirements of the user or the system.

RETRIEVAL

Retrieval in the context of memory and cognition refers to the process of accessing and bringing
stored information back into conscious awareness. It is a critical function that allows us to recall past
experiences, learned facts, and skills. It’s like finding and opening a document you had previously
saved on your computer’s hard drive.

TYPES OF RETRIEVAL

There are several types of retrieval:

1.Recall: This is the process of retrieving information from your memory without the help of cues. An
example of this would be writing an essay off the top of your head.

2.Recognition: This involves identifying information that you have previously learned after
encountering it again. It involves a process of comparison. When you take a multiple-choice test,
you’re relying on recognition to find the correct answer.

3.Relearning: Also known as the method of savings, this measures the amount of time saved when
learning information for the second time.

4.Cued Recall: This type of recall occurs when a person is given cues to help them remember
information. The cues are often semantic or related to the content of the information.

5.Serial Recall: This involves recalling items or events in the order in which they occurred.

6.Free Recall: This occurs when a person must recall many items but can recall them in any order.

Each type of retrieval has its own benefits and is used in different situations depending on the
requirements.

TYPES OF MEMORY

DECLARATIVE MEMORY

Declarative memory, also known as explicit memory, is a type of long-term memory that involves
conscious recall. It’s divided into two categories:

1.Semantic Memory: This involves the recall of ideas, concepts, and facts commonly regarded as
general knowledge. For example, knowing that London is the capital of England is a semantic
memory.

2.Episodic Memory: This involves the recollection of personal events or episodes in a person’s life,
such as birthdays. For instance, remembering your first day of school is an episodic memory.

Recalling information from declarative memory involves some degree of conscious effort, as
information must be consciously brought to mind and “declared”. Declarative memory is also known
as explicit memory, as it consists of information that is explicitly stored and involves conscious effort
to be retrieved. This means that you are consciously aware when you are storing and recalling
information.

Throughout our lifetime, there is a gradual transition from episodic to semantic memories.
Declarative memory is part of long-term memory involving “knowing that”. For example, knowing
that zebras are animals is a declarative memory.

NON-DECLARATIVE MEMORY

Non-declarative memory, also known as implicit memory, is a type of long-term memory that doesn’t
require conscious thought or recollection to access. It’s often procedural and focused on the step-by-
step processes that must be performed in order to complete a task. Here are some key aspects:

1.Procedural Memory: This involves the memory of how to perform certain procedures without
conscious thought. For example, knowing how to ride a bike or type on a keyboard are forms of
procedural memory.
2.Priming: This is an implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a
later stimulus. For instance, seeing a color may make you quicker to recognize a fruit of the same
color.

3.Conditioning: This involves learning from various forms of conditioning, such as classical and
operant conditioning. For example, if you hear a bell ring every time you’re about to eat, you might
start to associate the bell with food.

Unlike declarative memory, non-declarative memory is not conscious and cannot be verbally
explained. However, it still influences how you behave as well as your knowledge of different tasks.

STAGES OF MEMORY

Models of Memory

The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model.

● The Levels-of Processing Approach.

● Tulving’s Model.

● The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach.

● The most accepted theory in psychology as to how memory works is called the Atkinson &
Shiffrin model of memory, which was developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968.

This model states that we have three basic types of memory, and those are called the sensory
register, short-term memory and long-term memory.

The multi-store model of memory (also known as the modal model) was proposed by Richard
Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) and is a structural model. They proposed that memory consisted
of three stores: a sensory register, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). Explicit
memory (declarative memory): Memory of facts and events which is consciously remembered.
Episodic memory: Memory of every-day events and experiences in the form of “episodes.” Subset of
long-term memory. The model of memory that has dominated this field for the last 50 years is the
three-box memory model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968), which will be a strong focus in our discussion
of memory.

