IB Waves Summary

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YOUR NOTES
IB Physics DP 
4. Waves
CONTENTS
4.1 Oscillations
4.1.1 Properties of Oscillations
4.1.2 Simple Harmonic Oscillations
4.1.3 SHM Graphs
4.1.4 Energy in SHM
4.2 Travelling Waves
4.2.1 Properties of Waves
4.2.2 Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
4.2.3 Electromagnetic Waves
4.2.4 Sound Waves
4.3 Wave Characteristics
4.3.1 Wavefronts
4.3.2 Amplitude & Intensity
4.3.3 Superposition
4.3.4 Polarisation
4.3.5 Malus’s Law
4.4 Wave Behaviour
4.4.1 Reflection, Refraction & Transmission
4.4.2 Reflection
4.4.3 Refraction
4.4.4 Determining Refractive Index
4.4.5 Single-Slit Diffraction
4.4.6 Interference & Path Difference
4.4.7 Double-Slit Equation
4.5 Standing Waves
4.5.1 The Nature of Standing Waves
4.5.2 Nodes & Antinodes
4.5.3 Boundary Conditions for Standing Waves
4.5.4 Harmonics
Page 1 of 111
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4.1 Oscillations YOUR NOTES


4.1.1 Properties of Oscillations
Describing Oscillations
An oscillation is defined as follows:
The repetitive variation with time t of the displacement x of an object about the
equilibrium position (x = 0)
A pendulum oscillates between A and B. On a displacement-time graph, the oscillating

motion of the pendulum is represented by a wave, with an amplitude equal to x0
Displacement (x) of a wave is the distance of a point on the wave from its equilibrium
position
It is a vector quantity; it can be positive or negative and it is measured in metres (m)
Period (T) or time period, is the time interval for one complete repetition and it is measured
in seconds (s)
If the oscillations have a constant period, they are said to be isochronous
Diagram showing the time period of a wave
Page 2 of 111
Amplitude (x0) is the maximum value of the displacement on either side of the equilibrium YOUR NOTES
position is known as the amplitude of the oscillation 
Amplitude is measured in metres (m)
Wavelength (λ) is the length of one complete oscillation measured from the same point
on two consecutive waves
Wavelength is measured in metres (m)
Frequency (f) is the number of oscillations per second and it is measured in hertz (Hz)
Hz have the SI units of per second s−1
The frequency and the period of the oscillations are related by the following equation:
Phase & Phase Difference

Phase is a useful way to think about waves
The phase of a wave can be considered in terms of:
Wavelength
Degrees
Radians
One complete oscillation is:
1 wavelength
360°
2π radians
Page 3 of 111
YOUR NOTES

Wavelength λ and amplitude A of a travelling wave

The phase difference between two waves is a measure of how much a point or a wave is in
front or behind another
This can be found from the relative position of the crests or troughs of two different waves
of the same frequency
When the crests of each wave, or the troughs of each wave are aligned, the waves are
in phase
When the crest of one wave aligns with the trough of another, they are in antiphase
The diagram below shows the green wave leads the purple wave by ¼ λ
Two waves ¼ λ out of phase
Page 4 of 111
In contrast, the purple wave is said to lag behind the green wave by ¼ λ YOUR NOTES
Phase difference is measured in fractions of a wavelength, degrees or radians 
The phase difference can be calculated from two different points on the same wave or the
same point on two different waves
The phase difference between two points can be described as:
In phase is 360o or 2π radians
In anti-phase is 180o or π radians
 Worked Example
A child on a swing performs 0.2 oscillations per second.Calculate the period of the
child's oscillations.
Step 1: Write down the frequency of the child's oscillations

f = 0.2 Hz
Step 2: Write down the relationship between the period T and the frequency f
Step 3: Substitute the value of the frequency into the above equation and calculate the
period
1
T=
0.2
T=5 s
 Worked Example
Plane waves on the surface of water at a particular instant are represented by the
diagram below.
The waves have a frequency of 2.5 Hz.Determine:

a) The amplitude
b) The wavelength
c) The phase difference between points A and B
Page 5 of 111
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
When labelling the wavelength and time period on a diagram:
Make sure that your arrows go from the very top of a wave to the very top of the
next one
If your arrow is too short, you will lose marks
The same goes for labelling amplitude, don’t draw an arrow from the bottom to
the top of the wave, this will lose you marks too.
Page 6 of 111
4.1.2 Simple Harmonic Oscillations YOUR NOTES


Simple Harmonic Oscillations
Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is defined as follows:
The motion of an object whose acceleration is directly proportional but opposite in
direction to the object's displacement from a central equilibrium position
An object is said to perform simple harmonic oscillations when all of the following apply:
The oscillations are isochronous
There is a central equilibrium point
The object's displacement, velocity and acceleration change continuously
There is a restoring force always directed towards the equilibrium point
The magnitude of the restoring force is proportional to the displacement
Page 7 of 111
Conditions for SHM YOUR NOTES

The defining conditions of simple harmonic oscillations are that the restoring force and the 
acceleration must always be:
Directed towards the equilibrium position, and hence, is always in the opposite
direction to the displacement
Directly proportional to the displacement
a ∝ −x
Where:
a = acceleration (m s−2)
x = displacement (m)
The Restoring Force

One of the defining conditions of simple harmonic motion is the existence of a restoring
force
Examples of restoring forces are:
The component of the weight of a pendulum's bob that is parallel and opposite to the
displacement of the bob
The force of a spring, whose magnitude is given by Hooke's law
For a pendulum, the restoring force is provided by the component of the bob's weight that
is perpendicular to the tension in the pendulum's string. For a mass-spring system, the
restoring force is provided by the force of the spring.
For a mass-spring system in simple harmonic motion, the relationship between the
restoring force and the displacement of the object can be written as follows:
F = – kx
Where:
Page 8 of 111
F = restoring force (N) YOUR NOTES

k = spring constant (N m–1) 
x = displacement from the equilibrium position (m)
Graph of force against displacement for an object oscillating with SHM

Force and displacement in SHM have a linear relationship where the gradient of the graph
represents the constant
In this case, the spring constant k
An object in SHM will also have a restoring force to return it to its equilibrium position
This restoring force will be directly proportional, but in the opposite direction, to the
displacement of the object from its equilibrium position
Acceleration & Displacement
According to Newton's Second Law, the net force on an object is directly proportional to
the object's acceleration, F ∝ a for a constant mass
F = ma
Where
F = force (N)
m = mass (kg)
a = acceleration (m s−2)
Since F = ma (Newton's second law), and F = −kx (Hooke's law), the equations can be set as
equal to one another:
ma = – kx
Rearranging to show the relationship between acceleration and displacement gives:
k
a=− m x
This equation shows that

Page 9 of 111
There is a linear relationship between the acceleration of the object moving with YOUR NOTES
simple harmonic motion and its displacement from its equilibrium position 
The minus sign shows that when the mass on the spring is displaced to the right
The direction of the acceleration is to the left and vice versa
In other words, a and x are always in opposite directions to each other
This equation shows acceleration is directly proportional but in the opposite direction to
displacement for an object in SHM
a ∝ −x
Therefore, it can be stated that:
a = −kx
Where
a = acceleration
k = is a constant but in this instance not the spring constant
x = displacement
Note that in physics, k is the standard letter used for an undefined constant
Graph of acceleration against displacement for an object oscillating with SHM
 Worked Example
A pendulum's bob oscillates about a central equilibrium position. The amplitude of
the oscillations is 4.0 cm. The maximum value of the bob's acceleration is 2.0 m s–2.
Determine the magnitude of the bob's acceleration when the displacement from
the equilibrium position is equal to 1.0 cm.
You may ignore energy losses.
Page 10 of 111
Step 1: List the known quantities YOUR NOTES

Amplitude of the oscillations, x0 = 4.0 cm = 0.04 m 
Maximum acceleration, a = 2.0 m s–2
Displacement, x = 1.0 cm = 0.01 m
Remember to convert the amplitude of the oscillations and the displacement from
centimetres (cm) into metres (m)
Step 2: Recall the relationship between the maximum acceleration a and the
displacement x
The maximum acceleration a occurs at the position of maximum displacement x = x0
a = – kx0
Step 3: Rearrange the above equation to calculate the constant of proportionality k
Step 4: Substitute the numbers into the above equation
k = – 50 s–2
Step 5: Use this value of k to calculate the acceleration a' when the displacement is x =
0.01 m
a' = – kx
a' = – (– 50) s–2 × 0.01 m
a' = 0.50 m s–2
Page 11 of 111
4.1.3 SHM Graphs YOUR NOTES


SHM Graphs
Displacement & Velocity
The displacement-time graph for an object moving with SHM is a sinusoidal curve if:
The object starts to oscillate from the equilibrium position.
The equilibrium position is x = 0 at t = 0
The displacement-time graph is a cosine curve if
The object starts to oscillate from the position of maximum displacement.
Maximum displacement is x = x0 at t = 0
The maxima and minima on the graph are the values of maximum displacement (x0) of the
oscillating object on either side of the equilibrium position
The velocity-time graph is obtained by taking the gradients of tangents to all points on
the displacement-time graph
The velocity-time graph is a cosine curve if:
The object starts to oscillate from the equilibrium position when x = 0 at t = 0
The displacement-time graph is a sine curve
The velocity-time graph is a sine curve if:
The object starts to oscillate from the position of maximum displacement when x = x0
at t = 0
The displacement-time graph is a cosine curve
The maxima and minima on the graph are the values of maximum velocity (v0) of the
oscillating object as it passes the equilibrium position
The difference in the sign of the velocity accounts for the different directions of the
velocity vector as the object passes through the equilibrium position (i.e. from right to
left or vice versa)
Page 12 of 111
YOUR NOTES

