Understanding Color

The Basics of Color Perception

When visible light hits an object, some of it is absorbed and some of it is reflected. The
reflected light enters our eyes, where it is detected by photosensitive cells called rods and
cones. These cells then send signals to our brain, which interprets these signals as color. This
process is fundamental to how we experience the world around us.
Light and Electromagnetic Spectrum
The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Visible Light: All light exists on the electromagnetic spectrum,
which ranges from the longest to the shortest wavelengths. This spectrum includes radio waves,
microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet light, x-rays, and gamma rays. The segment of the spectrum
that is visible to the human eye measures from approximately 400 to 700 nanometers in wavelength.
Within this narrow band, different wavelengths correspond to different colors, creating the rich
variety of hues that humans can perceive. For example, light at around 700 nanometers appears red,
while light at around 400 nanometers appears violet. This segment is known as the visible light
spectrum and is central to the study of color psychology.

Photosensitive Cells: Rods and Cones

Color perception begins with the eyes, specifically the retina, which contains photoreceptor cells
called rods and cones.

Rods
Rods are responsible for detecting light and dark, providing black-and-white vision.
Approximately 120 million rod cells are present in the human retina. These cells are highly
sensitive to light, which allows us to see in low-light conditions, a type of vision known as
scotopic vision. Unlike cones, rods do not detect color. They are more numerous around the
periphery of the retina, which means they play a crucial role in our peripheral vision. For
example, in a dark room, rods help us distinguish between light and dark areas, enabling
night vision. This high sensitivity to light makes them essential for seeing in dim
environments, such as during nighttime or in poorly lit rooms.
Cones
Cones, on the other hand, are responsible for color vision and work best in bright light, a type
of vision known as photopic vision. There are about 6-7 million cone cells in the human
retina. Cones are less sensitive to light compared to rods but are crucial for detecting color
and fine details. There are three types of cones, each sensitive to different wavelengths of
light:

● Short-wavelength cones (S-cones): Sensitive to blue light, with peak sensitivity around 420
nm. These cones help us perceive blue hues.
● Middle-wavelength cones (M-cones): Sensitive to green light, with peak sensitivity around
534 nm. These cones are essential for perceiving green hues.
● Long-wavelength cones (L-cones): Sensitive to red light, with peak sensitivity around 564
nm. These cones allow us to see red hues.
Together, these cones enable us to perceive a full spectrum of colors in bright light. The brain
combines the input from the three types of cones to create the perception of various colors.
This process is known as trichromatic vision. For instance, when both red and green cones
are stimulated, we perceive yellow. This intricate system allows humans to distinguish
millions of different colors.
The distribution of cones is highest in the fovea, a small central pit in the retina, which is
responsible for our sharp central vision. This area is crucial for activities where visual detail
is important, such as reading and recognizing faces.
The Brain's Role in Color Perception

colours are perceived through the cells in the retinal wall of the eye (Morton, 1995). Humans have
three types of cone cells in their eyes: red, blue, and green.

Once rods and cones detect light and send signals to the brain, these signals are processed by various
parts of the brain. Approximately 2-3 percent of women and some animals possess at least four
types of cones, allowing for increased colour differentiation. These cones can decipher millions of
colours. (Morton, 1995). These receptor cells absorb hues and send messages to the brain, where
colours are deciphered. Brain impulses are also sent to the major endocrine-regulating glands,
causing emotional and psychological responses (Nielson & Taylor, 2007).

Here's a table summarizing the roles of rods and cones:

Cell Type Function Quantity Sensitivity

Rods Light and dark detection 120 million High (low-light vision)
Cones Color detection 6-7 million Low (bright-light vision)

Color does not exist outside our brain; it is an interpretation of electromagnetic energy.
Different animals perceive color differently. For instance:

● Dogs: Have two types of cone cells, so they see fewer color distinctions, similar to
red-green color blindness in humans.
● Birds: Have four types of cone cells, allowing them to see a broader spectrum,
including ultraviolet light.
● Mantis Shrimp: May have up to 16 types of cone cells, potentially experiencing a
vivid and varied world of color.

Colour has three basic attributes: hue, value, and saturation (Morton, 1995). Hue is another word for
colour such as blue, red, or yellow. Value is the relative lightness or darkness of a colour. A hue may
be lightened by adding white or darkened by adding black. Intensity (also saturation or Chroma) is
the purity of a hue. A decrease in purity causes the hue to be muted or dull (Morton, 1995). Colour is
also classified according to temperature. Half of the colour wheel is classified as warm and the other
half as cool. Colours associated with red and yellow are considered warm. Warm colours advance in a
space. Cool colours are associated with blue and tend to recede. Visual temperature may also be
affected by intensity (Nielson & Taylor, 2007). Overall, preschool and elementary age children prefer
warm colours, and secondary students prefer cool colours (Engelbrecht, 2003). Colour perception
and temperature are also influenced by lighting. Placing a blue painting under a bluish light (such as a
cool fluorescent) will heighten the blueness of the painting. However, a red painting under a blue
light will become dull and grayish because no red colour waves are being made by the light.
Color Psychology

Introduction

Objective: To provide an overview of color psychology and its significance in influencing

human mood, behavior, and perceptions.

