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Electronic Devices & Circuits Introduction

Dept. of Electrical
Engineering

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Sr. # Topics No: of

Sr. # Topics No: of Lectures

Lectures
10. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) 1
1. Introduction 1
11. Model of transistor, equivalent circuit 2
2. P-N Junction diode 1
12. Operating Regions 1
3. Diode models, Ideal, Practical 2
13. Transistor Configurations 2
4. Half-wave rectification 1
14. D.C biasing 2
5. Full-wave rectification 2
15. Transistors as Amplifiers 2
6. Zener diode 1
16. UJTs 1
7. Photo Diode 1
17. Thyristors 1
8. LEDs 1
18. Working and Characteristics of SCR 2
9. Tunnel diode; Schotkey diode 1
19. Controlled Rectifiers 1

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Sr. # Topics No: of

Lectures Books
20. Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) 2 • Electronic Devices (Conventional Current Edition)
21. Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) 2 by Floyd
22. MOSFET Applications 2 • Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory
23. Regulated power supplies 1 by Robert Boylestad and Louis Nashlesky
24. Series and shunt regulators 2 • Starting Electronics
25. Constant voltage and constant current supplies 1 by Keith Brindley
26. Over current protection 1
• Teach Yourself Electricity & Electronics
27. Passive filters 1
by Stan Gibilisco
28. Low pass, high pass, filters 2
• Electrical Technology
29. Band pass and Band – stop filters 2
by B.L. Theraja
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Electronic Devices
• What is difference between Electrical
devices and electronic devices
Semi Conductor • Electronic Devices are made of semi-
Fundamentals conductor material.
• Diode, Transistor, Amplifiers & ICs
• Conductor / Insulator
• It is important to understand the basic
atomic structure of semi-conductors in
order to understand its behavior.
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Atomic Structure • 1. Electron

• Electron
2. Proton 3. Neutron
- vely charged particle that orbits
around the nucleus
• An atom is the
smallest particle of • Proton + vely charged particle in nucleus
an element that has • Neutron has no charge and present in
all the characteristics nucleus
of the element.
• Atom is like solar
system • # of protons = Atomic number
• A central nucleus • # of protons + # of neutrons = Atomic Weight
surrounded by orbits • Each element has unique atomic number
• Elements are arranged in a periodic table

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• The shells are

Electrons, shell & orbits designated as
1,2, 3 ….. n
• Electrons orbit at discrete distances from the nucleus. • K, L and M are also
• Electrons have different energies used for shells.
their distance from the nucleus.
• Figure shows the
• Electrons near the nucleus have less energy and concept of energy
energy is increased as the distance is increased from band.
nucleus.
• Each discrete distance is known as orbit. • First shell with one
• Orbits are grouped into energy bands called shells. energy level and
• Each shell has a fixed minimum number of electrons
second shell with two
at permissible energy levels (orbits) energy levels
• Energy increases as
distance from nucleus
increases.
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Valence Electrons Ionization

• Electrons that are in orbits farther from the nucleus have • When an atom absorbs energy from a heat source or from light, for example,
the energies of the electrons are raised.
higher energy and are less tightly bound to the atom • The valence electrons possess more energy and are more loosely bound to
than those closer to the nucleus. the atom than inner electrons. so they can easily jump to higher orbits within
• This is because the force of attraction between the the valence shell when external energy is absorbed.
• If a valence electron acquires a sufficient amount of energy, it can actually
positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged escape from the outer shell and the atom's influence.
electron decreases with increasing distance from the • The departure of a valence electron leaves a previously neutral atom with an
nucleus. excess of positive charge (more protons than electrons).
• The process of losing a valence electron is known as ionization. and the
• Electrons with the highest energy exist in the outer-most resulting positively charged atom is called a positive ion.
shell of an atom and are relatively loosely bound to the • For example. the chemical symbol for hydrogen is H. When a neutral
atom. hydrogen atom loses its valence electron and becomes a positive ion, it is
designated H+.
• This outermost shell is known as the valence shell and • The escaped valence electron is called a free electron. When a free electron
electrons in this shell are called valence electron. loses energy and falls into the outer shell of a neutral hydrogen atom, the
atom becomes negatively charged (more electrons than protons) and is called
• These valence electrons contribute to chemical reactions a negative ion, designated H-.
and bonding within the structure of a material and
determine its electrical properties. 14
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The number of Electrons in a shell Conductor

• The maximum number of electrons (Ne) in each shell • A conductor is a material that easily conducts
of an atom can be calculated by the formula electrical Current.
N e = 2 n2 Where n is the shell number • The best conductors are single-element materials,
such as copper, silver, gold, and aluminum, which
• For shell 1 Ne = 2(1)2 = 2 electrons are characterized by atoms with only one valence
• For shell 2 Ne = 2(2)2 = 8 electrons electron very loosely bound to the atom.
• For shell 3 Ne = 2(3)2 = 18 electrons • These loosely bound valence electrons can easily
• For shell 4 Ne = 2(4)2 = 32 electrons break away from their atoms and become free
• For shell 5 Ne = 2(5)2 = 50 electrons electrons.
• Therefore, a conductive material has many free
• All shells in a given atom must be completely filled electrons, that when moving in the same direction,
with electrons except the outer (valence)shell. make up the current.
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Insulator Semi conductor

• An insulator is a material that does not • A semiconductor is a material that is between
conductors and insulators in its ability to conduct
conduct electrical current under normal electrical Current.
conditions. • A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a
good conductor nor a good insulator.
• Most good insulators are compounds
• The most common single-element semiconductors are
rather than single-element materials. silicon. germanium, and carbon.
• Valence electrons are tightly bound to the • Compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide are
also commonly used.
atoms; therefore, there are very few free
• The single-element semiconductors are characterized by
electrons in an insulator. atoms with four valence electrons.

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• Figure shows energy

Energy Bands diagrams

semiconductors,
conductors.
for insulators,
and

• Notice in part (a) that

• Valence shell of an atom represents a band of energy insulators have a very wide
levels and that the valence electrons are confined to that energy gap.
band. • Valence electrons do not jump
into the conduction band
• When an electron acquires enough additional energy, it except under breakdown
can leave the valence shell, become a free electron, and conditions where extremely
exist in what is known as the conduction band. high voltages are applied
• The difference in energy between the valence band and across the material.
the conduction band is called an energy gap. • Part (b), semiconductors have
a much narrower energy gap.
• This is the amount of energy that a valence electron • This gap permits some
must have in order to jump from the valence band to the valence electrons to jump
conduction band. into the conduction band and
• Once in the conduction band, the electron is free to become free electrons.
move throughout the material and is not tied to any given • Part (c) illustrates, the energy
atom. bands in conductors overlap.
In a conductive material there
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is always a large number of 20
free electrons.

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Semiconductor vs Conductor

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Silicon & Germanium Conduction in Semiconductors

• The electrons of an atom
can exist only within
prescribed energy bands.
• Each shell around the
nucleus corresponds to a
certain energy band and is
separated from adjacent
shells by energy gaps. in
which no electrons can
exist.
• Figure shows the energy
band diagram for an
unexcited (no external
energy such as heat) atom
in a pure silicon crystal.
• This condition occurs only at
a temperature of absolute 0
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Kelvin. 23

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Conduction Electrons and Holes

• An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room temperature has sufficient
heat (thermal) energy for some valence electrons to jump the gap
from the valence band into the conduction band, becoming free
electrons.
• Free electrons are also called conduction electrons.
• This is illustrated in the energy diagram of Figure (a) and in the
bonding diagram of Figure (b)

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• When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in

the valence band within the crystal.
• This vacancy is called a hole.
• For every electron raised to the conduction band by external energy,
there is one hole left in the valence band, creating what is called an
electron-hole pair.
• Recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron loses
energy and falls back into a hole in the valence band.
• To summarize, a piece of intrinsic silicon at room temperature has,
at any instant, a number of conduction-band (free) electrons that are
unattached to any atom and are essentially drifting randomly
throughout the material.
• There is also an equal number of holes in the valence band created
when these electrons jump into the conduction band.
• This is illustrated in Figure

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Electron & Hole Current

• When a voltage is applied across a piece of intrinsic • Another type of current occurs in the valence band,
silicon, the thermally generated free electrons in the where the holes created by the free electrons exist.
conduction band, which are free to move randomly in the
crystal structure, are now easily attracted toward the • Electrons remaining in the valence band are still
positive end. attached to their atoms and are not free to move
• This movement of free electrons is one type of current in randomly in the crystal structure as are the free
a semiconductor material and is called electron current. electrons.
• However, a valence electron can move into a nearby
hole with little change in its energy level. thus leaving
another hole where it came from.
• Effectively the hole has moved from one place to another
in the crystal structure. as illustrated in Figure.
• This is called hole current.
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N–type & P-type Semiconductors

• The conductivity of silicon and germanium can
be drastically increased by the controlled
addition of impurities to the intrinsic (pure)
semiconductive material.
• This process is called doping
• Doping increases the number of current carriers
(electrons or holes).
• The two categories of impurities are
– n-type
– p-type.