LEVEL OF PROCESSING MODEL

The Levels of Processing Model, proposed by Fergus I. M. Craik and Robert S. Lockhart in 1972,
suggests that the depth of processing information affects how well it is encoded, stored, and later
retrieved from memory. The model predicts that the deeper the information is processed, the longer
a memory trace will last.

The model identifies three levels of processing:

1.Shallow Processing: This includes:

Structural Processing: Encoding only the physical qualities of something, like the typeface of a word
or how the letters look.

Phonemic Processing: Encoding its sound.

2.Deep Processing (Semantic Processing): This involves encoding the meaning of a word and relating
it to similar words with similar meanings. Deep processing involves elaboration rehearsal, which
involves a more meaningful analysis (e.g., images, thinking, associations, etc.) of information and
leads to better recall.

According to this model, memory is just a by-product of the depth of information processing, and
there is no clear distinction between short-term and long-term memory. Therefore, instead of
concentrating on the stores/structures involved (i.e., short-term memory & long-term memory), this
theory concentrates on the processes involved in memory.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Levels of Processing model, proposed by Fergus I. M. Craik and Robert S. Lockhart in 1972,
suggests that the depth of mental processing impacts the memory recall of stimuli. Deeper levels of
analysis produce more elaborate, longer-lasting, and stronger memory traces than shallow levels of
analysis. Here are the different levels:

1.Shallow Processing:

Structural Processing (Appearance): This is when we encode only the physical qualities. For example,
the typeface of a word or how the letters look.

Phonemic Processing (Sound): This involves encoding its sound.

2.Deep Processing:

Semantic Processing (Meaning): This happens when we encode the meaning of a word and relate it
to similar words with similar meanings.

Deep processing involves elaboration rehearsal which involves a more meaningful analysis of
information and leads to better recall. Shallow processing only involves maintenance rehearsal
(repetition to help us hold something in the short-term memory) and leads to fairly short-term
retention of information. This theory focuses on the processes involved in memory, rather than the
stores/structures involved.

The Levels of Processing model was proposed by Fergus I. M. Craik and Robert S. Lockhart in 1972.
They introduced this model as an alternative to the dominant theory on memory at the time, the
multi-store model of memory. The multi-store model divided memory into sensory, working, and
long-term stages.

Craik and Lockhart’s model focuses on the depth of processing involved in memory, predicting that
the deeper information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last. They believed that memory
is just what happens as a result of processing information. This theory concentrates on the processes
involved in memory, rather than the stores or structures involved. It suggests that there is no clear
distinction between short-term and long-term memory.

In a study from 1975 (Craik and Tulving) participants were given a list of 60 words. Each word was
presented along with three questions. The participant had to answer one of them. Those three
questions were in one of three categories. One category of questions was about how the word was
presented visually ("Is the word shown in italics?"). The second category of questions was about the
phonemic qualities of the word ("Does the word begin with the sound 'bee'?"). The third category of
questions was presented so that the reader was forced to think about the word within a certain
context. The result of this study showed that the words which contained deep processing (the latter)
were remembered better.
The first sample was a 20 years male. The second sample is a 25- year old female. She is an employed
person.

The primary goal for conducting this experiment was to see the levels of processing with the method
of recall. These also wanted to observe that how much the subject can recall. The subject was
explained about the experiment and was made seated comfortably. Then the subject was shown
with a slideshow of PPT in laptop. As many as trials, he/she was allowed to take till all the words are
recalled and wrote on the paper.

By this experiment we were about to see the learning process of the subject. There are 30 words and
these words were utilized to construct a list of questions to include 10 from each category of
encoding: Semantic, Phonemic and Structural, in a randomized manner. The hypothesis of the
experiment was Recall of words in semantic category will be better than the recall of words in the
phonemic category. Recall of words in semantic category will be better than the recall of words in the
structural category. Recall of words in phonemic category will be better than the recall of words in
the structural category. This hypothesis was rejected because the subject A semantic was 3 and
subject B was 8 whereas phonemic of subject A was 5 and subject B was 6. The hypothesis was
rejected because semantic of subject A was 3 and subject B was 8 whereas structural of subject A
was 4 and subject B was 5. The hypothesis was accepted because phonemic of subject A was 5 and
subject B was 6 whereas structural of subject A was 4 and subject B was 5. Thus, the first and second
hypothesis was rejected and third was accepted.