Displacement-time & velocity-time graphs for an object oscillating with SHM. The object
starts oscillating from the equilibrium position (x = 0 and t = 0)
Acceleration
The acceleration-time graph is obtained by taking the gradients of tangents to all points
on the velocity-time graph
The graph is a negative sine curve if:
The object starts to oscillate from the equilibrium position when x = 0 at t = 0
The graph is a negative cosine curve if:
The object starts to oscillate from the position of maximum displacement when x = x0
at t = 0
The maxima and minima on the graph are the values of maximum acceleration (a0) of the
oscillating object at the positions of maximum displacement (x = x0)
Once again, the difference in sign indicates a difference in the direction of the
acceleration vector
Page 13 of 111
YOUR NOTES

An acceleration-time graph for an object oscillating with SHM. The object starts oscillating
from the equilibrium position (x = 0 and t = 0)
Note that all graphs must have the same period
The only two differences between the graphs are:
The shift in time - i.e. there is a phase difference of 90° between successive graphs
The amplitude of the wave form - i.e. the different amplitudes of the three graphs are
the values of maximum displacement x0, maximum velocity v0 and maximum
acceleration a0 of the oscillating object
 Worked Example
Below is the displacement-time graph for an object oscillating with SHM.
(i) Determine the period of the oscillations

(ii) Calculate the frequency of the oscillations
(iii) Mark a point on the graph where the velocity is zero, label this with "v = 0"
(iv) Mark a point on the graph where the velocity is maximum and positive, label this
with "v0"
(v) Mark a point on the graph where the acceleration is maximum and positive, label
this with "a0"
(vi) Determine the value of the maximum velocity v0
(i) Identify the period T of the oscillating object on the graph

Page 14 of 111
Mark the time between any two identical points on the graph (e.g. two peaks) YOUR NOTES

T = 0.20 s
(ii) Calculate the frequency f
Step 1: Write down the relationship between frequency and period
Step 2: Substitute the value of the period you have determined in part (i)
f = 5 Hz
(iii) Identify any position of zero velocity on the displacement-time graph and label this
"v = 0"
The velocity of an object oscillating with SHM is zero at the positions of maximum
displacement x = x0
Hence, the velocity is zero at any minima or maxima on the displacement-time graph
(e.g. at t = 0.10 s)
Page 15 of 111
(iv) Identify any position of maximum positive velocity on the displacement-time graph YOUR NOTES
and label this "v0" 
An object oscillating with SHM has its maximum velocity at the equilibrium position (x =
0)
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement
The velocity is the gradient of the tangent to a point of zero displacement
The gradient must be positive (e.g. at t = 0.15 s)
(v) Identify any position of maximum positive acceleration on the displacement-time

graph and label this "a0"
An object oscillating with SHM has its maximum acceleration at the positions of
maximum displacement (x = x0)
Acceleration is proportional to negative displacement
The acceleration is maximum and positive when the displacement is maximum and
negative
The acceleration is maximum and positive at any minima on the displacement-time
graph (e.g. at t = 0.30 s)
(vi)
Step 1: Draw the tangent to the point of maximum positive velocity identified in Step 4
(i.e. at t = 0.15 s)
Page 16 of 111
YOUR NOTES

Step 2: Calculate the gradient of the tangent to get the value of the maximum velocity
v0 in centimetres per second (cm s–1)
Gradient = 67 cm s–1
v0 = 67 cm s–1
Page 17 of 111
4.1.4 Energy in SHM YOUR NOTES


Energy in SHM
The total energy of an object oscillating with SHM is the sum of its potential energy
(gravitational or elastic) and kinetic energy
E = EP + EK
Where:
E = total energy in joules (J)
EP = potential energy in joules (J)
EK = kinetic energy in joules (J)
Graph of total energy E, potential energy EP and kinetic energy EK of an object oscillating
with SHM
If energy losses due to friction or drag are zero or ignored, the total energy E of the system
is conserved
The potential energy store of the object is at a maximum at the point of maximum
displacement from the equilibrium position
The point of maximum displacement is amplitude x0
Kinetic energy is zero at amplitude
Potential energy is equal to the total energy of the system at this point
Energy is transferred from the object's potential energy store to its kinetic energy store as
the object moves from amplitude to the equilibrium position
The object has both potential and kinetic energy
The sum of the potential and kinetic energy is equal to the total energy of the system
The total energy of the system is conserved
The kinetic energy store of the object is at a maximum at the equilibrium position
This is because velocity is at a maximum as the object passes through the equilibrium
position
Kinetic energy is equal to the total energy of the system at this point
Page 18 of 111
Energy is transferred from the object's kinetic energy store to its potential energy store as YOUR NOTES
the object moves from the equilibrium position to amplitude 
The object has both potential and kinetic energy
The sum of the potential and kinetic energy is equal to the total energy of the system
The total energy of the system is conserved
 Worked Example
The following graph shows the variation with displacement of the kinetic energy of
an object of mass 0.50 kg oscillating with SHM. Energy losses can be neglected.
(i) Determine the total energy of the object

(ii) Determine the amplitude of the object's oscillations
(iii) Calculate the maximum velocity of the object in metres per second (m s–1)
(iv) Determine the potential energy of the object when the displacement is x = 1.0
cm
(i) Determine the total energy of the object by reading the maximum value of the kinetic
energy from the graph
From the graph, read the maximum value of the object's kinetic energy (EK)MAX = 60 mJ
Recall that, at the equilibrium position (x = 0), the total energy E is exactly equal to the
maximum value of the kinetic energy (EK)MAX
Since energy losses can be neglected, the total energy is constant
E = 60 mJ
(ii) Read the amplitude of the object's oscillations from the graph
The maximum displacement positions are the locations on either side of the
equilibrium position where the kinetic energy is zero EK = 0
x0 = 2.0 cm
(iii)
Step 1: Recall the equation for the kinetic energy EK of an object in terms of its mass m
and velocity v
Page 19 of 111
Step 2: Rearrange the above equation to calculate the velocity v YOUR NOTES

Step 3: Substitute the numbers into the equation to calculate the maximum velocity of
the object
Mass of the object, m = 0.50 kg
You must convert the maximum kinetic energy must from millijoules (mJ) into joules (J)
EK = 60 mJ = 0.06 J
v = 0.49 m s–1
(iv)
Step 1: Read the value of the kinetic energy EK of the object when the displacement is x =
1.0 cm
EK = 50 mJ
Step 2: Write down the relationship between total energy E, kinetic energy EK and
potential energy EP
E = EP + EK
Step 3: Rearrange the above equation to calculate the potential energy EP
EP = E – EK
Step 4: Substitute the numbers in the above equation
EK = 50 mJ
E = 60 mJ
EP = 60 mJ – 50 mJ
EP = 10 mJ
Page 20 of 111
4.2 Travelling Waves YOUR NOTES


4.2.1 Properties of Waves
Properties of Waves
Travelling waves are defined as follows:
Oscillations that transfer energy from one place to another without transferring
matter
Energy is transferred by the waves, but matter is not
The direction of the motion of the wave is the direction of the energy transfer
Travelling waves can be of two types:
Mechanical Waves, which propagate through a medium and cannot take place in a
vacuum
Electromagnetic Waves, which can travel through a vacuum
Waves are generated by oscillating sources
These oscillations travel away from the source
Oscillations can propagate through a medium (e.g. air, water) or in vacuum (i.e. no
particles), depending on the type of wave
The key properties of travelling waves are as follows:
Displacement (x) of a wave is the distance of a point on the wave from its equilibrium
position
It is a vector quantity; it can be positive or negative
Measured in metres (m)
Wavelength (λ) is the length of one complete oscillation measured from same point on two
consecutive waves
For example, two crests, or two troughs
Amplitude (x0) is the maximum displacement of an oscillating wave from its equilibrium
position (x = 0)
Amplitude can be positive or negative depending on the direction of the displacement
Period (T) is the time taken for a fixed point on the wave to undergo one complete
oscillation
Measured in seconds (s)
Frequency (f) is the number of full oscillations per second
Measured in Hertz (Hz)
Wave speed (c) is the distance travelled by the wave per unit time
Measured in metres per second (m s-1)
Page 21 of 111
YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a wave

The frequency, f, and the period, T, of a travelling wave are related to each other by the
equation:
Period T and frequency f of a travelling wave
Page 22 of 111
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

The graph below shows a travelling wave.
Determine:
(i) The amplitude A of the wave in metres (m)
(ii) The frequency f of the wave in hertz (Hz)
(i) Identify the amplitude A of the wave on the graph

The amplitude is defined as the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position
(x = 0)
The amplitude must be converted from centimetres (cm) into metres (m)
A = 0.1 m
(ii) Calculate the frequency of the wave
Step 1: Identify the period T of the wave on the graph
The period is defined as the time taken for one complete oscillation to occur
Page 23 of 111
YOUR NOTES

The period must be converted from milliseconds (ms) into seconds (s)
T = 1 × 10–3 s
Step 2: Write down the relationship between the frequency f and the period T
Step 3: Substitute the value of the period determined in Step 1
f = 1000 Hz
Page 24 of 111
The Wave Equation YOUR NOTES

The wave equation describes the relationship between the wave speed, the wavelength 
and the frequency of the wave
c = fλ
Where
c = wave speed in metres per second (m s−1)
f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
λ = wavelength in metres (m)
Deriving the Wave Equation

The wave equation can be derived using the equation for speed
d
v= t
Where
v = velocity or speed in metres per second (m s−1)
d = distance travelled in metres (m)
t = time taken in seconds (s)
When the source of a wave undergoes one complete oscillation, the travelling wave
propagates forward by a distance equal to one wavelength λ
The travelling wave covers this distance in the time it takes the source to complete one
oscillation, the time period T
distance for one oscillation λ
wave speed = =
time taken for one oscillation T
Therefore, the wave speed c is given by
λ
c=
T
The period T of a wave is given by:
1
T= f
Therefore, combining these equations gives the wave equation

c = fλ
 Worked Example
A travelling wave has a period of 1.0 μs and travels at a velocity of 100 cm s–1.
Calculate the wavelength of the wave. Give your answer in metres (m).
Page 25 of 111
Step 1: Write down the known quantities YOUR NOTES