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N-Type Semiconductor
• To increase the number of conduction-band electrons in intrinsic
silicon, pentavalent impurity atoms are added.
• These are atoms with five valence electrons such as arsenic (As),
phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), and antimony (Sb).
• As illustrated in Figure, each pentavalent atom (antimony, in this case)
forms covalent bonds with four adjacent silicon atoms.
• Four of the antimony atom's valence electrons are used to form the
covalent bonds with silicon atoms, leaving one extra electron.
• This extra electron becomes a conduction electron because it is not
attached to any atom.
• Because the pentavalent atom gives up an electron, it is often called a
donor atom.
• The number of conduction electrons can be carefully controlled by the
number of impurity atoms added to the silicon.
• A conduction electron created by this doping process does not leave a
hole in the valence band because it is in excess of the number required
to fill the valence band.

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• Since most of the current carriers are electrons, silicon

(or germanium) doped with pentavalent atoms is an n-
type semiconductor (the n stands for the negative charge
on an electron).
• The electrons are called the majority carriers in n-type
material.
• Although the majority of current carriers in n-type
material are electrons, there are also a few holes that
are created when electron-hole pairs are thermally
generated.
• These holes are not produced by the addition of the
pentavalent impurity atoms.
• Holes in an n-type material are called minority carriers.

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P-type semiconductor
• To increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon, trivalent impurity
atoms are added.
• These are atoms with three valence electrons such as boron (B),
indium (In), and gallium (Ga).
• As illustrated in Figure, each trivalent atom (boron. in this case) forms
covalent bonds with four adjacent silicon atoms.
• All three of the boron atom's valence electrons are used in the
covalent bonds; and, since four electrons are required, a hole results
when each trivalent atom is added.
• Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is often referred to
as an acceptor atom.
• The number of holes can be carefully controlled by the number of
trivalent impurity atoms added to the silicon.
• A hole created by this doping process is not accompanied by a
conduction (free) electron.

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• Since most of the current carriers are holes. silicon (or

germanium) doped with trivalent atoms is called a p-type
semiconductor.
• Holes can be thought of as positive charges because the
absence of an electron leaves a net positive charge on
the atom.
• The holes are the majority carriers in p-type material.
• Although the majority of current carriers in p-type
material are holes, there are also a few free electrons
that are created when electron-hole pairs are thermally
generated.
• These free electrons are not produced by the addition of
the trivalent impurity atoms.
• Electrons in p-type material are the minority carriers.

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Diode
The Diode
• A diode is a p-n junction
• A diode is a boundary between a p-type and n-type material.
• The p region has many holes (majority carriers) from the impurity
atoms and only a few thermally generated free electrons (minority
carriers).
• The n region has many free electrons (majority carriers) from the
impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated holes (minority
carriers).

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Formation of the depletion layer

• The free electrons in the n region are randomly drifting in all
directions. • When the p-n junction is formed,
the n region loses free electrons
• At the instant of the p-n junction formation. the free electrons near the as they diffuse across the
junction in the n region begin to diffuse across the junction into the p junction.
region where they combine with holes near the junction, as shown in • This creates a layer of positive
Figure charges (pentavalent ions) near
the junction.
• As the electrons move across the
junction. the p region loses holes
as the electrons and holes
combine.
• This creates a layer of negative
charges (trivalent ions) near the
junction.
• These two layers of positive and
negative charges form the
depletion region, as shown in
Figure

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• The term depletion refers to the fact that the region near the
pn junction is depleted of charge carriers (electrons and
holes) due to diffusion across the junction.
• Keep in mind that the depletion region is formed very quickly
Barrier Potential
and is very thin compared to the n region and p region. • Any time there is a positive charge and a negative
• After the initial surge of free electrons across the pn junction. charge near each other, there is a force acting on the
the depletion region has expanded to a point where charges as described by Coulomb's law.
equilibrium is established and there is no further diffusion of
electrons across the junction. • In the depletion region there are many positive charges
and many negative charges on opposite sides of the pn
• As electrons continue to diffuse across the junction, more and junction,
more positive and negative charges are created near the
junction as the depletion region is formed. • The forces between the opposite charges form a "field of
• A point is reached where the total negative charge in the forces" called an electric field, as illustrated in Figure by
depletion region repels any further diffusion of electrons the red arrows between the positive charges and the
(negatively charged particles) into the p region (like charges negative charges.
repel) and the diffusion stops. • This electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the n
• In other words. the depletion region acts as a barrier to the region, and energy must be expended to move an
further movement of electrons across the junction. electron through the electric field.
• That is. external energy must be applied to get the
electrons to move across the barrier of the electric field
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• The potential difference of the electric field across the

depletion region is the amount of voltage required to
Energy diagram of PN junction
• move electrons through the electric field.
This potential difference is called the barrier potential
and is expressed in volts.
• The valence and conduction bands in an
• Stated another way, a certain amount of voltage equal to
the barrier potential and with the proper polarity must be n-type material are at slightly lower energy
applied across a pn junction before electrons will begin
to flow across the junction. levels than the valence and conduction
• The barrier potential of a pn junction depends on several bands in a p-type material.
factors. including
– the type of semiconductive material. • This is due to differences in the atomic
– the amount of doping, characteristics of the pentavalent and the
– and the temperature.
• The typical barrier potential is approximately 0.7 V for trivalent impurity atoms.
silicon and 0.3 V for germanium at 25°C.

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• The free electrons in the n region that occupy the upper

• An energy diagram for a pn junction at the instant of part of the conduction band in terms of their energy can
formation is shown in Figure easily diffuse across the junction (they do not have to
• As you can see, the valence and conduction bands in gain additional energy) and temporarily become free
the n region are at lower energy levels than those in the electrons in the lower part of the p-region conduction
p region, but there is a significant amount of overlapping. band.
• After crossing the junction, the electrons quickly lose
energy and fall into the holes in the p-region valence
band as indicated in Figure.
• As the diffusion continues, the depletion region begins to
form and the energy level of the n-region conduction
band decreases.
• The decrease in the energy level of the conduction band
in the n region is due to the loss of the higher-energy
electrons that have diffused across the junction to the p
region.

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• Soon, there are no electrons left in the n-region

conduction band with enough energy to get
across the junction to the p-region conduction
band. as indicated by the alignment of the top of
the n-region conduction band and the bottom of • At this point, the junction is at equilibrium; and
the p-region conduction band in Figure. the depletion region is complete because
diffusion has ceased.
• There is an energy gradiant across the depletion
region which acts as an "energy hill" that an n-
region electron must climb to get to the p region.
• Notice that as the energy level of the n-region
conduction band has shifted downward, the
energy level of the valence band has also
shifted downward.
• It still takes the same amount of energy for a
valence electron to become a free electron.
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Forward Bias
Biasing a Diode
• Forward bias is the condition that allows Current through the pn
junction.
• Generally the term bias refers to the use of a DC • Figure shows a DC voltage source connected by conductive material
(contacts and wire) across a diode in the direction to produce forward
voltage to establish certain operating conditions bias.
for an electronic device. • This external bias voltage is designated as VBIAS
• The resistor, R, limits the current to a value that will not damage the
• In relation to a diode, there are two bias diode.
conditions:
– forward and reverse.
• Either of these bias conditions is established by
connecting a sufficient dc voltage of the proper
polarity across the pn junction.

