LIMITS

 Consider the function f(x) = 2x  1

As x takes on values closer and closer to 2, regardless whether x approaches it
from the the left (x < 2) or from the right (x > 2), the corresponding values of f(x)
get closer and closer to one and only one number, namely 3.

x<2 x>2
f(1.7) = 2.4 f(2.3) = 3.6
f(1.8) = 2.6 f(2.2) = 3.4
f(1.9) = 2.8 f(2.1) = 3.2
f(1.99) = 2.98 f(2.01) = 3.02
f(1.999) = 2.998 f(2.001) = 3.002

f(x)
f(x) = 2x - 1

2 x

The limit of f(x) as x approaches 2 is 3 lim (2 x  1)  3 .

x2

When finding a limit, we are concerned not with what happens to f(x) when x equals a,
but only with what happens to f(x) when x is close to a.

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Definition: The limit of f(x) as x approaches a is the number L, written
lim f ( x)  L provided that we can make the values f(x) as close as we like to L and
x a

keep them that close, by taking x sufficiently close to, but different from, a. If there is no
such number, we say that the limit of f(x) as x approaches a does not exist.

Example:
y y

3 
2  2 o

1 x 1 x

lim f ( x)  2 lim f ( x)  2
x 1 x 1

As x gets closer and closer to 1 (but not at 1), y appears to get closer and closer to 2.

Properties of Limits

I. If f(x) = c is a constant function, then

lim f ( x)  C
x a

Example: f(x) = 7
lim 7  7
x 5

II. lim x n  a n , for any positif integers n.

xa

Example: lim x 4  (2) 4  16

x2

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 If lim f ( x ) and lim g( x ) exist, then:
x a
x a

III. lim  f ( x)  g ( x)  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)

xa x a x a

x 2
 
Example: lim x 2  x  lim x 2  lim x  2 2  2  6
x 2 x 2

IV. lim  f ( x).g ( x)  lim f ( x). lim g ( x)

x a x a x a

Example: lim ( x  1)( x  3)  lim ( x  1). lim ( x  3)

x2 x 2 x 2


x2 x2

 lim x  lim 1 . lim x  lim 3
x 2 x2

 2  1 . 2  3  3

V. lim cf ( x)  c. lim f ( x) , where c is a constant

xa xa

Example: lim 3x 3  3(2) 3  24

x2

f ( x) lim f ( x)
VI. lim  xa if lim g ( x)  0
xa g ( x) lim g ( x) x a
xa

x 2  1 lim ( x 2  1) 5
Example: lim  x 2

x 2 4 x  4 lim (4 x  1) 7
x 2

VII. lim n f ( x)  n lim f ( x)

x a x a

Example: lim x 2  7  lim ( x 2  7)  16  4

x3 x3

ONE-SIDED LIMITS

In valuing the limit for a function, x can approach to the value of a from two sides:

x approaches a from the right (right-hand limit)

- written as lim f ( x)
x a

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 x approaches a from the left (left-hand limit)
- written as lim f ( x)
x a

 Limit will exist if and only if both one-sided limits exist and are equal.
lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)
x a  x a x a

Example:
4 x if x 1
lim g ( x)  
x 1
 4 x if x 1

g(x)

4 

1 x

-4  o

lim g ( x)  lim 4 x  4
x1 x1

lim g ( x)  lim  4 x  4
x1 x1

lim g ( x)  lim g ( x)
x 1 x 1

 lim g ( x) does not exist

x1

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Example:
x 2 if x 1

lim g ( x)  2 if x 1
x 1
4  x if x 1


g(x)

3 o

2 

1 o

1 x

lim g ( x)  lim 4  x  3
x 1 x 1

lim g ( x)  lim x 2  1
x 1 x 1

lim g ( x)  lim g ( x)
x 1 x 1

 lim g ( x) does not exist

x 1

Example:
2 x  1 if x 1
lim f ( x)  
x 1
0 if x 1

f(x)