Period, T = 1.0 μs = 1.0 × 10–6 s 
Velocity, c = 100 cm s–1 = 1.0 m s–1
Note the conversions:
The period must be converted from microseconds (μs) into seconds (s)
The velocity must be converted from cm s–1 into m s–1
Step 2: Write down the relationship between the frequency f and the period T
Step 3: Substitute the value of the period into the above equation to calculate the
frequency
f = 1.0 × 106 Hz
Step 4: Write down the wave equation
c = fλ
Step 5: Rearrange the wave equation to calculate the wavelength λ
λ = 1 × 10–6 m
Page 26 of 111
4.2.2 Transverse & Longitudinal Waves YOUR NOTES


Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
In mechanical waves, particles oscillate about fixed points
There are two types of wave: transverse and longitudinal
The type of wave can be determined by the direction of the oscillations in relation to the
direction the wave is travelling
Transverse Waves
Transverse waves are defined as follows:
A wave in which the particles oscillate perpendicular to the direction of motion and
energy transfer
A transverse wave travelling from left to right

Transverse waves show areas of peaks and troughs
Examples of transverse waves include:
Electromagnetic waves e.g. radio, visible light, UV
Vibrations on a guitar string
Transverse waves do not need particles to propagate, and so they can travel through a
vacuum
Longitudinal Waves
Longitudinal waves are defined as follows:
A wave in which the particles oscillate parallel to the direction of motion and energy
transfer
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YOUR NOTES

A longitudinal wave travelling from left to right

As a longitudinal wave propagates, areas of low and high pressure can be observed:
A rarefaction is an area of low pressure, with the particles being further apart from
each other
A compression is an area of high pressure, with the particles being closer to each other
Sound waves are an example of longitudinal waves
Longitudinal waves need particles to propagate, and so they cannot travel through a
vacuum
 Worked Example
The diagram below represents a transverse wave at time t = 0. The direction of
motion of the wave is shown. Point P is a point on the wave. State in which direction
point P will move immediately after the time shown.
Step 1: Determine the possible directions that point P can travel in

In transverse waves, the particles oscillate perpendicular to the direction of motion
This transverse wave travels from right to left
Oscillations will either be up or down
Hence point P will either move up or down
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Step 2: Determine the next direction of point P YOUR NOTES

Since the wave is moving from right to left, a crest (i.e. a point of maximum 
displacement above the equilibrium position) will be approaching point P immediately
after the time shown
Point P will be moving upwards
Page 29 of 111
Transverse & Longitudinal Graphs YOUR NOTES

Two different types of graphs can be used to represent a travelling wave: 
Displacement-distance graphs, with displacement x (m) on the y-axis and distance d
(m) on the x-axis
Displacement-time graphs, with displacement x (m) on the y-axis and time t (s) on the
x-axis
Both transverse and longitudinal waves can be shown on these graphs
Displacement-Distance Graphs
A displacement-distance graph is also known as a wave profile
It represents the displacement of many particles on the wave at a fixed instant in time (e.g.
t = 0)
A displacement-distance graph directly provides:
The amplitude A of the wave
The wavelength λ of the wave
An example of displacement-distance graph for a travelling wave

In the displacement-distance graph of a transverse wave moving in the horizontal
direction:
Particles with positive displacement are those moving up
Particles with negative displacement are those moving down
In the displacement-distance graph of a longitudinal wave moving in the horizontal
direction:
Particles with positive displacement are those moving to the right
Particles with negative displacement are those moving to the left
The wavelength in a longitudinal wave can be figured out from the distance between two
rarefactions (or two compressions)
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YOUR NOTES

A wavelength on a longitudinal wave is the distance between two compressions or two

rarefactions
Displacement-Time Graphs
A displacement-time graphs represents the variation of the displacement of one particle
with time
A displacement-time graph directly provides:
The amplitude A of the wave
The period T of the wave
An example of displacement-time graph for a travelling wave
Page 31 of 111
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Below is the displacement-time graph for a light wave travelling at 3 × 108 m s–1.
Determine:
(i) The period of the wave in seconds (s)
(ii) The wavelength of the wave in metres (m)
(i) Determine the period T directly from the displacement-time graph

Recall that period is defined as the time taken for one complete oscillation
Note that you must convert the period from milliseconds (ms) into seconds (s)
T = 2 × 10–3 s
(ii) Determine the wavelength of the wave in metres
Step 1: Write down the relationship between frequency f and period T
Step 2: Substitute the value of the period determined in Step 1 into the above equation
f = 500 Hz
c = fλ
Page 32 of 111
Step 4: Rearrange the above equation to calculate the wavelength λ YOUR NOTES

Step 5: Substitute the velocity c = 3 × 108 m s–1 and the frequency f calculated in Step 2
λ = 6 × 105 m
 Exam Tip
When approaching a question, pay attention to the label on the x-axis of the graph.
The distance between two adjacent crests (or troughs) on a displacement-
distance graph is equal to the wavelength λ of the wave
The distance between two adjacent crests (or troughs) on a displacement-time
graph is equal to the period T of the wave
Remember to look at the units of measure on both axes of the graph, and convert
units if needed.
The speed of any electromagnetic wave is equal to the speed of light, c = 3 × 108 m s–
1
Page 33 of 111
4.2.3 Electromagnetic Waves YOUR NOTES


Electromagnetic Waves
An electromagnetic wave is generated by the combined oscillation of an electric and a
magnetic field
These fields oscillate perpendicular to each other and to the direction of motion of the
wave (i.e. the direction in which energy is transferred)
An electromagnetic wave is generated by the combined oscillation of an electric and a

magnetic field
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves and, as such, they can travel through
vacuum
Regardless of their frequency, all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light c = 3 ×
108 m s–1 in vacuum
Electromagnetic waves form a continuous spectrum based on their frequency
Page 34 of 111
YOUR NOTES

The electromagnetic spectrum

Humans can only sense electromagnetic waves with wavelengths in the range 700 nm -
400 nm, which are the limits of the so-called visible spectrum
Electromagnetic waves with longer and shorter wavelengths are invisible to the human eye
Knowing the wavelengths of electromagnetic waves, their frequencies can be calculated

using the wave equation, and remembering that their speed in vacuum is always equal to
the speed of light
Page 35 of 111
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

The wavelength of blue light falls within the range 450 nm - 490 nm. Determine the
range of frequencies of blue light.
Step 1: Write down the known quantities

Note that you must convert the values of the wavelength from nanometres (nm) into
metres (m)
λlower = 450 nm = 4.5 × 10–7 m
λhigher = 490 nm = 4.9 × 10–7 m
Step 2: Remember that all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in vacuum
From the data booklet, c = 3 × 108 m s–1
c = fλ
Step 4: Rearrange the above equation to calculate the frequency f
Step 5: Substitute the lower and higher values of the wavelength to calculate the
limiting values of the frequency of blue light
The lower frequency flower corresponds to the higher value of the wavelength λhigher
= 6.1 × 1014 Hz
The higher frequency fhigher corresponds to the lower value of the wavelength λlower
= 6.7 × 1014 Hz
Step 6: Write down the range of frequencies of blue light
f = 6.1 × 1014 Hz - 6.7 × 1014 Hz
 Exam Tip
You must memorise all electromagnetic waves in the correct order, as well as the
range of wavelengths for each type of wave. You must also remember that all
electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in vacuum.
Page 36 of 111
4.2.4 Sound Waves YOUR NOTES


Sound Waves
Sound waves are longitudinal waves and, as such, require a medium in which to propagate
Sound waves are generated by oscillating sources, which produce a change in density of
the surrounding medium
The sound wave then travels with a series of compressions and rarefactions
A sound wave travelling through air

Sound waves form a continuous spectrum based on their frequency
The spectrum of sound waves

Humans can only hear sounds with frequencies in the range 20 Hz - 20 kHz, known as the
audible range
Sounds with frequencies below and above this range cannot be detected by the human ear
Pitch and Volume
The frequency of a sound wave is related to its pitch
Sounds with a high pitch have a high frequency (or short wavelength)
Page 37 of 111
Sounds with a low pitch have a low frequency (or long wavelength) YOUR NOTES
The amplitude of a sound wave is related to its volume 
Sounds with a large amplitude have a high volume
Sounds with a small amplitude have a low volume
Pitch and amplitude of sound

Speed of Sound
Sound waves travel at a speed of about 340 m s–1 in air at room temperature
The higher the air temperature, the greater the speed of sound
The is because the average kinetic energy of the particles is higher
Sound travels the fastest through solids, since solid particles are closely packed and can
pass the oscillations onto their neighbours much faster
Sound travels the slowest in gases, since gas particles are spread out and less efficient in
transferring the oscillations to their neighbours
Echo
Sound waves reflect off hard surfaces
This phenomenon is known as echo
Echo can be used to obtain an experimental value of the speed of sound. This is calculated
using the equation
Where:
v = speed of sound in metres per second (m s–1)
d = distance between the sound source and the hard surface (m)
t = time taken to travel from the source to the hard surface and back (s)
Measuring the Speed of Sound Experimentally - Fast Timer
The speed of sound can be measured using a fast timer (one which can measure to the
nearest millisecond or even microsecond)
Two microphones separated 1 m apart are connected to a fast timer
The first microphone triggers the timer to start
The second microphone triggers the timer to stop
Page 38 of 111
YOUR NOTES