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• The negative side of VBlAS is connected to the n-region of the

diode and the positive side is connected to the p region.
• This is one requirement for forward bias.
• A second requirement is that the bias voltage VBlAS, must be
greater than the barrier potential.
• A fundamental picture of what happens when a diode is
Forward-biased is shown in Figure
• Because like charges repel, the negative side of the bias-
voltage source "pushes" the free electrons. which are the
majority carriers in the n region. toward the pn junction.
• This flow of free electrons is called electron current.
• The negative side of the source also provides a continuous
flow of electrons through the external connection (conductor)
and into the n region as shown.
• The bias-voltage source imparts sufficient energy to the free
electrons for them to overcome the barrier potential of the
depletion region and move on through into the p region.
• Once in the p region, these conduction electrons have lost
enough energy to immediately combine with holes in the
valence band.
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• Now, the electrons are in the valence band in the p region,

simply because they have lost too much energy overcoming • As the electrons flow out of the p region through
the barrier potential to remain in the conduction band. the external connection (conductor) and to the
• Since unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias- positive side of the bias-voltage source, they
voltage source attracts the valence electrons toward the left leave holes behind in the p region; at the same
end of the p region. time, these electrons become conduction
• The holes in the p region provide the medium or "pathway" electrons in the metal conductor.
for these valence electrons to move through the p region.
• Conduction band in a conductor overlaps the
• The electrons move from one hole to the next toward the valence band so that it takes much less energy
left.
for an electron to be a free electron in a
• The holes, which are the majority carriers in the p region, conductor than in a semiconductor.
effectively (not actually) move to the right toward the
junction, as you can see in Figure. • So there is a continuous availability of holes
• This effective flow of holes is called the hole current. effectively moving toward the pn junction to
• You can also view the hole current as being created by the combine with the continuous stream of electrons
flow of valence electrons through the p region, with the as they come across the junction into the p
holes providing the only means for these electrons to flow. region.
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The Effect of Forward Bias on the

Depletion Region
• As more electrons flow into the depletion region.
the number of positive ions is reduced.
• As more holes effectively flow into the depletion
region on the other side of the pn junction, the
number of negative ions is reduced.
• This reduction in positive and negative ions
during forward bias causes the depletion region
to narrow, as indicated in Figure

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The Effect of the Barrier Potential

During Forward Bias REVERSE BIASE
• It is the condition that essentially prevents current through the diode.
• Recall that the electric field between the positive and negative ions in the • Figure shows a dc voltage source connected across a diode in the direction to
depletion region on either side of the junction creates an "energy hill" that produce reverse bias.
prevents free electrons from diffusing across the junction at equilibrium. • This external bias voltage VBIAS just as it was for forward bias.
• This is known as the barrierpote/1tial When forward bias is applied, the free • Notice that the positive side of VBIAS is connected to the n region of the diode
electrons are provided with enough energy from the bias-voltage source to and the negative side is connected to the p region.
overcome the barrier potential and effectively "climb the energy hill" and cross • Also note that the depletion region is shown much wider than in forward bias
the depletion region. or equilibrium.
• The energy that the electrons require in order to pass through the depletion
region is equal to the barrier potential.
• In other words the electrons give up an amount of energy equivalent to the
barrier potential when they cross the depletion region.
• This energy loss results in a voltage drop across the pn junction equal to the
barrier potential (0.7 V), as indicated.
• An additional small voltage drop occurs across the p and n regions due to the
internal resistance of the material.
• For doped semiconductive material, the this resistance, called the dynamic
resistance, is very small and can usually be neglected.

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• An illustration of what happens when a diode is reverse-biased is • In the p region, electrons from the negative side of the voltage
shown in Figure source enter as valence electrons and move from hole to hole
• Because unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias-voltage toward the depletion region where they create additional
source "pulls" the free electrons, which are the majority carriers in the negative ions.
n-region, away from the pn junction.
• This results in a widening of the depletion region and a
• As the electrons flow toward the positive side of the voltage source, depletion of majority carriers. The flow of valence electrons
additional positive ions are created. can be viewed as holes being "pulled" toward the positive
• This results in a widening of the depletion region and a depletion of side.
majority carriers. • The initial flow of charge carriers is transitional and lasts for
only a very short time after the reverse-bias voltage is applied.
• As the depletion region widens, the availability of majority
carriers decreases.
• As more of the n and p regions become depleted of majority
carriers, the electric field between the positive and negative
ions increases in strength until the potential across the
depletion region equals the bias voltage, VBIAS
• At this point. the transition current essentially ceases except
for a very small reverse current that can usually be neglected.

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Reverse Current

• The extremely small current that exists in reverse bias after the
transition current dies out is caused by the minority carriers in the n
and p regions that are produced by thermally generated electron- hole
pairs.
• The small number of free minority electrons in the p region are
"pushed" toward the pn junction by the negative bias voltage.
• When these electrons reach the wide depletion region, they "fall down
the energy hill" and combine with the minority holes in the n region as
valence electrons and flow toward the positive bias voltage, creating a
small hole current.
• The conduction band in the p region is at a higher energy level than
the conduction band in the n region.
• Therefore, the minority electrons easily pass through the depletion
region because they require no additional energy.
• Reverse current is illustrated in Figure.
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• The high reverse-bias voltage imparts energy to the free

minority electrons so that as they speed through the p
region, they collide with atoms with enough energy to
knock valence electrons out of orbit and into the
conduction band.
• The newly created conduction electrons are also high in
energy and repeat the process.
• If one electron knocks only two others out of their
valence orbit during its travel through the p region. the Diode Model
numbers quickly mutiply.
• As these high-energy electrons go through the depletion
region, they have enough energy to go through the n
region as conduction electrons, rather than combining
with holes.
• The multiplication of conduction electrons is known as
avalanche and results in a very high reverse current that
can damage the diode because of excessive heat

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Diode Models
• A diode is a single pn junction device with conductive contacts
and wire leads connected to each region, as shown in Figure.
• Part of the diode is an n-type semiconductor and the other part is
a p-type semiconductor.
• The n region is called the cathode and the p region is called the
anode.
• The "arrow" in the symbol points in the direction of conventional
current (opposite to electron flow).

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Ideal Diode
• The ideal diode is a simple switch.
• When the diode is forward-biased, it acts like a closed (on)
switch.
• When the diode is reverse-biased. it acts like an open (off)
switch.
• The barrier potential, the forward dynamic resistance, and the
reverse current are all neglected.

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• In Figure, the ideal V-I characteristic curve

graphically depicts the ideal diodeoperation.
• Since the barrier potential and the forward dynamic
Practical Diode Model
resistance are neglected, the diode is assumed to
have a zero voltage across it when forward-biased, • The practical model adds the barrier potential to
as indicated by the portion of the curve on the
positive vertical axis. (Vs = 0 V) the ideal switch model.
• The forward current is determined by the bias • When the diode is forward-biased, it is
voltage and the limiting resistor using Ohm's law. equivalent to a closed switch in series with a
• (IF = VBIAS / RLIMIT ) small equivalent voltage source equal to the
• Since the reverse current is neglected, its value is barrier potential (0.7 V) with the positive side
assumed to be zero, as indicated in Figure by the toward the anode, as indicated in Figure (a).
portion of the curve on the negative horizontal axis.
(IR = 0 A) • This equivalent voltage source represents the
• The reverse voltage equals the bias voltage. fixed voltage drop (VF ) produced across the
• VR = VBIAS forward-biased pn junction of the diode and is
not an active source of voltage.
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• When the diode is reverse-biased. it is equivalent to an • The forward current is determined as follows by
open switch just as in the ideal model, as shown in first applying Kirchhoff's voltage law to Figure (a)
Figure (b).
• The barrier potential does not affect reverse bias. so it is
not a factor.
• The characteristic curve for the practical diode modelis
shown in Figure.
• Since the barrier potential is included and the dynamic
resistance is neglected, the diode is assumed to havea
voltage across it when forward-biased, as indicated by
the portion of the curve to the right of the origin.
• VF = 0.7 V
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The Complete Diode Model

• The complete model of a diode consists of the barrier
potential, the small forward dynamic resistance (r’d), and
the large internal reverse resistance (r’R).
• The reverse resistance is taken into account because it
provides a path for the reverse current,which is included
in this diode model.
• When the diode is forward-biased, it acts as a closed
switch in series with the barrier potential voltage and the
small forward dynamic resistance (r’d), as indicated in
Figure (a).
• When the diode is reverse-biased, it acts as an open
switch in parallel with the large internal reverse
resistance (r’R ), as shown in Figure (b).
• The barrier potential does not affect reverse bias, so it is
not a factor. 76
75