Color psychology studies how different colors affect human mood and behavior. It explores
how colors influence emotional responses and how these responses vary by age, cultural
background, and other factors. Researchers in this field focus on:

● Meanings of colors
● Impact on physiological responses
● Emotional reactions to color
● Factors influencing color preferences
● Cultural differences in color meanings and associations
● Impact on mental health
● Influence on behaviors
● Use of colors to promote well-being
● Design of optimal environments for safety and comfort

Although much evidence in this area is anecdotal, researchers and experts have made
significant observations about the psychological effects of color on moods, feelings, and
behaviors.

Theoretical Work and History of Color Psychology

The scholarly exploration of color psychology has evolved significantly, incorporating

diverse theoretical frameworks that highlight the complex interplay between color perception
and human behavior. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's seminal work "Theory of Colors"
(1810/1967) laid foundational ideas linking color perception to emotional states, categorizing
colors into those that induce positive versus negative feelings. This early conceptualization
spurred further research into how colors influence mood, cognition, and behavior.

In the twentieth century, Kurt Goldstein expanded on Goethe's theories by investigating how
physiological reactions to color—such as increased heart rate and arousal with red and
yellow, versus calmness with green and blue—manifest in emotional responses and cognitive
focus. This distinction between stimulating and relaxing colors has been pivotal in
applications ranging from therapeutic environments to marketing strategies, where color
choices are strategically employed to elicit desired psychological effects.

Carl Jung contributed profoundly to color psychology through his exploration of archetypes
and the collective unconscious. Jung posited that colors carry deep symbolic meanings and
can access unconscious thoughts and emotions. His use of mandalas in therapy, where
patients express inner conflicts through color choices, exemplifies how colors can facilitate
psychological healing and self-awareness.
Recent theoretical frameworks have expanded the scope of color psychology. Hill and Barton
(2005) highlighted parallels between human and non-human animal behavior, suggesting that
red—associated with dominance in both physiological signals and artificial stimuli—can
confer competitive advantages in contexts like sports. Similarly, Changizi et al. (2006) and
Stephen et al. (2009) proposed that trichromatic vision in primates, including humans,
evolved to detect subtle changes in skin coloration that convey emotional states and social
signals, influencing interpersonal interactions and judgments.

Elliot and Maier (2012) introduced color-in-context theory, integrating social learning and
biological predispositions to explain how color associations extend beyond natural processes.
This theory emphasizes the influence of cultural and environmental contexts on color
perceptions and responses, illustrating how colors like red can evoke different interpretations
based on situational cues.

Meier and Robinson (2005) advanced conceptual metaphor theory of color, positing that
color associations are metaphorically linked to abstract concepts like emotions and morality.
For instance, the metaphor "seeing red" for anger underscores how physiological responses to
color shape cognitive and emotional assessments, impacting social judgments and behaviors.

Moreover, recent research on the wavelength-dependent effects of light, particularly blue

light, has elucidated its role in activating brain structures involved in arousal and attentional
processing. Cajochen et al. (2005) and Lockley et al. (2006) have demonstrated that exposure
to blue light enhances alertness and cognitive performance, influencing tasks requiring
sustained attention.

These diverse theoretical perspectives underscore the multidimensional nature of color

psychology, revealing how colors not only evoke aesthetic and emotional responses but also
play crucial roles in social interactions, cognitive processing, and physiological arousal. As
research continues to uncover new insights, the application of color psychology in various
fields—from healthcare to design—promises to enhance well-being, performance, and human
interaction in innovative

The Psychological Effects of Color

Responses to colour encompass both scientific (physiological) and emotional (psychological)

aspects. Studies have shown that colours can affect physiological parameters such as blood
pressure, eye strain, and brain development. Colors can evoke specific psychological
responses and influence emotions and behaviors. For example, exposure to red can increase
heart rate, blood pressure, and sense of smell, while blue can slow pulse rate, lower body
temperature, and reduce appetite (Engelbrecht, 2003). warm colors like red, orange, and
yellow are often associated with warmth, energy, and excitement but can also provoke
feelings of aggression or anxiety. Cool colors such as blue, green, and purple tend to be
calming and are associated with tranquillity, but can sometimes induce feelings of sadness.
Psychological responses to colour include changes in mood and attention. When colour is
transmitted through the eyes, the brain releases hormones that affect moods, mental clarity,
and energy levels (Engelbrecht, 2003). Pink, for example, has been found to suppress
aggressive behaviour in prisoners (Walker, 1991).