A hammer is made to strike a plate

The sound waves from the plate travel to the two microphones triggering the first and then
the second
The time delay will be around 3.2 ms
The speed of the waves can be calculated by rearranging the equation: distance = speed ×
time
Measuring the Speed of Sound Experimentally - Double Beam

Oscilloscope
Two microphones are connected to the input of a double beam oscilloscope
A signal generator is connected to a loudspeaker and set to a frequency between 500 Hz
and 2.0 kHz
One of the microphones is close to the loud speaker
The other microphone is 1 m away
There will be two traces that appear on the screen

The traces are compared as the second microphone is moved back and forth in line with the
first microphone and the speaker
Use a ruler to measure the distance that the second microphone needs to move for the
traces to be in phase then out and phase and back in phase again
This distance is equal to the wavelength of the wave
The speed of the waves are therefore calculated using c = fλ
 Worked Example
A person stands 50 m from a wall. The person claps their hands repeatedly, and
changes the clapping frequency until the echoes are synchronised with the claps. A
mobile phone application measures the time between the claps, which is t = 0.30 s.
Determine the speed of sound.
Page 39 of 111

Distance between the person and the wall, d = 50 m 
Time between the claps, t = 0.30 s
Step 2: Write down the "echo equation"
Step 3: Substitute the numbers into the above equation and calculate the speed of
sound v
v = 330 m s–1
Page 40 of 111
4.3 Wave Characteristics YOUR NOTES


4.3.1 Wavefronts
Wavefronts
Waves can be represented graphically in two different ways:
Wavefronts - lines joining all the points that oscillate in phase and are perpendicular to
the direction of motion (and energy transfer)
Rays - lines showing the direction of motion (and energy transfer) of the wave that are
perpendicular to the wavefront
Wavefronts and rays for transverse waves travelling in a horizontal plane

The distance between successive wavefronts is equal to the wavelength of the waves
Ripple tanks are used a common experiment to demonstrate diffraction of water waves
Page 41 of 111
YOUR NOTES

Wave effects may all be demonstrated using a ripple tank
The diagram below shows how the wavelengths differ with frequency in a ripple tank
The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength
The lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength
Page 42 of 111
YOUR NOTES

Ripple tank patterns for low and high frequency vibration
Page 43 of 111
4.3.2 Amplitude & Intensity YOUR NOTES


Amplitude & Intensity
Intensity
The intensity of a wave is defined as follows:
Power per unit area
Intensity is measured in W m–2
Power is defined as:
The rate of energy transfer
Therefore, intensity can also be defined as:
The rate of energy transfer per unit area
For spherical waves being emitted by a point source equally in all directions, the intensity
follows an inverse square law with distance from the point source
1
I∝
r2
Where:
I = intensity of the wave in watts per metre squared (W m–2)
r = distance from the point source in metres (m)
For spherical waves being emitted by a point source equally in all directions, the intensity at
the surface of a sphere is calculated using:
P
I=
4π r2
Where:
P = power in watts (W)
r = radius of sphere in metres (m)
For spherical waves being emitted by a point source equally in all directions, the power is a
constant, therefore the relationship can be expressed as:
1
I∝
r2
This is an example of an inverse square law relationship
I ∝ x−2
Page 44 of 111
YOUR NOTES

Intensity decreases by the inverse square law

Intensity Variation with Amplitude
By definition, the intensity of a wave (its power per unit area) is proportional to the energy
transferred by the wave
The intensity of a wave at a particular point is related to the amplitude of the wave at that
point
The energy transferred by a wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude
Therefore, the intensity of a wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude
I ∝ A2
Where:
I = intensity of the wave in W m–2
A = amplitude of the wave in metres (m)
 Worked Example
A person stands 10 m away from a loudspeaker. The sound produced by the
loudspeaker is very loud, so the person moves 20 m away from it.
State the effect of this change on the intensity and the amplitude of the sound
waves heard by the person.

Original distance, r1 = 10 m
New distance, r2 = 20 m
Page 45 of 111
Step 2: Write down the relationship between the intensity of a wave and the distance YOUR NOTES
from the point source producing the wave 
Step 2: State the new intensity

Since the distance doubles (r2 = 2r1), the intensity is reduced by a factor four
Step 3: Write down the relationship between the intensity of a wave and its amplitude
Step 4: State the new amplitude

Since the intensity is reduced by a factor four, the amplitude decreases by half
Page 46 of 111
4.3.3 Superposition YOUR NOTES


Superposition
The principle of superposition states that:
When two or more waves meet, the resultant displacement is the vector sum of the
displacements of the individual waves
The principle of superposition applies to both transverse and longitudinal waves
Interference occurs whenever two or more waves superpose
For a clear stationary interference pattern, the waves must be of the same:
Type
Amplitude
Frequency
They must also have a constant phase difference
Constructive & Destructive Interference
Constructive interference occurs when the waves superpose and have displacements in
the same direction (both positive or both negative)
Destructive interference occurs when the waves superimpose and have displacements
in opposite directions (one positive and one negative)
When two waves with the same amplitude meet at a point, they can:
Be in phase and interfere constructively, so that the displacement of the resultant
wave is double the displacement of each individual wave
Be in anti-phase and interfere destructively, so that the displacement of the resultant
wave is equal to zero
Page 47 of 111
YOUR NOTES

Waves in superposition can undergo constructive or destructive interference

Superposition occurs for any two waves or pulses that overlap, and can result in a mix of
constructive and destructive interference
For example, the peak of one wave superposes with the peak of another wave with a
smaller displacement
The resultant peak will have a displacement that is in the middle of the displacement of
both waves
Superposition can also be demonstrated with two pulses
When the pulses meet, the resultant displacement is the algebraic sum of the
displacement of the individual pulses
After the pulses have interacted, they then carry on as normal
Page 48 of 111
YOUR NOTES

 Worked Example
Two overlapping waves of the same types travel in the same direction. The variation
with x and y displacement of the wave is shown in the figure below.
Use the principle of superposition to sketch the resultant wave.
Page 49 of 111
YOUR NOTES

Page 50 of 111
4.3.4 Polarisation YOUR NOTES


Polarisation
Transverse waves can oscillate in any plane perpendicular to the direction of motion (and
energy transfer) of the wave
Such waves are said to be unpolarised
When a transverse wave is polarised, its electric field is only allowed to oscillate in one
fixed plane perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave
A transverse wave can be vertically polarised, horizontally polarised, or polarised in any
direction in between
Page 51 of 111
Diagram showing the displacement of unpolarised and polarised transverse waves YOUR NOTES
Since longitudinal waves oscillate in the same direction as the direction of motion of the 
wave, polarisation of longitudinal waves cannot occur
Methods of polarisation include polarising filters and reflection from a non-metallic plane
surface
Polarising Filters
Light waves can be polarised by making them pass through a polarising filter called a
polariser
The filter imposes its plane of polarisation on the incident light wave
A polariser with a vertical transmission axis only allows vertical oscillations to be
transmitted through the filter (A)
If vertically polarised light is incident on a filter with a horizontal transmission axis, no
transmission occurs (B), and the wave is blocked completely
Page 52 of 111
Diagram showing an unpolarised and polarised wave travelling through polarisers YOUR NOTES
Polarisation via Reflection 
When unpolarised light reflects from a smooth non-metallic surface, partial plane
polarisation always occurs
Reflected light is polarised in a plane parallel to the reflecting surface
This means if the surface is horizontal, a proportion of the reflected light will oscillate
more in the horizontal plane than the vertical plane
Polarising sunglasses use this property of reflection in order to reduce the glare coming
from a reflective surface (e.g. water)
Polaroid sunglasses contain vertically oriented polarising filters which block out any
horizontally polarised light
Page 53 of 111
When sunlight reflects off a horizontal reflective surface (e.g. water) the light becomes YOUR NOTES
horizontally polarised. This is where polaroid sunglasses come in useful with their vertically 
aligned filter
As a result, objects under the surface of the water can be viewed more clearly
Page 54 of 111
Polarised, Reflected & Transmitted Beams YOUR NOTES

Beams can be polarised, reflected or transmitted 
When beams are polarised, the oscillations of the waves are made to oscillate only in one
plane
This affects the intensity of the waves
Diagrams demonstrating polarisation will include a double-headed arrow showing the
plane of polarisation of the wave
When beams are reflected, they bounce back in the direction that they have come in by the
same angle
When beams are transmitted, they travel straight through the medium
In both these cases, the light can still be polarised
Plane polarisation is when the direction of the vibrations stays constant over time, and the
vibrations are 100 % restricted in that direction
Partial polarisation is when there is some restriction to the direction of the vibrations but
not 100 %
This can be seen when an unpolarised light beam travels from air to glass
The light is initially unpolarised when incident on the glass
Some of the beam is reflected, partially polarising it
Some of the beam is transmitted and refracted, also partially polarising it
Page 55 of 111
YOUR NOTES

Page 56 of 111
4.3.5 Malus’s Law YOUR NOTES


Malus's Law
Intensity of Polarised Light
The intensity of unpolarised light is reduced as a result of polarisation
If unpolarised light of intensity I0 passes through a polariser, the intensity of the
transmitted polarised light falls by a half
The intensity of polarised light transmitted by a polariser is half the intensity of the
unpolarised light incident on it
Intensity of Analysed Light
The first filter that the unpolarised light goes through is the polariser
A second polarising filter placed after the first one is known as an analyser
If the analyser has the same orientation as the polariser, the light transmitted by the
analyser has the same intensity as the light incident on it
If they have a different orientation, we must use Malus's Law to determine the intensity
of the transmitted light
Page 57 of 111
YOUR NOTES