79 80

20
 1/10/2021

• The characteristic curve for the complete diode model is shown in

Figure (c).
• Since the barrier potential and the forward dynamic resistance are
included, the diode is assumed to have a voltage across it when
forward-biased.
• This voltage (VF) consists of the barrier potential voltage plus the
small voltage drop across the dynamic resistance, as indicated by
the portion of the curve to the right of the origin.
• The curve slopes because the voltage drop due to dynamic
resistance increases as the current increases.
• The reverse current is taken into account with the parallel resistance
and is indicated by the portion of the curve to the left of the origin.
• The breakdown portion of the curve is not shown because
breakdown is not a normal mode of operation for most diodes

• For the complete model of a silicon diode, the following formulas

apply:

77 78

81 82

Solution
Example 1
• Determine the
forward voltage and
forward current for
the diode in Figure
for each of the
diode models. Also
find the voltage
across the limiting
resistor in each
case. Assume
r’d=10 Ω at the
determined value of
forward current.
79 80

83 84

21
 1/10/2021

Solution
Example 2
• Determine the
reverse voltage and
reverse current for
the diode in Figure
for each of the
diode models. Also
find the voltage
across the limiting
resistor in each
case. Assume lR = I
µA.
81 82

85 86

Some Diodes

Resistance of Diode

83 84

87 88

22
 1/10/2021

DC or Static Resistance
Resistance of Diode
• The application of a dc voltage to a
circuit containing a semiconductor diode
will result in an operating point on the
• As the operating point of a diode moves characteristic curve that will not change
with time.
from one region to another the resistance • The resistance of the diode at the
of the diode will also change due to the operating point can be found simply by
finding the corresponding levels of VD
nonlinear shape of the characteristic and ID as shown in Fig. and applying the
equation: RD = VD / ID
curve. • The dc resistance levels at the knee and
below will be greater than the resistance
levels obtained for the vertical rise
• There are two types of resistance section of the characteristics. In general, therefore,
• The resistance levels in the reverse-bias the lower the current
– DC or static resistance region will naturally be quite high. through a diode
• Since ohmmeters typically employ a the higher the dc
– AC or dynamic resistance relatively constant-current source, the resistance level.
resistance determined will be at a preset
current level (typically, a few
85 milliamperes). 86

89 90

Example 3. Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode of Fig. at

(a) ID = 2 mA (b) ID = 20 mA (c) VD = - 10 V
AC or Dynamic Resistance
• dc resistance of a diode is
independent of the shape of the
characteristic in the region
surrounding the point of interest
• If a sinusoidal rather than dc input is
applied, the situation will change
completely.
• The varying input will move the
instantaneous operating point up
and down a region of the
characteristics and thus defines a
specific change in current and
voltage as shown in Fig.
• With no applied varying signal, the
point of operation would be the Q-
point appearing on Fig. determined
by the applied dc levels.
• The designation Q-point is derived
from the word quiescent, which
87 means “still or unvarying.” 88

91 92

23
 1/10/2021

• A straight line drawn tangent

to the curve through the Q-
point as shown in Fig. will
define a particular change in
voltage and current that can
be used to determine the ac
or dynamic resistance for this
region of the diode
Voltage Current
characteristics.
• An effort should be made to
•The steeper the slope, the less the
value of Vd for the same change in
Characteristics of Diode
Id and the less the resistance.
keep the change in voltage •The ac resistance in the vertical
and current as small as rise region of the characteristic is
possible and equidistant to therefore quite small, while the ac
either side of the Q-point. resistance is much higher at low
current levels.
• In equation form,
In general, therefore, the lower the Q-point
of operation (smaller current or lower voltage)
the higher the ac resistance.
89 90

93 94

Voltage Current Characteristics of

Diode Forward Biased Diode
• Voltage current characteristics is the • With 0 voltage there will be no current.
relation between voltage and current • If forward voltage is gradually increased, diode
voltage will increase until it reaches 0.7 V
during the operation of a diode. (Barrier potential). Then forward current begins
to increase rapidly.
• Voltage current characteristics will be • If voltage is further increased then current will
different for increase accordingly but diode voltage will
– Forward biased characteristics increase slightly.
• This increase in diode voltage is due to voltage
– Reverse biased characteristics drop across the internal dynamic resistance of
the semiconductor material.

91 92

95 96

24
 1/10/2021

• The diode forward voltage (VF ) increases to the

right along the horizontal axis, and the forward
current (IF) increases upward along the vertical
axis.
• The forward current increases very little until the
forward voltage across the pn junction reaches
approximately 0.7 V at the knee of the curve.
• After this point. the forward voltage remains at
approximately 0.7 V, but IF increases rapidly.
• There is a slight increase in VF above 0.7 V as
the current increases due mainly to the voltage
drop across the dynamic resistance.
• Normal operation for a forward-biased diode is
above the knee of the curve.
• The IF scale is typically in mA, as indicated.
93 94

97 98

Effect of dynamic resistance Reverse Biased diode

• Unlike a linear resistance, the resistance of the forward- • When a reverse-bias voltage is applied across a diode, there
biased diode is not constant over the entire curve because is only an extremely small reverse current (IR) through the pn
the resistance changes as you move along the V-I curve, it junction.
is called dynamic or ac resistance. • With 0 V across the diode. there is no reverse current.
• Internal resistances of electronic devices are usually • As you gradually increase the reverse-bias voltage, there is a
designated by lowercase italic r ’, instead of the standard R. very small reverse current and the voltage across the diode
• The dynamic resistance of a diode is designated rd’ increases.
• When the applied bias voltage is increased to a value where
• Below the knee of the curve the resistance is greatest the reverse voltage across the diode (VR ) reaches the
because the current increases very little for a given change breakdown value (VBR ). the reverse current begins to
in voltage increase rapidly.
rd’ = ∆VF/ ∆IF • If reverse voltage is increased further, the current continues to
• The resistance begins to decrease in the region of the knee increase very rapidly. but the voltage across the diode
of the curve and becomes smallest above the knee where increases very little above VBR.
there is a large change in current for a given change in • Breakdown, with exceptions, is not a normal mode of
voltage. operation for most pn junction diodes.
95 96

99 100

25
 1/10/2021

• The diode reverse voltage (VR )

increases to the left along the
horizontal axis, and the reverse
current (IR) increases downward
along the vertical axis.
• There is very little reverse current
(usually μA or nA) until the reverse
voltage across the diode reaches
approximately the breakdown
value (VBR ) at the knee of the
curve.
• After this point, the reverse voltage
remains at approximately VBR , but
IR increases very rapidly, resulting
in overheating and possible
damage.
• The breakdown voltage for a
typical silicon diode can vary, but a
minimum value of 50 V is not 97 98
unusual.

101 102

Effect of temperature
• For a forward-biased diode, as temperature is increased.
the forward current increases for a given value of
forward voltage.
• Also, for a given valueof forward current, the forward
voltage decreases.
• This is shown with the V-I characteristic curves in Figure.
• The blue curve is at room temperature (25°C) andthe
red curve is at an elevated temperature (25°C + ∆T).
• Barrier potential decreases as temperature increases.
• For a reverse-biased diode, as temperature is increased,
the reverse current increases.
• Reverse current below breakdown remains extremely
small and can usually be neglected,
99 100

103 104

26
 1/10/2021

• Eventually, when this

Reverse Recovery Time storage phase has passed,
the current will reduce in
• There are certain pieces of data that are normally provided on diode level to that associated with
specification sheets provided by manufacturers. the non-conduction state.
• One such quantity that has not been considered yet is the reverse • This second period of time is
recovery time, denoted by trr . denoted by tt (transition
• In the forward-bias state it was shown earlier that there are a large interval).
number of electrons from the n-type material progressing through the
p-type material and a large number of holes in the n-type is a • The reverse recovery time is
requirement for conduction. the sum of these two
• The electrons in the p-type and holes progressing through the n-type intervals: trr = ts + tt.
material establish a large number of minority carriers in each material. • Naturally, it is an important
• If the applied voltage should be reversed to establish a reverse-bias consideration in high speed
situation, we would ideally like to see the diode change switching applications.
instantaneously from the conduction state to the non-conduction
state. • Most commercially available
• However, because of the large number of minority carriers in each switching diodes have a trr in
material, the diode current will simply reverse as shown in Fig. and the range of a few
stay at this measurable level for the period of time ts (storage time) nanoseconds to 1 s.
required for the minority carriers to return to their majority-carrier
state in the opposite material. • Units are available, however,
• In essence, the diode will remain in the short-circuit state with a with a trr of only a few
current Ireverse determined by the network parameters. hundred picoseconds (10-12)
101 102

105 106

Testing a Diode The DMM Diode Test Position

• A multimeter can be used as a fast and simple way to • Many digital multimeters (DMMs) have a diode test
check a diode. position that provides a convenient way to test a diode.
• A good diude will show an extremely high resistance • A typical DMM, has a small diode symbol to mark the
(ideally an open) with reverse bias and a very low position of the function switch.
resistance with forward bias. • When set to diode test. the meter provides an internal
• A defective open diode will show an extremely high voltage sufficient to forward-bias and reverse-bias a
resistance (or open) for both forward and reverse bias. diode.
• A defective shorted or resistive diode will show zero or a • This internal voltage may vary among different makes of
low resistance for both forward and reversebias. DMM, but 2.5 V to 3.5 V is a typical range of values.
• An open diode is. the most common type of failure. • The meter provides a voltage reading or other indication
to show the condition of the diode undertest.