Cultural differences significantly impact color perception and categorization. People who
speak different languages often refer to different wavelengths when describing similar colors.
For example, in English, "red" typically refers to light with wavelengths from 650 to 700
nanometers. However, another culture might use the term "red" for a slightly different range,
such as 625 to 700 nanometers. This cultural variation affects how colors are perceived,
remembered, and used in communication. Such differences underscore the importance of
cultural sensitivity in design and communication.

Colors can develop specific emotional and cognitive associations through experiences and
reinforcement. For instance, if a society consistently depicts villains in green uniforms and
heroes in red uniforms, people may develop a negative association with the color green and a
positive association with red. This concept, known as reinforcement learning, highlights how
colors linked with rewards or punishments can evoke positive or negative emotions. Colors
associated with negative experiences can trigger threat responses, while those associated with
positive experiences can elicit feelings of opportunity and safety.

Interestingly, colour's impact extends beyond visual aspects, as colour wavelengths are also
absorbed by the skin (Torice & Logrippo, 1989). Some colour responses are temporary, while
others may last longer, with many reactions being immediate (Morton, 1995). Studies on the
impact of colour in classrooms have yielded inconsistent results regarding optimal colour
choices, but functional guidelines emphasize the importance of colour in learning
environments.
Learning Environment and Colour
Children are particularly sensitive to and fond of colours, making colour a powerful tool in
stimulating their visual learning environment. Research has shown that appropriate use of
colours can positively affect psychological and behavioural aspects related to childhood
development (Mahnke, 1996). The design of the visual learning environment can
significantly impact attention, cognition, and learning. Colour plays a predominant role in a
child's visual environment, and sterile, neutral, and non-stimulating colours like white are no
longer considered ideal for school environments. Instead, design elements should stimulate
children, provoking feelings of liveliness, excitement, and happiness, making them better
thinkers and learners (Mahnke, 1996).
Inappropriate environmental conditions involving poorly planned light and colour can lead to
nervousness, irritability, lack of interest, and behavioural problems (Mahnke, 1996). Studies
have demonstrated the positive effects of incorporating colour into learning environments.
For instance, appropriate colours can enhance visibility of learning material, protect eyesight,
improve attention span, facilitate active learning, and promote physical and psychological
health. Excessive colour use can overstimulate individuals, leading to a stressful learning
environment (Verghese, 2001).
Memory and Learning
Memory involves the processes of encoding, retaining, and retrieving information (Dzulkifli
& Mustafar, 2013). Colour is widely used in instructional materials to enhance learning.
Proper use of colour in educational settings can help decrease cognitive overload and
improve learning outcomes by creating emotional reactions and capturing learners' attention.
Colour has been found to increase arousal, which in turn can enhance memory. Warm colours
like red and yellow increase arousal more than cool colours like green and blue (Birren, 1950;
Greene et al., 1983; Wilson, 1966).
Research supports the idea that arousing events can enhance memory (Roozendaal, 2002;
Wolters & Goudsmit, 2005; Otani et al., 2007). Therefore, colour can act as a memory aid if
the colours used are emotionally arousing. The structure of memory includes sensory
memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968). Colours
help learners increase attention levels on specific information, aiding in transferring
information to short-term and long-term memory, thus improving memorization (Dzulkifli &
Mustafar, 2013).
Colour and Arousal
Warm colours, such as red and yellow, have been found to increase arousal more than cool
colours like green and blue (Birren, 1950; Greene et al., 1983; Wilson, 1966). Arousing
events can lead to hormonal changes in the brain that enhance memory (Roozendaal, 2002).
Colour can be used to enhance the organization and presentation of information, decrease
search times, and enable the identification and organization of information (Kumi et al.,
2013).
Effective Use of Colour in Education
Colour is a powerful tool with many uses in education. It can be used to capture attention,
enhance clarity, establish codes, label items, and differentiate concepts. Teachers use various
colours to influence learning outcomes, such as using blue or black ink on boards and red ink
to correct assignments. Proper use of colour in instructional materials can improve learning
and memory (Olurinola & Omoniyi, 2015).

Understanding color psychology is essential for creating effective and emotionally resonant
designs. For example, in a culture where purple is associated with high status and grey with
low status, using purple in a logo can imbue it with connotations of luxury and prestige.
Conversely, using grey in negative contexts, such as in attack ads, can create associations of
dullness or negativity. Designers must consider these cultural and emotional associations
when selecting colors to ensure their designs communicate the intended message and evoke
the desired emotional response.