When the polariser and the analyser have the same orientation (i.e. parallel transmission
axes), the intensity of analysed light is the same as the intensity of polarised light
Malus's Law states that if the analyser is rotated by an angle θ with respect to the
polariser, the intensity of the light transmitted by the analyser is
If the polariser and the analyser have the same orientation, light transmitted by the
analyser has the same intensity as light that is incident upon it, since cos(0) = 1
I0
If vertically polarised light with intensity is incident on an analyser with a vertical
2
transmission axis, all of the light will be transmitted through the analyser
The intensity will not decrease between the polariser and the analyser
If the analyser is rotated by 90° with respect to the polariser (θ = 90°), the intensity of the
light transmitted by the analyser will be zero, since cos(90°) = 0
Page 58 of 111
If vertically polarised light is incident on an analyser with a horizontal transmission axis, YOUR NOTES
none of the light will be transmitted through the analyser 
In this instance, all the light will be absorbed
Table of transmitted intensity when vertically polarised light is incident upon an analyser
If the analyser has any other orientation with respect to the polarised light incident upon it,
then Malus's Law is used to determine the intensity of the analysed light
I0
The polarised light incident on the analyser will have an intensity
2
I0
The analysed light will have an intensity cos2θ
2
Page 59 of 111
YOUR NOTES

When the analyser is rotated with respect to the polariser by an angle, the intensity of
analysed light variates with cos2θ
The resulting graph of the light intensity with angle, as the analyser is rotated through 360°,
looks as follows:
Page 60 of 111
YOUR NOTES

Graph showing how the intensity of the analysed light beam varies with the angle between
the transmission axes of the polariser and analyser
The maximum light intensity I of the graph is still half of the intensity from the unpolarised
light (I0)
1
Ipolarised = I
2 unpolarised
The two extremes of maximum light intensity and minimum light intensity depend on the
orientations of just one of the polarisers
If an unpolarised light source is placed in front of two identical polarising filters, A and B,
with their transmission axes parallel:
Filter A will polarise the light in a certain axis
All of the polarised light will pass through filter B unaffected
In this case, the maximum intensity of light is transmitted
Page 61 of 111
YOUR NOTES

When both polarisers have the same transmission axis, the intensity of the transmitted light
is at its maximum
As the polarising filter B is rotated anticlockwise, the intensity of the light observed
changes periodically depending on the angle B is rotated through
When A and B have their transmission axes perpendicular to each other:
Filter A will polarise the light in a certain axis
This time none of the polarised light will pass through filter B
In this case, the minimum intensity of light is transmitted
When one of the polarisers is rotated through 90°, the intensity of the transmitted light
drops to zero
 Worked Example
Unpolarised light of intensity I0 is incident on a polariser. The transmitted polarised
light is then incident on an analyser. The transmission axis of the analyser makes an
angle of 45° with the transmission axis of the polariser.
Determine the intensity of light transmitted by the analyser.
Page 62 of 111

Intensity of unpolarised light = I0 
Angle of rotation of analyser with respect to polariser, θ = 45°
Step 2: Write down Malus's law
Step 3: Substitute the value of the angle θ = 45°
The intensity of light transmitted by the analyser is a quarter the intensity of

unpolarised light
(and one half the intensity of light transmitted by the polariser)
 Exam Tip
Remember that the unpolarised light coming through will always halve in intensity
when it becomes polarised through an polariser. Only then should you use Malus'
law to find the intensity of the light after it has passed through the analyser.
Therefore, the I and I0 in Malus' law are the intensities of light that are already
polarised.
Page 63 of 111
4.4 Wave Behaviour YOUR NOTES


4.4.1 Reflection, Refraction & Transmission
Reflection, Refraction & Transmission

When waves arrive at a boundary between two materials, they can be:
Reflected
Refracted
Transmitted
Absorbed
Reflection
Reflection occurs when:
A wave hits a boundary between two media and does not pass through, but
instead bounces back to the original medium
The law of reflection states:
The angle of incidence, i = The angle of reflection, r
Reflection of a wave at a boundary

When a wave is reflected, some of it may also be absorbed by the medium, transmitted
through the medium, or polarised
At a boundary between two media, the incident ray is the ray that travels towards the
boundary
Refraction
Refraction occurs when:
A wave changes speed and direction at the boundary between two media
Page 64 of 111
This is due to the density of the media YOUR NOTES

If the medium is more dense, the wave slows down 
If the medium is less dense, the wave speeds up
When a wave refracts, its speed and wavelength change, but its frequency remains the
same
This is noticeable by the fact that the colour of the wave does not change
Both transverse and longitudinal waves can refract
An example of water waves refracting is when they travel from deeper to shallower water
The wavelength of the waves decrease in the shallower water
Water waves being refracted at the boundary between deep and shallow water
Transmission
Transmission occurs when:
A wave passes through a substance
Refraction is a type of transmission
Transmission is the more general term of a wave appearing on the opposite side of a
boundary (the opposite of reflection)
Refraction is specifically the change in direction of a wave when it crosses a boundary
between two materials that have a different density
When passing through a material, waves are usually partially absorbed
The transmitted wave will have a lower amplitude if some absorption has occurred
Page 65 of 111
YOUR NOTES

When a wave passes through a boundary it may be absorbed and transmitted
Page 66 of 111
4.4.2 Reflection YOUR NOTES


Reflection
When light hits a smooth plane surface, most of it gets reflected
Very smooth reflective surfaces (e.g. mirrors) are known as specular plane reflectors
For these surfaces, the law of reflection applies:
The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence
i=r
Where:
The angle of incidence (i) is the angle between the incident ray and the normal
The angle of reflection (r) is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal
A light ray being reflected by a mirror

The wavelength of the reflected ray is the same as that of the incident ray
Page 67 of 111
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A light ray is reflected by a mirror as shown in the diagram below.
a) State the angle of reflection
b) Add the incident and reflected wavefronts to the diagram
a) State the angle of reflection

Step 1: Recall the definition of the angle of incidence (i)
The angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray and the normal
This is not the 30° angle marked in the diagram
i = 90° – 30°
i = 60°
Step 2: Recall the law of reflection

The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence
Step 3: State the angle of reflection (r)
r = 60°
b) Add the incident and reflected wavefronts to the diagram
Step 1: Recall that wavefronts and rays are perpendicular to each other
Add at least three equally spaced wavefronts all perpendicular to the incident ray
Add at least three equally spaced wavefronts all perpendicular to the reflected ray
Page 68 of 111
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
When asked to complete or construct reflection ray diagrams, remember to add:
arrows on rays to distinguish between incident and reflected rays
labels to distinguish between incident and reflected wavefronts
In most cases, when dealing with light, you will just need to draw rays. However, you
might still be required to draw wavefronts sometimes. Always use a ruler or a straight
edge and a shape pencil for the ray diagrams.
Remember that the distance between each wavefront represents the wavelength of
the wave. If you intend on the ray not changing wavelength (like in reflection) then
make sure the incident and reflected wavefronts are all equally spaced by the same
amount.
Page 69 of 111
4.4.3 Refraction YOUR NOTES


Refraction
When light crosses the boundary between two media with different optical densities, it
refracts
At the boundary, the light undergoes a change in direction
The change in direction depends on which media the light rays pass between:
From air to glass (less dense to more dense): light bends towards the normal
The angle of refraction < the angle of incidence
From glass to air (more dense to less dense): light bends away from the normal
The angle of refraction > the angle of incidence
When passing along the normal (perpendicular) the light does not bend at all
This would be described as transmission
Refraction of light through a glass block

When light passes from a less dense medium to a more dense medium, such as from air to
glass, the refracted light has a lower speed and a shorter wavelength than the incident
light
When light passes from a more dense medium to a less dense medium, such as from glass
to air, the refracted light has a higher speed and a longer wavelength than the incident light
When more than one boundary is shown in a refraction ray diagram, such as light passing
through a glass block, the incident ray at the second boundary is the refracted ray from the
first boundary
Page 70 of 111
YOUR NOTES

A light ray being refracted at the air-glass boundary

Together with refraction, reflection might also occur
When light travels from a less optically dense medium into an optically denser medium,
both reflection and refraction always occur
Light has to be reflected from the object to the eye in order for objects to be visible
Some of the energy in the incident light is reflected back, while some is transmitted
Absolute Refractive Index
Transparent media have different optical densities
Light is transmitted through these media at different speeds
The absolute refractive index, n, of a transparent medium is a measure of its optical
density, and can be calculated as follows:
c
n=
v
Where:
n = absolute refractive index of the medium
c = speed of light in vacuum in metres per second (m s–1)
v = speed of light in the medium in metres per second (m s–1)
The value of the speed of light in a vacuum is c = 3.00 × 108 m s–1, as given in the data
booklet
Note that, being a ratio, the absolute refractive index is a dimensionless quantity
This means that it has no units
The refractive index of air can be assumed to be n = 1
Because the speed of light will always be faster than the speed of light in a medium, the
refractive index of any other transparent medium is n > 1
Snell's Law
Snell's Law is:
n1 sinθ 2 v2
= =
n2 sinθ 1 v1
Page 71 of 111
Where: YOUR NOTES

n = absolute refractive index 
θ = angles of incidence and refraction
v = speed of light in medium
Snell's Law describes the angle at which light meets the boundary, and the angle at which
light leaves the boundary, so that the light travels through the media in the least amount of
time
Light can travel through medium 1 at a speed of v1 due to the optical density n1 of that
medium
Light will approach the boundary at angle θ1
This is the angle of incidence
Light can travel through medium 2 at a speed of v2 due to the optical density n2 of that
medium
Light will leave the boundary at angle θ2
This is the angle of refraction
Snell's Law
To illustrate this, there is a classic thought experiment that uses Fermat's Principle of Light
Fermat's Principle of Light states that light will travel between two points along the
path that will take the least amount of time
A life guard on a beach sees a swimmer in need of rescue. They can run at 5 m s−1 on the
sand and they can swim at 2 m s−1 in the water. What is the fastest path to take?
The life guard could run on the sand straight to the water and then swim to the person
The life guard could run on the sand until they are parallel to the person, and then swim
directly out to them
The life guard could run and then swim diagonally in a path that is a straight line from his
position in the sand to the position of the swimmer in the water
Or, the life guard could run diagonally, but so that more of the distance covered is in the
sand than in the water
Some permutation of this answer is where the fastest path will be found
Page 72 of 111
YOUR NOTES