103 104

107 108

27
 1/10/2021

When the Diode Is Working

• In Figure (a), the red (positive) lead of the meter is
connected to the anode and the black (negative) lead is
connected to the cathode to forward-bias thediode.
• If the diode is good, you will get a reading of between
approximately 0.5 V and 0.9 V, with 0.7 V beingtypical
for forward bias.
• In Figure (b), the diode is turned around to reverse-bias
the diode as shown.
• If the diode is working properly, you will get a voltage
reading based on the meter's internal voltage source.
• The 2.6 V shown in the figure represents a typical value
and indicates that the diode has an extremely high
reverse resistance with essentially all of the internal
voltage appearing across it.
106
105

109 110

When the Diode Is Defective

• When a diode has failed open. you get an open circuit
voltage reading (2.6 V is typical) or "OL" indication for
both the forward-bias and the reverse-bias condition, as
illustrated in Figure (a).
• If a diode is shorted, the meter reads 0 V in both
forward- and reverse-bias tests, as indicated in figure
(b).
• Sometimes, a failed diode may exhibit a small resistance
for both bias conditions rather than a pure short.
• In this case, the meter will show a small voltage much
less than the correct open voltage.
• For example, a resistive diode may result in a reading of
1.1 V in both directions rather than the correct readings
of 0.7 V for forward bias and 2.6 V for reverse bias.
108
107

111 112

28
 1/10/2021

Checking a Diode with the • Even though you may not get accurate forward-
OHMs Function and reverse-resistance readings on a DMM, the
relative readings indicate that a diode is
• DMMs that do not have a diode test position can beused functioning properly, and that is usually all you
to check a diode by setting the function switch on an need to know.
OHMs range.
• The out-of-range indication shows that the
• For a forward-bias check of a good diode, you will get a reverse resistance is extremely high, as you
resistance reading that can vary depending on the
meter's internal battery. expect.
• Many meters do not have sufficient voltage on the OHMs • The reading of a few hundred to a few thousand
setting to fully forward-bias a diode and you may get a ohms for forward bias is relatively small
reading of from several hundred to several thousand compared to the reverse resistance, indicating
ohms, that the diode is working properly.
• For the reverse-bias check of a good diode, you will get • The actual resistance of a forward-biased diode
some type of out-of-range indication such as "OL" on
most DMMs because the reverse resistance is too high is typically much less than 100Ω.
for the meter to measure.
109 110

113 114

DC Power Supply
• The dc power supply converts the standard ac
available supply into a constant dc voltage.
• The dc voltage produced by a power supply is
Half Wave Rectifier used to power all types of electronic circuits,
such as television receivers, stereo systems.
VCRs, CD players. and most laboratory
equipment.
• Rectification is process of converting AC into
DC supply and rectifier is the device to
perform this task
111 112

115 116

29
 1/10/2021

Half wave Rectifier

• Figure 5.1 illustrates the process called half-wave rectification.
• A diode is connected to an ac source and to a load resistor. R L
• During one cycle of the input voltage using the
forming a half-wave rectifier. ideal model for the diode.
• Keep in mind that all ground symbols represent the same point
electrically. • When the sinusoidal input voltage (Vin ) goes
positive, the diode is forward-biased and
conducts current through the load resistor.
• The current produces an output voltage across
the load RL which has the same shape as the
positive half-cycle of the input voltage.

Figure 5.1 113 114

117 118

• When the input voltage goes negative during the second

half of its cycle. the diode is reverse-biased.
• There is no current, so the voltage acrossthe load
resistor is 0 V.
• The net result is that only the positive half-cycles of the
ac input voltage appear across the load.
• Since the output does not change polarity, it is a
pulsating dc voltage with a frequency of 60 Hz
Figure 5.3

Figure 5.2 115 116

119 120

30
 1/10/2021

Average Value of half wave Example. What is the average value of the
Output voltage half-wave rectified voltage in Figure?
• The average value of the half-wave rectified output voltage is the value you
would measure on a de voltmeter.
• Mathematically, it is determined by finding the area under the curve over a
full cycle, as illustrated in Figure
• 5.4. and then dividing by 2π, the number of radians in a full cycle.
• The result of this is expressed as VAVG = Vp /π .
• Where (Vp) is the peak value of the voltage.
• VAVG is approximately 31.8% of Vp for a half-wave rectified voltage.

117 118
Figure 5.4

121 122

Effect of the Barrier Potential on

the Half-Wave Rectifier Output
• When the practical diode model is used with the
barrier potential of 0.7 V taken into account
• During the positive half-cycle, the input voltage
must overcome the barrier potential before the
diode becomes forward-biased.
• This results in a half-wave output with a peak
value that is 0.7 V less than the peak value of
the input, as shown in Figure.
• The expression for the peak output voltage is • It is usually acceptable to use the ideal diode model.
which neglects the effect of the barrier potential. when
the peak value of the applied voltage is much greater
than the barrier potential (at least 10 V. as a rule of
thumb).
119 120

123 124

31
 1/10/2021

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) Half-Wave Rectifier with

• PIV equals the peak value of the input voltage, and the Transformer-Coupled Input Voltage
diode must be capable of withstanding this amount of
repetitive reverse voltage. • A transformer is often used to couple the
• For the diode in Figure, the maximum value of reverse ac input voltage from the source to the
voltage, designated as PlV occurs at the peak of each
negative alternation of the input voltage when the diode rectifier,
is reverse-biased. • Transformer coupling provides two
advantages.
– First, it allows the source voltage to be
stepped up or stepped down as needed.
– Second, the ac source is electrically isolated
from the rectifier. thus preventing a shock
hazard in the secondary circuit
121 122

125 126

• Secondary voltage of a transformer equals the turns

ratio, n, times the primary voltage,
• Vsec = n Vpri
• If n > I, the secondary voltage is greater than the primary
voltage.
• If n < 1, the secondary voltage is less than the primary
voltage.
• If n = I, then Vsec =Vpri

123 124

127 128

32
 1/10/2021

Example:- Determine the peak value of the

output voltage for Figure, if the turns ratio is 0.5.

125 126

129 130

Full wave rectifier

• A full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one-way)
current through the load during the entire 3600 of the
input cycle, whereas a half-wave rectifier allow current
through the load only during one-half of the cycle.
Full Wave Rectifier • The result of full-wave rectification is an output voltage
with a frequency twice the input frequency that
pulsates every half-cycle of the input, as shown in
Figure.

127 128

131 132

33
 1/10/2021

• The number of positive alternations that make The Center-Tapped Full-Wave

up the fulI-wave rectified voltage is twice that of Rectifier
the half-wave voltage for the same time interval.
• A center-tapped rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier that
• The average value, which is the value measured uses two diodes connected to the secondary of a center-
tapped transformer, as shown in Figure.
on a dc voltmeter, for a full-wave rectified
• The input voltage is coupled through the transformer to the
sinusoidal voltage is twice that of the half-wave, center-tapped secondary.
as given • Half of the total secondary voltage appears between the
center tap and each end of the secondary winding as shown.

129 130

133 134

• For a positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the • For a negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the voltage
polarities of the secondary voltages are as shown in polarities on the secondary are as shown inFigure.
Figure. This condition forward-biases diode D1 and
reverse-biases diode D2. • This condition reverse-biases D1 and forward-biases D2.
• The current path is through D 1 and the load resistor R L • The current path is through D 2 and RL asindicated.
as indicated.