Colors also play a crucial role in cognitive associations and user navigation. In interface
design, colors can help users understand and navigate systems by creating clear associations,
such as using red to indicate stop or danger and green to signify go or safety. These
associations are often based on widely accepted conventions, such as traffic light signals,
which are standardized globally. Leveraging these pre-existing associations can simplify user
interactions and enhance the usability of designs. However, designers must avoid ambiguous
color associations that can lead to confusion and errors, such as using the same color for
multiple, conflicting functions.

Color plays a significant role in emotional design, influencing user behavior by targeting a
broad emotional spectrum. There are two primary scientific approaches to understanding
emotions in the context of color psychology. The "basic emotions" approach suggests that
there are universal emotions, such as happiness, sadness, and anger, each with specific neural
circuits and facial expressions. The "dimensional emotions" approach, on the other hand,
proposes that emotions are constructed through complex neurological processes and can be
characterized by dimensions such as arousal, pleasure, and control. Understanding these
emotional dimensions can help designers create more effective and emotionally engaging
designs.
The scientific exploration of color psychology is relatively new, but interest in the impact of
color dates back to ancient cultures. These cultures used colors to treat various conditions and
influence emotions.

● Warm Colors (Red, Orange, Yellow):

o Red: Associated with excitement, passion, and energy but can also represent
danger or aggression. For example, red is often used in sports cars to evoke a
sense of speed and excitement.
o Orange: Linked to enthusiasm and creativity, often seen as lively and
energetic. It is frequently used in children's toys and educational materials to
stimulate interest.
o Yellow: Typically associated with happiness and optimism but can also evoke
caution or anxiety. Yellow is often used in warning signs and traffic signals.
● Cool Colors (Blue, Green, Purple):
o Blue: Commonly associated with tranquility and reliability, promoting a sense
of calm and stability. It is a popular choice in corporate branding to convey
trust.
o Green: Symbolizes nature, growth, harmony, and freshness. It is widely used
in environmental campaigns and products.
o Purple: Combines the stability of blue and the energy of red, often associated
with luxury, power, and ambition. Luxury brands frequently use purple in their
logos and packaging.

Color preferences can change over time and across cultures. For instance, younger people
might prefer brighter colors, while older individuals may lean toward more subdued tones.
Cultural background also significantly influences color perception and preference.

Color Positive Associations Negative Associations Common Uses

Excitement, passion,
Red Danger, aggression Sports cars, emergency signs
energy
Orange Enthusiasm, creativity Frivolity, caution Toys, educational materials
Yellow Happiness, optimism Anxiety, caution Warning signs, traffic signals
Blue Tranquility, reliability Sadness, coldness Corporate branding, healthcare
Environmental products,
Green Nature, growth, harmony Envy, stagnation
healthcare
Extravagance,
Purple Luxury, power, ambition Luxury branding, fashion
mourning

Applications of Color Psychology

Objective: To illustrate the practical applications of color psychology in various fields, such
as marketing, design, and user experience (UX/UI).

Color psychology has practical applications in various fields, including marketing, design,
and user experience (UX/UI). Here are some examples:
 ● Logos:
o Red: Used by brands like Coca-Cola and Netflix to convey energy and
excitement.
o Blue: Used by companies like Facebook and IBM to evoke trust and
reliability.
o Green: Associated with nature and health, used by brands like Whole Foods
and Starbucks.
o Yellow: Used by brands like McDonald’s to evoke happiness and optimism.
● UI/UX Design:
o Blue: Commonly used in app and web design to create a sense of trust and
security, often seen in financial and healthcare apps.
o Green: Used in environmental and wellness apps to promote relaxation and
balance.
o Red: Employed for warnings and notifications to capture attention and convey
urgency.
● Interior Design:
o Offices: Blue is used to promote calmness and productivity, while red might
be used in creative spaces to stimulate energy.
o Hospitals: Green and blue are often used to create a calming environment,
aiding in patient recovery and reducing stress.
o Homes: Colors are strategically used to enhance comfort and aesthetics, such
as using warm colors in living areas to create a cozy atmosphere and cool
colors in bedrooms to promote relaxation.

Color applications in different contexts:

Field Color Purpose Examples

Logos Red Energy, excitement Coca-Cola, Netflix
Blue Trust, reliability Facebook, IBM
Green Nature, health Whole Foods, Starbucks
Yellow Happiness, optimism McDonald’s
UI/UX Design Blue Trust, security Financial and healthcare apps
Green Relaxation, balance Environmental and wellness apps
Red Attention, urgency Warnings and notifications
Interior Design Blue Calmness, productivity Offices, workspaces
Green Calming, recovery Hospitals, healthcare facilities
Warm Colors Comfort, coziness Living areas in homes
Cool Colors Relaxation Bedrooms in homes