Thought Experiment: A life guard needs to find the fastest path to a swimmer in trouble
Using this thought experiment, it can be seen that Snell's Law emerges
Snell's Law in the context of the thought experiment

Page 73 of 111
Snell's Law can also be given as: YOUR NOTES

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 
This form of Snell's Law can often be more convenient to use

When the incident ray is perpendicular to the surface of the boundary, its speed changes,
but its direction does not
Using Snell's Law to explain this
The angle of incidence is zero, θ1 = 0, therefore, n1 sin0 = n2 sin θ2
Sin0 = 0
Anything multiplied by zero is zero, therefore, 0 = n2 sin θ2
Hence, the refracted angle θ2 must also be zero
So, there is transmission without refraction
Light travelling along the normal to the boundary between material 1 and material 2
Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection
According to Snell's law, when light travels from an optically denser medium into a less
optically dense medium, its speed increases and it bends away from the normal
The angle of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence
A small amount of light is also reflected back into the optically denser medium
As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction eventually reaches 90°
This is known as the critical angle θc:
Page 74 of 111
The angle of incidence which results in an angle of refraction of 90°, after which YOUR NOTES
point, total internal reflection occurs 
The critical angle is important because this is the point at which no light enters the new
medium
For light travelling from an optically denser material 1 into a less optically dense material 2
If the angle of incidence is smaller than the critical angle (θ1 < θc), the refracted ray
bends away from the normal, and the angle of refraction is greater than the angle of
incidence (θ2 > θ1)
If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle (θ1 = θc), the refracted ray lies along
the boundary between the two materials, and the angle of refraction is equal to 90° (θ2
= 90°)
If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle (θ1 > θc), there is no refracted
ray, and all light is reflected back into material 1 (θ2 = θ1)
This is known as total internal reflection
Light travelling from the optically denser material 1 into the less optically dense material 2 at
different angles of incidence
The critical angle of material 1 can be calculated as follows:
Page 75 of 111
n2 YOUR NOTES
sinθ c =
n1 
Where:
θc = critical angle of material 1 (°)
n1 = absolute refractive index of material 1
n2 = absolute refractive index of material 2
 Worked Example
Wavefronts travel from air to water as shown. Add the refracted wavefronts to the
diagram.
Step 1: Add the incident ray to mark the direction of the incident waves
The incident ray must be perpendicular to all wavefronts
Remember to add an arrow pointing towards the air-water boundary
Step 2: Add the normal at the point of incidence

Mark the angle of incidence (i) between the normal and the incident ray
Page 76 of 111
YOUR NOTES

Step 3: Draw the refracted ray into the water

Water is optically denser than air
The refracted ray must bend towards the normal
Mark the angle of refraction (r) between the normal and the refracted ray
r < i, by eye
Step 4: Add three equally spaced wavefronts, all perpendicular to the refracted ray
The refracted wavefronts must be closer to each other than the incident wavefronts,
since:
The speed v of the waves decreases in water
The frequency f of the waves stays the same
The wavelength λ of the waves in water is shorter than the wavelength of the
waves in air λW < λA, since v = fλ
Page 77 of 111
YOUR NOTES

 Worked Example
Light travels from a material with refractive index 1.2 into air. Determine the critical
angle of the material.

n1 = 1.2
n2 = 1.0
Step 2: Write down the equation for the critical angle θc
sinθc = 0.83
Step 4: Calculate θc by taking sin–1 of the above equation
θc = sin–1 0.83
θc = 56°
 Worked Example
Light travels from air into glass. Determine the speed of light in glass.
Refractive index of air, n1 = 1.00
Refractive index of glass, n2 = 1.50

n1 = 1.00
Page 78 of 111
n2 = 1.50 YOUR NOTES

From the data booklet, c = 3 × 108 m s–1 (speed of light in air) 
Step 2: Write down the relationship between the refractive indices of air and glass and
the speeds of light in air (v1) and glass (v2)
Step 3: Rearrange the above equation to calculate v2
v2 = 2 × 108 m s–1
 Exam Tip
Always double-check if your calculations for the refractive index are greater than 1.
Otherwise, something has definitely gone wrong in your calculation! The refractive
index of air might not be given in the question. Always assume that nair = 1
Page 79 of 111
4.4.4 Determining Refractive Index YOUR NOTES


Determining Refractive Index
Aim of the Experiment
To investigate the refraction of light by a perspex block
Equipment
Ray Box - to provide a narrow beam of light to refract through the perspex box
Protractor - to measure the light beam angles
Sheet of paper - to mark with lines for angle measurement
Pencil - to make perpendicular line and angle lines on paper
Ruler - to draw straight lines on the paper
Perspex block - to refract the light beam
Resolution of measuring equipment:
Protractor = 1°
Ruler = 1 mm
Variables
Dependent variable = angle of refraction , r
Control variables:
Use of the same perspex block
Width of the light beam
Same frequency / wavelength of the light
Method
Apparatus to investigate refraction

1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the block using a
pencil
2. Switch on the ray box and direct a beam of light at the side face of the block
3. Mark on the paper:
Page 80 of 111
A point on the ray close to the ray box YOUR NOTES

The point where the ray enters the block 
The point where the ray exits the block
A point on the exit light ray which is a distance of about 5 cm away from the block
4. Draw a dashed line normal (at right angles) to the outline of the block where the points are
5. Remove the block and join the points marked with three straight lines
6. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a ray striking the block
at a different angle
An example of the data collection table is shown below:
Analysis of Results
i and r are always measured from the normal
For light rays entering perspex block, the light ray refracts towards the central line:
i>r
For light rays exiting the perspex block, the light ray refracts away from the central line:
i<r
When the angle of incidence is 90° to the perspex block, the light ray does not refract, it
passes straight through the block:
i=r
If the experiment was carried out correctly, the angles should follow the pattern, as shown
below:
Page 81 of 111
YOUR NOTES

How to measure the angle of incidence and angle of refraction

Evaluating the Experiment
Systematic Errors:
An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly
Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines
If the mirror is distorted, this could affect the reflection angle, so make sure there are little to
no blemishes on it
Random Errors:
The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked
Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam
The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately
Use a protractor with a higher resolution
Safety Considerations
The ray box light could cause burns if touched
Run burns under cold running water for at least five minute
Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes
Avoid looking directly at the light
Stand behind the ray box during the experiment
Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper
Page 82 of 111
4.4.5 Single-Slit Diffraction YOUR NOTES


Single-Slit Diffraction
Diffraction is the spreading out of waves when they pass an obstruction
This obstruction is typically a narrow slit known as an aperture
As waves pass through the aperture, they spread out

The frequency of the diffracted waves is less than that of the incident waves, since energy
is distributed over a larger area
The extent of diffraction depends on the width of the gap compared to the wavelength of
the wave
Diffraction is the most prominent when the width of the slit is approximately equal to
or smaller than the wavelength
As the gap size increases, the effect gradually gets less pronounced until, in the case
that the gap is much larger than the wavelength, the waves are no longer spread out
Page 83 of 111
YOUR NOTES

The size of the gap (compared to the wavelength) affects how much the waves spread out
Any type of wave can be diffracted i.e. sound, light, water
The only property of a wave that changes when its diffracted is its amplitude
This is because some energy is dissipated when a wave is diffracted through a gap
Diffraction can also occur when waves curve around an edge:
When a wave goes past the edge of a barrier, the waves can curve around it
Page 84 of 111
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

An electric guitar student is practising in his room. He has not completely shut the
door of his room, and there is a gap of about 10 cm between the door and the door
frame.
Determine the frequencies of sound that are best diffracted through the gap.
The speed of sound can be taken to be 340 m s–1
Step 1: Optimal diffraction happens when the wavelength of the waves is comparable
to (or larger than) the size of the gap
λ = 10 cm = 0.1 m

c = fλ
where c = 340 m s–1
Step 3: Rearrange the above equation for the frequency f
f = 3400 Hz
The frequencies of sound that are best diffracted through the gap are:
f ≤ 3400 Hz
 Worked Example
When a wave is travelling through the air, which scenario best demonstrates
diffraction?
A. UV radiation through a gate post
B. Sound waves passing a diffraction grating
C. Radio waves passing between human hair
D. X-rays passing through atoms in a crystalline solid
ANSWER: D
Diffraction is most prominent when the wavelength is close to the aperture size
Consider option A:
Page 85 of 111
UV waves have a wavelength between (4 × 10–7) and (1 × 10–8) m so would not be diffracted YOUR NOTES
by a gate post 
Radio waves, microwaves or sound waves would be more likely to be diffracted at this
scale
Consider option B:
Sound waves have a wavelength of (1.72 × 10–2) to 17 m so would not be diffracted by the
diffraction grating
Infrared, light and ultraviolet waves would be more likely to be diffracted at this scale
Consider option C:
Radio waves have a wavelength of 0.1 to 106 m so would not be diffracted by human hair
Infrared, light and ultraviolet waves would be more likely to be diffracted at this scale
Consider option D:
X-rays have a wavelength of (1 × 10–8) to (4 × 10–13) m
This is a suitable estimate for the size of the gap between atoms in a crystalline solid
Hence X-rays could be diffracted by a crystalline solid
Therefore, the correct answer is D
 Exam Tip
When drawing diffracted waves, take care to keep the wavelength (the distance
between each wavefront) constant.
Page 86 of 111
4.4.6 Interference & Path Difference YOUR NOTES