Because the output current during both the positive and negative
portions of the input cycle is in the same direction through the
load, the output voltage developed across the load resistor is a
full-wave rectified de voltage.
131 132

135 136

34
 1/10/2021

Effect of the Turns Ratio on the • In order to obtain an output voltage with a peak equal to the input
peak (less the diode drop), a step-up transformer with a turns ratio
of n = 2 must be used, as shown in Figure.
Output Voltage • In this case, the total secondary voltage (Vsec) is twice the primary
voltage (2Vpri) so the voltage across each half of the secondary is
• If the transformer's turns ratio is 1, the peak value of the rectified equal to Vpri.
output voltage equals half the peak value of the primary input
voltage less the barrier potential, as illustrated in Figure.
• Half of the primary voltage appears across each half of the
secondary winding Vp(sec) = Vp(pri).

The output voltage of a center-tapped full-wave rectifier is always one-half of

the total secondary voltage less the diode drop, no matter what the turns ratio.

133 134

137 138

• When the total secondary voltage (Vsec) has the polarity

Peak Inverse Voltage shown, the maximum anode voltage of D1 is + Vp(sec)/2
• Each diode in the full-wave rectifier is alternately forward-biased and
and the maximum anode voltage of D2 is Vp(sec)/2.
then reverse-biased. • Since D1 is assumed to be forward-biased, its cathode is
• The maximum reverse voltage that each diode must withstand is the at the same voltage as its anode minus the diode drop;
peak secondary voltage Vp(sec)
• This is shown in Figure, where D 2 is assumed to be reverse-biased
this is also the voltage on the cathode of D 2.
and D1 is assumed to be forward-biased. • The peak inverse voltage across D 2 is

135 136

139 140

35
 1/10/2021

The Bridge full wave Rectifier

• The bridge rectifier uses four diodes connected as
shown in Figure.
• When the input cycle is positive as in part (a), diodes D1
and D2 are forward-biased and conduct current in the
direction shown.
• A voltage is developed across R L that looks like the
positive half of the input cycle.
• During this time, diodes D3 and D4 are reverse-biased.
• When the input cycle is negative, diodes D 3 and D4 are
forward biased and conduct current in the samedirection
through RL as during the positive half cycle.
• During the negative half-cycle, D1 and D2 are reverse
biased.
• A full-wave rectified output voltage appears across RL
138
137

141 142

Bridge output Voltage Peak Inverse Voltage

• During the positive half-cycle of the totalsecondary • Assume that D1 and D2 are forward-biased and examine the reverse
voltage, diodes D1 and D2 are forward-biased. voltage across D3 and D4,
• Visualizing D1 and D2 as shorts (ideal model), as in Figure (a), it can
• Neglecting the diode drops, the secondaryvoltage be seen that D3 and D4, have a peak inverse voltage equal to the
appears across the load resistor. peak secondary voltage.
• The same is true when D 3 and D4 are forward-biased • Since the output voltage is ideally equal to the secondary voltage,
during the negative half-cycle. PIV = Vp(out)
– Vp(out) = Vp(sec) • If the diode drops of the forward-biased diodes are included, the
peak inverse voltage across each reverse-biased diode in terms of
• As shown in figure, two diodes are always in serieswith Vp(out) is
the load resistor during both the positive and negative • PIV = Vp(out) + 0.7 V
half-cycles.
The PIV rating of the bridge diodes is less than that required for the
• If these diode drops are taken into account, the output
center-tapped configuration.
voltage is
If the diode drop is neglected. the bridge rectifier requires diodes with
• Vp(out) = Vp(sec) - 1.4 V half the PIV rating of those in a center-tapped rectifier for the same
output voltage.
139 140

143 144

36
 1/10/2021

Smoothing Capacitor
• The full-wave bridge rectifier gives mean DC value
(0.637 Vmax) with less superimposed ripple while the
output waveformis twice that of the frequency of the
input supply frequency.
• Its average DC output level can be increased even
higher by connecting a suitable smoothing capacitor
across the output of the bridge circuit as shownin fig
• The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled
output of the rectifier into a smooth DC output voltage.
• Generally for DC power supply circuits the smoothing
capacitor is an Aluminium Electrolytic type that has a
capacitance value of 100uF or more with repeated DC
voltage pulses from the rectifier charging up the
141 capacitor to peak voltage. 142

145 146

• Two important parameters to consider when choosing a suitable

smoothing capacitor are its
• (1)Working Voltage
– must be higher than the no-load output value of the rectifier
• (2)Capacitance Value
– determines the amount of ripple that will appear superimposed
on top of the DC voltage.
• Too low a value and the capacitor has little effect but if the smoothing
capacitor is large enough (parallel capacitors can be used) and the
load current is not too large, the output voltage will be almost as
smooth as pure DC.
• As a general rule of thumb, we are looking to have a ripple voltage
of less than 100mV peak to peak.
• The maximum ripple voltage present for a Full Wave
Rectifier circuit is not only determined by the value of the smoothing
capacitor but by the frequency and load current, and is calculated as:

I is the DC load current in amps, ƒ is the frequency of the ripple or

twice the input frequency in Hertz, and C is the capacitance in
143 144
Farads.

147 148

37
 1/10/2021

• The main advantages of a full-wave bridge rectifier is that it

has a smaller AC ripple value for a given load and a smaller
reservoir or smoothing capacitor than an equivalent half-wave
rectifier.
• Therefore, the fundamental frequency of the ripple voltage is
twice that of the AC supply frequency (100Hz) where for the
half-wave rectifier it is exactly equal to the supply frequency
(50Hz).
• The amount of ripple voltage that is superimposed on top of
Zener Diode
the DC supply voltage by the diodes can be virtually
eliminated by adding a much improved π-filter (pi-filter)to the
output terminals of the bridge rectifier.
• This type of low-pass filter consists of two smoothing
capacitors, usually of the same value and a choke or
inductance across them to introduce a high impedance path
to the alternating ripple component.
• Another more practical and cheaper alternative is to use a 3-
terminal voltage regulator IC, such as a LM78xx for a positive
output voltage or the LM79xx for a negative output voltage
which can reduce the ripple by more than 70dB (Datasheet)
while delivering a constant output current of over 1 amp. 146
145

149 150

Zener Diode

• The Zener diode is like a general-purpose diode consisting of a

silicon PN junction.
• When biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal
diode passing the rated current,
• When a reverse voltage is applied to it the reverse current remains
fairly constant over a wide range of voltages
• The reverse voltage increases until the diodes breakdown voltage V BR is
reached at which point, Breakdown occurs in the depletion layer and the
current flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the
maximum circuit value (which is usually limited by a series resistor).
• This breakdown voltage point is called the "zener voltage" for zener
diodes
• The point at which current flows can be very accurately controlled (to
less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes construction
giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, (Vz) ranging from a
few volts up to a few hundred volts.

• This zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical 147 148
straight line

151 152

38
 1/10/2021

• The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias" or reverse

breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode connects to the
negative supply.
• From the I-V characteristics curve, it can be seen that the
zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of
almost a constant negative voltage regardless of the value of
the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly
constant even with large changes in current as long as the
zener diodes current remains between the breakdown current
IZ(min) and the maximum current rating IZ(max).
• This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to
regulate or stabilise a voltage source against supply or load
variations.
• The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown
region is almost constant turns out to be an important
application of the zener diode as a voltage regulator.
• The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output
voltage to a load connected in parallel with it in spite of the
ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current
and the zener diode will continue to regulate the voltage until
the diodes current falls below the minimum IZ(min value in the
reverse breakdown region. 149 150

153 154

Zener Breakdown Breakdown Characteristics

• Zener diodes are designed to operate in reverse breakdown.
• Two types of reverse breakdown in a zener diode are • Figure shows the reverse portion
– avalanche and zener. of a zener diode's characteristic
curve,
• The avalanche breakdown occurs in both rectifier and zener diodes • The reverse voltage (VR) is
at a sufficiently high reverse voltage. increased, the reverse current (IR)
• Zener breakdown occurs in a zener diode at low reverse voltages. remains extremely small up to the
"knee" of the curve.
• A zener diode is heavily doped to reduce the breakdown voltage, • The reverse current is also called
which causes a very thin depletion region. the zener current (lz).
• As a result, an intense electric field exists within the depletion • At this point, the breakdown
region. effect begins: the internal zener
resistance, also called zener
• Near the zener breakdown voltage (Vz ), the field is intense enough impedance (Zz), begins to
to pull electrons from their valence bands and create current, decrease as the reverse current
• Zener diodes with breakdown voltages of less than approximately 5 increases rapidly.
V operate predominately in zener breakdown. • From the bottom of the knee. the
zener breakdown voltage (Vz)
• Those with breakdown voltages greater than approximately 5 V remains essentially constant
operate predominately in avalanche breakdown. although it increases slightly as
the zener current (lz) increase.
• Zeners are commercially available with breakdown voltages of 1.8 V
to 200 V with specified tolerances from I% to 20%. 152
151