1 o


1 x

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 lim f ( x)  lim (2 x  1)  1
x 1 x 1

lim f ( x)  lim (2 x  1)  1
x 1 x 1

lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)  1 ,  lim f ( x)  1

x 1 x 1 x 1

Note that
lim f ( x)  f (1)
x 1

Example:
3x 2  6 if x2
lim f ( x) 
x2
8  x if x2

lim f ( x)  lim 8  x  6
x2 x 2

lim f ( x)  lim 3x 2  6  6
x 2 x 2

lim f ( x)  lim f ( x)  6 ,  lim f ( x)  6

x 2 x2 x 2

INFINITE LIMITS
Infinite limits: Limit does not exist
f(x) values increases/decreases without bound (positively
infinite/negatively infinite) as x gets close to a value/point.

lim f ( x)   lim f ( x)  
xa xa

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Example: Find lim
x 0 x2
f(x)
2
x x 1
f(x)=
x2
1 1 1
 0.5 0.25 4
0.1 0.01 100
0.01 0.0001 10,000
0.001 0.000001 1,000,000
x

1 1 1
lim  lim  lim 
x 0 x2 x 0 x2 x 0 x2

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 1
Example: Find lim
x 0 x2
x from the left 1
f ( x)  f(x)
x
0.01 100
0.001 1000
0.0001 10000
x from the right 1
f ( x)  0 x
x
0.01 100
0.001 1000
0.0001 10000

As x  0, f(x) decreases infinitely.

As x  0+, f(x) increases infinitely.
1 1 1
lim   lim  lim does not exist
x 0  x x 0  x x 0 x

2
Example: Find lim 
x  1 x 1

As x  1 from the right (0.9, 0.99, …), denominator (x + 1) approaches 0, but is

always positive. Since we are dividing 2 by positive numbers approaching 0,
2
the result , are positive numbers that are becoming arbitrarily large.
x 1

2 2 2
Thus lim   does not exist, or to be more specific lim  
x  1 x 1 0 x  1 x  1

x2
Example: Find lim
x2 x2  4

x2 4 x2
lim  does not exist, or to be more specific lim 2  
x2 x 4 0
2 x2 x  4

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LIMITS AT INFINITY

Limits at infinity: want to determine what happen to f(x) values as x increases or

decreases without bound.
lim f ( x) or lim f ( x)
x  x  

1 1
Example: Find lim Find lim
x x x   x

x 1 x 1
f(x)= f(x)=
𝑥 𝑥

1000 0.001 1000 0.001

10000 0.0001 10000 0.0001
100000 0.00001 100000 0.00001
1000000 0.000001 1000000 0.000001

1 1
 lim 0 lim 0
x  x x   x

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Example : Find lim
x  ( x  5) 3

As x  , (x – 5)3 , dividing 4 by very large numbers results in numbers near

0. Thus,
4
 lim 0
x  ( x  5) 3

1
Example: Find lim 1 
x  x
1 1
As x   ,  0 , 1  1
x x
1
 lim 1  1
x  x

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LIMITS FOR INDETERMINATE FORMS

0
Form
0
x 2  25 (5) 2  25 0
Example: lim  
x  5 x  5 55 0

 Simplify the function

x 2  25 ( x  5)( x  5)
lim  lim  lim x  5  10
x  5 x  5 x  5 x5 x  5


Form


3x 2  6 x  3 
Example: lim , has the form
x  4x  6
3

 Divide both the numerator and denominator by the greatest power of x that occurs
in the denominator.
3x 2 6 x 3
3
 3  3
 lim x x x
x  3
4x 6
3
 3
x x
3 6 3
 2  3
 lim x x x
x  6
4 3
x
000
 0
40

Or alternatively, for rational polynomial function (quotient of two polynomials):

3x 2  6 x  3 3x 2 3
lim  lim  lim 0
x  4x  6
3 x  4 x 3 x  4 x

Where 3x2: term with highest degree in numerator.

4x3: term with highest degree in denominator.

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Example:
2x 2  x  3 
lim , has the form
x  3x  5
2

2x 2 2 2
 lim 2
 lim 
x  3 x x  3 3

Example:
x 4  3x 
(i) lim , has the form
x   5  2 x 
x4 x3
 lim  lim 
x    2 x x    2

x 4  3x x4 x3
(ii) lim  lim  lim  
x  5  2 x x   2 x x   2

x x x 1
(iii) lim = lim  lim  lim 0
x   (3 x  1) 2 x   9 x  6 x  1
2 x   9 x 2 x   9 x

(iv) lim x 3  x 2  x  2  lim x 3  

x  x 

(v) lim  2 x 3  9 x  lim  2 x 3  

x  x 

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