METHOD

Objective:

• To study the levels of processing with the method of recall.

Hypothesis

• Recall of words in semantic category will be better than the

recall of words in the phonemic category.

• Recall of words in semantic category will be better than the recall of

words in the structural category.

• Recall of words in phonemic category will be better than the recall of

words in the structural category.

Experimental Design: Within-group Design (participant will be exposed to both the conditions). In
order to study the effect of level of processing of words on the number of correct recall a single
subject design was employed. A PowerPoint presentation was made, with a list of 30 randomized
words. These words were utilized to construct a list of questions to include 10 from each category of
encoding: Semantic, Phonemic and Structural, in a randomized manner.

Materials required:
• Laptop

• PPT for a list of randomised words constructed for the experiments

• A questionnaire sheet

• Introspection sheet

• Paper and pencil

• List of 10 neutral words under each category,

• Category 1: words under this category will be followed by the question like is the word in capital
(structural).

• Category 2: words under this category will be followed by the questions like does the word rhyme
with (phonemic).

• Category 3: words under this category will be followed by questions like does the word belong to
the category of bird for instance (semantic).

VARIABLES

Independent variable: Words under the three categories

Dependent variable: Number of words correctly recalled under each

Category.

Controlled variables

• The presentation time for each of the word on the list should be kept

constant.

• Subjects should be given only one minute for free recall.

• The subject should be completely unaware that his memory for these words

is going to be tested.

• An effort must be made on the part of the experimenter to keep the words

on the list as neutral as possible failing which words that are highly pleasant

and words that are highly unpleasant or distinctive may be immediately

recalled regardless of them belonging to any of three categories.

• Environmental factors like noise, temperature should be controlled.

• The laptop screen should be kept at the same brightness throughout the

experiment.

• The words should be presented only for one time it should not be repeated.

• The questions should be presented neutrally.

SAMPLE:

The first sample was a 20 year-old male. The second sample is a 25-year-old female. She is an
employed person.

PROCEDURE

Rapport formation:

The participant was made to sit comfortably. The participant was engaged in an informal
conversation to make them feel relaxed. Once it was ensured that they are comfortable, the
experiment was introduced. The instructions for the experiment were given to the participant. The
participant was assured that their results would be kept confidential and not shared with anyone. If
the participant had any query, it was addressed, and the procedure was started.

Instructions

 “Focus your attention on the laptop screen. I will give you a ready signal and ask you a
question. You will see some material for a brief period, on the screen. As soon as you see the
material, you have to answer in terms of yes or no, in relation to the questions asked.”..
 I will now provide you with a sheet of paper and you have to write down as many words you
remember, that were presented to you.”….

Actual procedure:

The experiment conduction with the first subject was conducted in a classroom setting, whereas the
experiment conduction with second subject was conducted in a home setting. The subject was
greeted and asked to sit comfortably. The experimenter asked the subject her general details, such as
name, age and education. Before the actual starting of the experiment, to make the subject familiar
with the system, two demonstration trials were given to the subject.

Then the experiment was been started. the subject was shown some material on the screen of the
laptop and on the other side there were some questions which will be asked by the experimenter
and the subject has to only say “yes or no”. The subject was instructed as you will be shown the ppt
on the laptop screen and just followed by some questions related to what you have been just seen.
And after completing this, the subject was given a sheet of paper on which he/she has to write how
many words does they remember from those words which they saw on the laptop screen. The whole
was followed for subject 2 also. The responses were collected from the subjects.