155 156

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Zener Regulation Zener Equivalent Circuit

• The ability to keep the reverse voltage across its terminals
essentially constant is the key feature of the zener diode. • Figure shows the ideal
• A zener diode operating in breakdown acts as a voltage regulator model of a zener diode in
because it maintains a nearly constant voltage across its reverse breakdown. It has a
terminals over a specified range of reverse-current values. constant voltage drop equal
to the nominal zener
• A minimum value of reverse current, IZK must he maintained in voltage.
order to keep the diode in breakdown for voltage regulation.
• This constant voltage drop
• It can be seem on the curve that when the reverse current is is represented by a dc
reduced below the knee of the curve, the voltage decreases voltage source even though
drastically and regulation is lost. the zener diode does not
• Also, there is a maximum current, IZM above which the diode may actually produce an emf
be damaged due to excessive power dissipation. voltage.
• The dc source simply
• So, basically. the zener diode maintains a nearly constant indicates that the effect of
voltage across its terminals for values of reverse current ranging reverse breakdown is a
from IZK to to IZM constant voltage across the
• A nominal zener voltage, VZT , is usually specified on a data zener terminals.
sheet
l at a value of reverse current called the zener test current,
ZT
153 154

157 158

• Figure represents the practical

model of a zener diode, where
the zener impedance (Zz) is
included.
• Since the actual voltage curve
is not ideally vertical, a change
in zener current (Δlz) produces
a small change in zener
voltage (ΔVz).
• By Ohm's law, Zz = ΔVz / Δlz
• Normally, Zz is specified atIZT,
the zener test current, and is
designated ZZT
• In most cases, it can be
assumed that Zz is constant
over the full linear range of
zener current values and is
purely resistive.

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A zener diode has a ZZT of 3.5 Ω. The data sheet gives VZT
A zener diode exhibits a certain change in V z for a certain
= 6.8 V at IZT = 37 mA and IZK = 1 mA. What is the voltage
change in lz on a portion of the linear characteristic curve
between IZK and IZM as illustrated in Figure. What is the zener acrossthe zener terminals when the current is 50 mA?
impedance? When the cunent is 25mA?

157 158

161 162

Temperature Coefficient
• The temperature coefficient specifiesthe percent change
in zener voltage for each degree centigrade change in
temperature.
• For example, a 12 V zener diode with a positive
temperature coefficient of 0.01% /OC will exhibit a 1.2
mV increase in Vz when the junction temperature
increases one degree centigrade.
• The formula for calculating the change in zener voltage
for a given junction temperature change, for a specified
temperature coefficient, is

Where Vz is nominal zener voltage at 250C

When temp. coefficient is expressed in mV/ 0 C

159 160

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Zener Power Dissipation Power Derating

• Zener diodes are specified to operate at a • The maximum power dissipation of a zener
maximum power called the maximum dc diode is typically specified for temperatures at or
power dissipation, PD(max). below a certain value (50°C, for example).
• For example, the lN746 zener is rated at a • Above the specified temperature. the maximum
PD(max) of 500 mW and the IN3305A is power dissipation is reduced according to a
rated at a PD(max) of 50 W. derating factor.
• The dc power dissipation is determined by • The derating factor is expressed in mW/°C.
the formula, • The maximum derated power can be determined
with the following formula:
• PD = VZ IZ
162
161

165 166

Zener Diode Regulator

• Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilised
voltage output with low ripple under varying load current
conditions.
• By passing a small current through the diode from a
voltage source, via a suitable current limiting resistor
(RS), the zener diode will conduct sufficient current to
maintain a voltage drop of Vout.
• The DC output voltage from the half or full-wave
rectifiers contains ripple superimposed onto the DC
voltage and that as the load value changes so to does
the average output voltage.
• By connecting a simple zener stabiliser circuit as shown
below across the output of the rectifier, a more stable
output voltage can be produced.
163 164

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 1/10/2021

• The resistor, Rs is connected in series with the zener diode to

limit the current flow through the diode with the voltage
source, Vs being connected across the combination.
• The stabilised output voltage Vout is taken from across the
zener diode.
• The zener diode is connected with its cathode terminal
connected to the positive rail of the DC supply so it is reverse
biased and will be operating in its breakdown condition.
• Resistor Rs is selected so to limit the maximum current
flowing in the circuit.
• With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be
zero, (IL = 0 ), and all the circuit current passes through the
zener diode which in turn dissipates its maximum power.
• Also a small value of the series resistor Rs will result in a
greater diode current when the load resistance RL is
connected and large as this will increase the power
dissipation requirement of the diode so care must be taken
when selecting the appropriate value of series resistance so
that the zeners maximum power rating is not exceeded under
this no-load or high-impedance condition.
165 166

169 170

• The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so

the voltage across R L is always the same as the zener Example
voltage, ( VR = VZ ). • A 5.0V stabilised power supply is
• There is a minimum zener current for which the required to be produced from
stabilization of the voltage is effective and the zener a 12V DC power supply input
current must stay above this value operating under load source.
within its breakdown region at all times. The maximum power rating Pz of
the zener diode is 2W.
• The upper limit of current is of course dependantupon Using the zener regulator circuit
the power rating of the device. calculate:
• The supply voltage Vs must be greater thanVz. a)The maximum current flowing
through the zener diode.
• One small problem with zener diode stabiliser circuits is b)The value of the series
that the diode can sometimes generate electrical noise resistor, Rs
on top of the DC supply as it tries to stabilise the voltage. c) The load current IL if a load
• Normally this is not a problem for most applications but resistor of 1kΩ is connected
the addition of a large value decoupling capacitor across across the Zener diode.
the zeners output may be required to give additional d) The total supply current Is
smoothing.
168
167

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(a) Zener Diode Voltages

• As well as producing a single stabilised voltage
(b)
output, zener diodes can also be connected
together in series along with normal silicon
signal diodes to produce a variety of different
reference voltage output values
• The values of the individual Zener diodes can be
(c)
chosen to suit the application while the silicon
diode will always drop about 0.6 - 0.7V in the
forward bias condition.
• The supply voltage, Vin must of course be higher
(d) than the largest output reference voltage
169 170

173 174

Zener Diode Standard Voltages

BZX55 Zener Diode Power Rating500mW

2.4V 2.7V 3.0V 3.3V 3.6V 3.9V 4.3V 4.7V

5.1V 5.6V 6.2V 6.8V 7.5V 8.2V 9.1V 10V

11V 12V 13V 15V 16V 18V 20V 22V

24V 27V 30V 33V 36V 39V 43V 47V

BZX85 Zener Diode Power Rating 1.3W

3.3V 3.6V 3.9V 4.3V 4.7V 5.1V 5.6 6.2V

6.8V 7.5V 8.2V 9.1V 10V 11V 12V 13V

15V 16V 18V 20V 22V 24V 27V 30V

33V 36V 39V 43V 47V 51V 56V 62V172

171

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Zener Diode Clipping Circuits

• Diode clipping and clamping circuits are circuits that are used to
shape or modify an input AC waveform (or any sinusoid) producing
a differently shape output waveform depending on the circuit
arrangement.
• Diode clipper circuits are also called limiters because they limit or
clip-off the positive (or negative) part of an input AC signal.
• As zener clipper circuits limit or cut-off part of the waveform across
them, they are mainly used for circuit protection or in waveform
shaping circuits.
• For example, if we wanted to clip an output waveform at +7.5V, we
would use a 7.5V zener diode.
• If the output waveform tries to exceed the 7.5V limit, the zener diode
will "clip-off" the excess voltage from the input producing a waveform
with a flat top still keeping the output constant at +7.5V.
• In forward bias condition a zener diode is still a diode and when the
AC waveform output goes negative below -0.7V, the zener diode
turns "ON" like any normal silicon diode would and clips the output at
-0.7V as shown in fig 174
173