Double-Slit Interference
Interference occurs whenever two or more waves combine to produce a resultant wave
with a new resultant displacement
The waves combine according to the principle of superposition
Constructive interference happens when the resultant wave has a larger
displacement than any of the individual displacements
Destructive interference happens when the positive displacement of one wave and
the negative displacement of another wave exactly cancel out giving a resultant
displacement of zero
Coherence
Interference is only observable if produced by a coherent source
Waves are said to be coherent if they have:
A constant phase difference
The same frequency
Coherent waves (on the left) and non-coherent waves (on the right). The abrupt change in
phase creates an inconsistent phase difference
A coherent beam of light contains light waves that are monochromatic and have a
constant phase difference
Monochromatic light consists of light waves of a single frequency
Page 87 of 111
Laser light is an example of a coherent light source YOUR NOTES

Filament lamps produce incoherent light waves 
Double-Slit Interference of Light
When a coherent beam of light is incident on two narrow slits very close together,
diffraction occurs at each slit (i.e. the waves spread out)
As the diffracted waves cross, they interfere with each other
If a screen is placed some distance away from the slits, a pattern of equally spaced bright
and dark fringes is observed on the screen
The bright fringes form where the waves interfere constructively (i.e. a crest meets a
crest or a trough meets a trough)
The dark fringes form where the waves interfere destructively (i.e. a crest meets a
trough)
Coherent light waves interfere after passing through two narrow slits. Alternating bright and
dark fringes are observed on the screen
Page 88 of 111
YOUR NOTES

Page 89 of 111
Path Difference YOUR NOTES

The type of interference occurring at a given point (i.e. constructive or destructive) 
depends on the path difference of the overlapping waves
Path difference is defined as:
The difference in distance travelled by two waves from their sources to the point
where they meet
Path difference is generally expressed in multiples of wavelength
At point P2 the waves have a path difference of a whole number of wavelengths resulting in
constructive interference. At point P1 the waves have a path difference of an odd number of
half wavelengths resulting in destructive interference
In the diagram above, the number of wavelengths between:
S1 ➜ P1 = 6λ
S2 ➜ P1 = 6.5λ
S1 ➜ P2 = 7λ
S2 ➜ P2 = 6λ
The path difference is:
(6.5λ – 6λ) = λ / 2 at point P1
(7λ – 6λ) = λ at point P2
Hence:
Destructive interference occurs at point P1
Constructive interference occurs at point P2
Conditions for Constructive and Destructive Interference
In general, for waves emitted by two coherent sources very close together:
Page 90 of 111
The condition for constructive interference is: YOUR NOTES

path difference = nλ 
The condition for destructive interference is:

path difference = (n + ½)λ
Where:
λ = wavelength of the waves in metres (m)
n = 0, 1, 2, 3... (any other integer)
The same conditions apply to waves emitted by a single coherent source and diffracted by
two narrow slits very close together
Path Difference and Wavefronts
At point P the waves have a path difference of a whole number of wavelengths resulting in
constructive interference
Another way to represent waves spreading out from two sources is shown in the diagram
above
At point P, the number of crests from:
Source S1 = 4λ
Source S2 = 6λ
The path difference at P is (6λ – 4λ) = 2λ
This is a whole number of wavelengths (n = 2), hence constructive interference occurs at
point P
Page 91 of 111
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

The diagram below is a snapshot of overlapping wavefronts resulting from the
interference of coherent waves diffracted by two narrow slits S1 and S2.
For each of the points shown, determine:

The path difference from the sources
The value of n in the path difference formula
Whether they are locations of constructive or destructive interference
Step 1: Count the number of wavelengths between each source and the desired point
E.g. Number of wavelengths between:
S1 ➜ A = 5λ
S2 ➜ A = 6.5λ
Step 2: Determine the path difference by subtracting the distances of the point from
the two sources
E.g. Path difference at A = (6.5λ – 5λ) = 1.5λ
Step 3: Compare the path difference calculated in Step 2 with the condition for
constructive or destructive interference and give the value of n
E.g. Path difference at A = 1.5λ = (n + ½)λ ➜ n = 1
Step 4: Decide whether the point is a location of constructive or destructive
interference
E.g. A is a location of destructive interference
Point A:
Path difference = (6.5λ – 5λ) = 1.5λ
n=1
Destructive interference
Point B:
Path difference = (5λ – 4λ) = λ
Page 92 of 111
n=1 YOUR NOTES

Constructive interference 
Point C:
Path difference = (2λ – 2λ) = 0
n=0
Constructive interference
Point D:
Path difference = (5λ – 4.5λ) = 0.5λ
n=0
Destructive interference
Point E:
Path difference = (4λ – 3λ) = λ
n=1
Constructive interference
 Exam Tip
You are not required to memorise the conditions for constructive and destructive
interference, as these are given in the data booklet.You must be able to determine
the path difference of waves from two sources (or two narrow slits) at a given point.
You can then compare this with the given conditions for constructive and
destructive interference, in order to decide which type of interference occurs at the
point you are considering.
Page 93 of 111
4.4.7 Double-Slit Equation YOUR NOTES


Double-Slit Equation
Interference Patterns
Interference patterns depend on:
The coherent light incident on the slits
The distance between the slits and the screen where the interference pattern is
observed
The separation between the slits
In particular:
Successive bright fringes are further apart from each other if the wavelength λ of the
incident light is longer
Difference in the interference pattern of red and blue light. Red light has a longer wavelength
than blue light, so the fringes are more spaced out
Similarly, bright fringes are more spaced out if the screen is placed further away from
the slits
If the separation between the slits is increased, instead successive bright fringes are
closer to each other
Explaining the Interference Pattern

Two slits are separated by a length d, and a screen is placed a distance D away
Page 94 of 111
YOUR NOTES

Light rays of wavelength λ incident on two slits a distance s apart interferes and form bright
fringes on a screen placed a distance D away from the slits
When light rays of wavelength λ are incident on the two slits:

A central bright fringe where the two waves have travelled the same distance to the
screen and their path difference is zero
Another bright fringe is formed either side of the central one where the path difference
between the waves is exactly one wavelength
This is constructive interference
Dark fringes (an absence of light) are formed where the path difference between the
waves is some number of wavelengths plus half a wavelength
This is destructive interference
Further bright fringes will be located at each position on the screen where the path
difference is exactly equal to n number of wavelengths nλ
For example: 2λ, 3λ, 4λ...
Dark fringes are located in between the bright ones, where the path difference is exactly (n
1
+ )λ
2
1 1 1
For example: 1 λ , 2 λ , 3 λ . . .
2 2 2
Double-Slit Equation
The separation s of successive fringes is given by:
λD
s=
d
Where:
s = separation between successive fringes on the screen (m)
λ = wavelength of the waves incident on the slits (m)
Page 95 of 111
D = distance between the screen and the slits (m) YOUR NOTES
d = separation between the slits (m) 
Note that s is the separation between two successive bright fringes or two successive dark
ones
The above equation shows that the separation between the fringes will increase if:
The wavelength of the incident light increases
The distance between the screen and the slits increases
The separation between the slits decreases
Dependence of the interference pattern on the separation between the slits. The further
apart the slits, the closer together the bright fringes
 Worked Example
In a double-slit experiment, two slits are placed a distance of 0.40 mm apart and a
screen is located 0.50 m away from the slits.
Coherent electromagnetic waves incident on the slits produce an interference
pattern on the screen. The separation between dark fringes is 0.50 cm.
Determine the wavelength and state the type of electromagnetic waves used in the
experiment.

d = 0.40 mm = 4.0 x 10–4 m
D = 0.50 m
s = 0.50 cm = 5.0 x 10–3 m
Note that you must convert all lengths into metres (m)
Step 2: Write down the double-slit equation
Step 3: Rearrange the above equation to calculate the wavelength λ
Page 96 of 111
Step 4: Substitute the numbers into the above equation YOUR NOTES

λ = 4.0 × 10–6 m = 4.0 μm
This corresponds to the infrared area of the electromagnetic spectrum
 Exam Tip
Remember that the separation between dark fringes is exactly the same as the
separation between bright fringes. Whether a question gives you or asks about the
separation between dark fringes instead of bright ones it makes no difference.
Some tricky questions might give you the separation between a bright and a dark
fringe. This is equal to half the value of s!
Page 97 of 111
4.5 Standing Waves YOUR NOTES


4.5.1 The Nature of Standing Waves
The Nature of Standing Waves

Standing waves are produced by the amplitude travelling in opposite directions
This is usually achieved when a travelling wave superimposes its reflection
The superposition produces a wave pattern where the crests and troughs do not move
Formation of a stationary wave on a stretched spring fixed at one end

Formation of Standing Waves
Standing waves are formed from the principle of superposition. This is when:
Two waves travelling in opposite directions along the same line with the same
frequency superpose
The principle of superposition applies to all types of waves i.e. transverse and longitudinal,
progressive and stationary
The waves must have:
The same wavelength
A similar amplitude
As a result of superposition, a resultant wave is produced
Page 98 of 111
YOUR NOTES

A graphical representation of how stationary waves are formed - the black line represents
the resulting wave
Comparing Progressive and Standing Waves
Standing waves (or stationary waves) store energy
Progressive waves (or travelling waves) transfer energy
The table below outlines the main differences between progressive and stationary waves
Table of Differences Between Progressive and Stationary Waves
Page 99 of 111
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A travelling wave is incident on a barrier. The wave profile is shown below.
The travelling wave reflects off the barrier. The reflected and incident waves
superimpose.
State whether or not a standing wave is formed.
For standing waves to be formed, the half-cycles of the wave profile must be symmetrical
(i.e. the same but inverted)
For this wave, the half-cycles are not symmetrical
The leading edge is straight
The trailing edge is sinusoidal
When the incident and reflected waves superimpose, they will not cancel out at any point
Therefore a standing wave is not formed
Page 100 of 111
4.5.2 Nodes & Antinodes YOUR NOTES