After finishing with the experiment the subject was asked to write the introspective report and was
thanked for his participation. He/she was debriefed to the actual purpose of the study.

Introspective Report

In the introspective report, subjects were asked to give their feedbacks which has been wrote in a
paper by the subjects and attached in the appendix.

From my observation my both the subjects were excited to try new things in their life and not
worried or anxious while performing the experiment.
RESULTS

Subject 1 (age 12-17 range)

Qualitative Result: The subject was excited to be a part of the psychology experiment. She found it
interesting,

Subject 2 (age 18-25range)

Qualitative result: The second subject seemed confident enough and mentally prepared for the
experiment. He was focused and wanted to recall as many lines as he could.

•Quantitative Results:

Table 01: Table showing the number of words recalled under each category

Category 1 Category 2 Category 3

(Structural) (Phonemic) (Semantic)

Correct Response of 4 5 3
Subject 1

Percentage of 40% 50% 30%

Correct Response of
Subject 1

Correct Response of 5 6 8
Subject 2

Percentage of 50% 60% 80%

Correct Response of
Subject 2

Graph 01: Graph Showing the percentage of number of words recalled under each category.
DISCUSSION

The primary goal for conducting these experiment was to see the levels of processing with the
method of recall. These also wanted to observe that how much the subject can recall. The subject
was explained about the experiment and was made seated comfortably. Then the subject was shown
with a slideshow of PPT in laptop. As many as trials, he/she was allowed to take till all the words are
recalled and wrote on the paper.

By these experiment we were about to see the learning process of the subject. There are 30 words
and these words were utilized to construct a list of questions to include 10 from each category of
encoding: Semantic, Phonemic and Structural, in a randomized manner. The hypothesis of the
experiment was Recall of words in semantic category will be better than the recall of words in the
phonemic category. Recall of words in semantic category will be better than the recall of words in the
structural category. Recall of words in phonemic category will be better than the recall of words in
the structural category. This hypothesis was rejected because the subject A semantic was 3 and
subject B was 8 whereas phonemic of subject A was 5 and subject B was 6. The hypothesis was
rejected because semantic of subject A was 3 and subject B was 8 whereas structural of subject A
was 4 and subject B was 5. The hypothesis was accepted because phonemic of subject A was 5 and
subject B was 6 whereas structural of subject A was 4 and subject B was 5. Thus, the first and second
hypothesis was rejected and third was accepted.

LIMITATIONS

● Environmental conditions like noise, light, temperature could not be controlled.

● The experiment was conducted on the male subject and thus the results could not be generalized
to the female population.

● The experiment was done on a single subject; thus, the results could not be generalized on all.

● Since the experiment was conducted in the experimenter's house and not in a laboratory setting,
there may be some factors which could have affected the subject’s performance.

● The experiment was conducted on two student and thus the results could not be applied to all
the age groups and across all populations.

CONCLUSION:

By this experiment we can conclude that it takes little more trials to recall all the 30 words because
the words were divided in forms of structural, semantic and phonemic. Thus, the first and second
hypothesis were rejected and the third one was accepted and proved.

Reference

 Lockhart, R. S., & Craik, F. I. (1990). Levels of processing: A retrospective commentary on a

framework for memory research. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue Canadienne de
Psychologie, 44(1), 87-112.
 Roediger, H. L., III, & Blaxton, T. A. (1987). Retrieval modes produce dissociations in memory
for surface information. Memory & Cognition, 15(6), 379-389.
 Craik, F. I. M. (2002). Levels of processing: Past, present... and future?. Memory, 10(5-6), 305-
318.
 Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing versus transfer appropriate
processing. Acta Psychologica, 36(6), 561-567.
 Craik, F. I., & Watkins, M. J. (1973). The role of rehearsal in short-term memory. Journal of
Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12(6), 599-607.
 Craik, F. I. M., & McDowd, J. M. (1987). Age differences in recall and recognition. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13(3), 474-479.