Nodes & Antinodes
A standing wave is made up nodes and antinodes
Nodes are locations of zero amplitude and they are separated by half a wavelength
(λ/2)
Antinodes are locations of maximum amplitude
The nodes and antinodes do not move along the wave
Nodes are fixed and antinodes only oscillate in the vertical direction
Nodes and antinodes of a stationary wave of wavelength λ on a string of length L at a point in

time
The Formation of Nodes and Antinodes
Nodes are formed as a result of destructive interference
The amplitude of both waves cancel out
Antinodes are formed as a result of constructive interference
The amplitude of both waves add together
Page 101 of 111
YOUR NOTES

Nodes and antinodes are a result of destructive and constructive interference respectively
At the nodes:
The waves are in anti-phase meaning destructive interference occurs
This causes the two waves to cancel each other out
At the antinodes:
The waves are in phase meaning constructive interference occurs
This causes the waves to add together
Phase on a Standing Wave
Two points on a standing wave are either In Phase
Points that have an odd number of nodes between them are in anti-phase
Points that have an even number of nodes between them are in phase
All points within a "loop" are in phase
Points A, B and D are all in phase. While points A and D are in antiphase with point C
Page 102 of 111
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Which row in the table correctly describes the length of L and the name of X and Y?
ANSWER: C
Page 103 of 111
4.5.3 Boundary Conditions for Standing Waves YOUR NOTES


Boundary Conditions
Stationary waves can form on strings or in pipes
In both cases, progressive waves travel in a medium (i.e. the string or air) and superimpose
with their reflections
The number of nodes and antinodes that fit within the available length of medium depends
on:
The frequency of the progressive waves
The boundary conditions (i.e. whether the progressive waves travel between two
fixed ends, two free ends or a fixed and a free end)
Standing Waves on Stretched Strings
When guitar strings are plucked, they can vibrate with different frequencies
The frequency with which a string vibrates depends on:
The tension, which is adjusted using rotating 'tuning pegs'
The mass per unit length, which is the reason why a guitar has strings of different
thicknesses
Standing wave on a guitar string

For a string, the boundary condition can be
Fixed at both ends
Free at both ends
One end fixed, the other free
At specific frequencies, known as natural frequencies, an integer number of half
wavelengths will fit on the length of the string
As progressive waves of different natural frequencies are sent along the string,
standing waves with different numbers of nodes and antinodes form
Standing Waves in Pipes
When the air within a pipe vibrates, longitudinal waves travel along the pipe
Simply blowing across the open end of a pipe can produce a standing wave in the pipe
For a pipe, there is more than one possible boundary condition, theses are pipes that are:
Closed at both ends
Open at both ends
Closed at one end and open on the other
Nodes & Antinodes
Page 104 of 111
When a progressive wave travels towards a free end for a string, or open end for a pipe: YOUR NOTES
The reflected wave is in phase with the incident wave 
The amplitudes of the incident and reflected waves add up
A free end is a location of maximum displacement - i.e. an antinode
Standing wave inside a pipe open at both ends

When a progressive wave travels towards a fixed end for a string, or closed end for a pipe:
The reflected wave is in anti-phase with the incident wave
The two waves cancel out
A fixed end is a location of zero displacement - i.e. a node
The open end is therefore a location of maximum displacement - i.e. an antinode
Standing wave inside a pipe open at both ends
Page 105 of 111
4.5.4 Harmonics YOUR NOTES


Harmonics
Stationary waves can have different wave patterns, known as harmonics
These depend on the frequency of the vibration and the boundary conditions (i.e.
fixed and/or free ends)
The harmonics are the only frequencies and wavelengths that will form standing waves on
strings or in pipes
Harmonics on Strings
The boundary condition is that both ends are fixed
The simplest wave pattern is a single loop made up of two nodes (i.e. the two fixed ends)
and an antinode
This is called the first harmonic
The wavelength of this harmonic is λ1 = 2L
Using the wave equation, the frequency is f1 = v/2L, where v is the wave speed of the
travelling waves on the string (i.e. the incident wave and the reflected wave)
As the vibrating frequency increases, more complex patterns arise
The second harmonic has three nodes and two antinodes
The third harmonic has four nodes and three antinodes
Page 106 of 111
YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing the first three harmonics on a stretched string fixed at both ends
The nth harmonic will have (n + 1) nodes and n antinodes
The general expression for the wavelength of the nth harmonic on a string that is fixed at
both ends is:
Where:
λn = wavelength in metres (m)
L = length of the string in metres (m)
n = integer number greater than zero - i.e. 1, 2, 3...
Knowing the wavelength λn of the standing wave and the speed v of the travelling waves
(i.e. incident and reflected), the natural frequency fn of any harmonic can be calculated
Page 107 of 111
using the wave equation v = fλn, so that: YOUR NOTES


Harmonics in Pipes
The boundary conditions vary, since pipes can have:
two open ends
only one open end
For a pipe that is open at both ends:
The simplest wave pattern is one central node and two antinodes
The second harmonic consists of two nodes and three antinodes
The nth harmonic will have (n + 1) antinodes and n nodes
The expression for the wavelength of the nth harmonic in a pipe of length L is the same
as that given above for nth harmonic on a string
Diagram showing the first five harmonics in a pipe open at both ends
For a pipe that is open at one end:

The lowest harmonic is a "half-loop" with one node and one antinode
The next possible harmonic will have two nodes and two antinodes
This is the third harmonic, not the second one
Since only odd harmonics can exist under this boundary condition
Diagram showing the first three possible harmonics in a pipe open at one end. Only the odd
harmonics can form in this case
Page 108 of 111
The expression for the wavelength of the nth harmonic in a pipe of length L is: YOUR NOTES

Where this time, n is an odd number - i.e. 1, 3, 5...

Under both boundary conditions, the natural frequencies are once again calculated from
the wavelength of the standing wave and the speed v of the travelling waves using the
wave equation
 Worked Example
Transverse waves travel along a stretched wire 100 cm long. The speed of the
waves is 250 m s–1.
Determine the maximum harmonic detectable by a person who can hear up to 15
kHz.

L = 100 cm = 1.00 m
v = 250 m s–1
fn = 15 kHz = 15000 Hz
Note the conversions:
The length must be converted from centimetres (cm) into metres (m)
The frequency must be converted from kilohertz (kHz) into hertz (Hz)
Step 2: Write down the equation for the frequency of the nth harmonic
Step 3: Rearrange the above equation to calculate the number n of the maximum
harmonic detectable by the person
n = 120
The person can hear up to the 120th harmonic
Page 109 of 111
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Before carrying out any calculation on standing waves, you should look carefully at

the boundary conditions, since these will determine the wavelengths and natural
frequencies of the harmonics.
The expressions for the wavelength of the nth harmonic on strings fixed at both ends
(or in pipes open at both ends) and in pipes open at one end are not given in the data
booklet and you must be able to recall them.
Remember that n can take any integer value greater than zero in the case of standing
waves on strings and in pipes open at both ends. For pipes open at one end, instead,
n can only be an odd integer.
Page 110 of 111
Page 111 of 111

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4.1 Oscillations YOUR NOTES

A pendulum oscillates between A and B. On a displacement-time graph, the oscillating

Diagram showing the time period of a wave

Phase & Phase Difference

Wavelength λ and amplitude A of a travelling wave

Two waves ¼ λ out of phase

Step 1: Write down the frequency of the child's oscillations

The waves have a frequency of 2.5 Hz.Determine:

4.1.2 Simple Harmonic Oscillations YOUR NOTES

Conditions for SHM YOUR NOTES

The Restoring Force

F = restoring force (N) YOUR NOTES

Graph of force against displacement for an object oscillating with SHM

This equation shows that

Graph of acceleration against displacement for an object oscillating with SHM

Step 1: List the known quantities YOUR NOTES

Step 4: Substitute the numbers into the above equation

4.1.3 SHM Graphs YOUR NOTES

(i) Determine the period of the oscillations

(i) Identify the period T of the oscillating object on the graph

(v) Identify any position of maximum positive acceleration on the displacement-time

4.1.4 Energy in SHM YOUR NOTES

(i) Determine the total energy of the object

4.2 Travelling Waves YOUR NOTES

Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a wave

Period T and frequency f of a travelling wave

(i) Identify the amplitude A of the wave on the graph

Step 3: Substitute the value of the period determined in Step 1

The Wave Equation YOUR NOTES

Deriving the Wave Equation

Therefore, combining these equations gives the wave equation

Step 1: Write down the known quantities YOUR NOTES

Step 6: Substitute the numbers into the above equation

4.2.2 Transverse & Longitudinal Waves YOUR NOTES

A transverse wave travelling from left to right

A longitudinal wave travelling from left to right

Step 1: Determine the possible directions that point P can travel in

Step 2: Determine the next direction of point P YOUR NOTES

Transverse & Longitudinal Graphs YOUR NOTES

An example of displacement-distance graph for a travelling wave

A wavelength on a longitudinal wave is the distance between two compressions or two

An example of displacement-time graph for a travelling wave

(i) Determine the period T directly from the displacement-time graph

4.2.3 Electromagnetic Waves YOUR NOTES

An electromagnetic wave is generated by the combined oscillation of an electric and a

The electromagnetic spectrum

Knowing the wavelengths of electromagnetic waves, their frequencies can be calculated

Step 1: Write down the known quantities

4.2.4 Sound Waves YOUR NOTES

A sound wave travelling through air

The spectrum of sound waves

Pitch and amplitude of sound

A hammer is made to strike a plate

Measuring the Speed of Sound Experimentally - Double Beam

There will be two traces that appear on the screen

Step 1: Write down the known quantities YOUR NOTES

4.3 Wave Characteristics YOUR NOTES

Wavefronts and rays for transverse waves travelling in a horizontal plane