177 178

• The back to back connected zener diodes can be used as

an AC regulator producing what is jokingly called a "poor
man's square wave generator". Summary
• Using this arrangement we can clip the waveform between
a positive value of +7.5V and a negative value of -7.5V. • A zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased
• If we wanted to clip an output waveform between different condition.
minimum and maximum values for example, +8V and -6V, • A voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a zener
would simply use two differently rated zener diodes.
diode to maintain a constant DC output voltage across
• The output will actually clip the AC waveform between
the load in spite of variations in the input voltage or
+8.7V and -6.7V due to the addition of the forward biasing
diode voltage, which adds another 0.7V voltage drop to it.
changes in the load current.
• This type of clipper configuration is fairly common for • The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting
protecting an electronic circuit from over voltage. resistor Rs connected in series with the input voltage Vs
• The two zeners are generally placed across the power with the zener diode connected in parallel with the load
supply input terminals and during normal operation, one of RL in this reverse biased condition.
the zener diodes is "OFF" and the diodes have little or no • The stabilized output voltage is always selected to be the
affect. same as the breakdown voltage Vz of the diode.
• However, if the input voltage waveform exceeds its limit,
then the zeners turn "ON" and clip the input to protect the 175 176
circuit

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LED
• Light Emitting Diodes or LED´s, are among the most widely used
of all the different types of semiconductor diodes available today.
• They are the most visible type of diode, that emit a fairly narrow
bandwidth of either visible light at different coloured wavelengths,
invisible infra-red light for remote controls or laser type light when a

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

forward current is passed through them.
• LED is basically just a specialised type of PN junction diode, made
from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped semiconductor material.
• When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the
semiconductors conduction band recombine with holes from the
valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce photons which
emit a monochromatic (single colour) of light.
• Because of this thin layer a reasonable number of these photons
can leave the junction and radiate away producing a coloured light
output.
• When operated in a forward biased direction LEDs are
semiconductor devices that convert electrical energy into light
energy.
177
178

181 182

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

• When the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the pn junction
from the n-type material and recombine with holes in the p-type
material.
• These free electrons are in the conduction band and at a higher
energy than the holes in the valence band.
• When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release
energy in the form of heat and light.
• A large exposed surface area on one layer of the semi conductive
material permits the photons to be emitted as visible light.
• This process, called electroluminescence, is illustrated in Figure
• Various impurities are added during the doping process to establish
the wavelength of the emitted light.
• The wavelength determines the color of the light and if it is visible or
infrared (IR).

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 1/10/2021

• However, not all LEDs are made with a hemispherical

LED Construction shaped dome for their epoxy shell.
• The construction of a light emitting diode
• Some LEDs have a rectangular or cylindricalshaped
is very different from that of a normal construction that has a flat surface ontop.
diode. • Also, nearly all LEDs have their cathode, (K) terminal
• The PN junction of an LED is identified by either a notch or flat spot on the body, or by
surrounded by a transparent, hard
plastic epoxy resign hemispherical one of the leads being shorter than the other, (the
shaped shell or body which protects the Anode, A).
LED from both vibration and shock.
• Surprisingly, an LED junction does not • Unlike normal incandescent lamps and bulbs which
actually emit that much light so the generate large amounts of heat when illuminated, the
epoxy resin body is constructed in such light emitting diode produces a "cold" generation of
a way that the photons of light emitted
by the junction are reflected away from light which leads to high efficiencies than the normal
the surrounding substrate base to which "light bulb" because most of the generated energy
the diode is attached and are focused
upwards through the domed top of the
radiates away within the visible spectrum.
LED, which itself acts like a lens • Because LEDs are solid-state devices, they can be
concentrating the amount of light.
extremely small and durable and provide much longer
• This is why the emitted light appears to
be brightest at the top of the LED.
lamp life than normal light sources.
181
182

185 186

Typical LED Characteristics

LED Colours Semiconductor

Wavelength Colour
Material VF @ 20mA

• So how does a light emitting diode get its colour.

• Unlike normal diodes which are made for detection or power GaAs 850-940nm Infra-Red 1.2v
rectification, and which are made from either Germanium or Silicon
semiconductor materials, LEDs are made from exotic
GaAsP 630-660nm Red 1.8v
semiconductor compounds such as
– Gallium Arsenide (GaAs),
– Gallium Phosphide (GaP), GaAsP 605-620nm Amber 2.0v
– Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP),
– Silicon Carbide (SiC)
GaAsP:N 585-595nm Yellow 2.2v
– Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN)
all mixed together at different ratios to produce a distinct wavelength of
colour. AlGaP 550-570nm Green 3.5v

• Different LED compounds emit light in specific regions of the visible

light spectrum and therefore produce different intensity levels. SiC 430-505nm Blue 3.6v
• The exact choice of the semiconductor material used will determine
the overall wavelength of the photon light emissions and therefore GaInN 450nm White 4.0v
the resulting colour of the light emitted.
184
183

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• Thus, the actual colour of a light emitting diode is • From the table above we can see that the main P-type
determined by the wavelength of the light emitted, which in- dopant used in the manufacture of LEDs is Gallium (Ga)
turn is determined by the actual semiconductor compound
used in forming the PN junction during manufacture and and that the main N-type dopant used is Arsenic (As) giving
NOT by the colouring of the LEDs plastic body although the resulting compound of Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) crystal
these are slightly coloured to both enhance the light and structure.
indicate its colour when its not be used. • The problem with using Gallium Arsenide on its own as the
• Light emitting diodes are available in a wide range of semiconductor compound is that it radiates large amounts
colours with the most common being of low brightness infra-red radiation (850nm-940nm
approx.) from its junction when a forward current is flowing
– RED through it.
– YELLOW
• This infra-red light is ok for television remote controls but
– GREEN not very useful if we want to use the LED as an indicating
• Widely used as visual indicators and as moving light light.
displays. • But by adding Phosphorus (P), as a third dopant the overall
• Recently developed blue and white coloured LEDs are also wavelength of the emitted radiation is reduced to below
available but these tend to be much more expensive than 680nm giving visible red light to the human eye.
the normal standard colours due to the production costs of
mixing together two or more complementary colours at an • Further refinements in the doping process of the PN
exact ratio within the semiconductor compound and also by junction have resulted in a range of colours spanning the
injecting nitrogen atoms into the crystal structure during the185 spectrum of visible light as we have seen above as well as
doping process. infra-red and ultra-violet wavelengths
186

189 190

• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) - infra-red

• Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) - red to V-I Characteristics of LEDs
infra-red, orange • Like conventional PN junction diodes, LEDs are current-
• Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide dependent devices with its forward voltage drop VF,
(AlGaAsP) - high-brightness red, orange-red, depending on the semiconductor compound (its light
orange, and yellow colour) and on the forward biased LED current.
• The point where conduction begins and light is produced
• Gallium Phosphide (GaP) - red, yellow and is about 1.2V for a standard red LED to about 3.6V for a
green blue LED.
• Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) - green • The exact voltage drop will of course depend on the
• Gallium Nitride (GaN) - green, emerald green manufacturer because of the different dopant materials
and wavelengths used.
• Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) - near ultraviolet,
• The voltage drop across the LED at a particular current
bluish-green and blue value, for example 20mA, will also depend on the initial
• Silicon Carbide (SiC) - blue as a substrate conduction VF point.
• Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) - blue • As an LED is effectively a diode, its forward current to
voltage characteristics curves can be plotted for each
• Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) - ultraviolet diode colour as shown
187
188

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• Before a light emitting diode can "emit" any form of light it

needs a current to flow through it, as it is a current dependant
device with their light output intensity being directly
proportional to the forward current flowing through the LED.
• As the LED is to be connected in a forward bias condition
across a power supply it should be current limited using a
series resistor to protect it from excessive current flow.
• Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply as
it will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current
will pass through and burn it out.
• From the table above we can see that each LED has its own
forward voltage drop across the PN junction and this
parameter which is determined by the semiconductor material
used, is the forward voltage drop for a specified amount of
forward conduction current, typically for a forward current of
20mA.
• In most cases LEDs are operated from a low voltage DC
supply, with a series resistor, Rs used to limit theforward
current to a safe value from say 5mA for a simple LED
indicator to 30mA or more where a high brightness light
output is needed.
189 190

193 194

LED Series Resistance Example

• An LED with a forward volt
drop of 2 volts is to be
• The series resistor
connected to a 5.0v
value Rs is calculated by
simply using Ohm’s law, stabilised DC power
by knowing the required supply.
forward current IF of the • Using the circuit calculate
LED, the supply the value of the series
voltage Vs acrossthe resistor required to limit the
combination and the forward current to less than
expected forward voltage
drop of the LED, VF at the 10mA.
required current level,the • Also calculate the current
current limiting resistor is flowing through the diodeif
calculated as: a 100Ω series resistor is
• Rs = Vs – VF used instead of the
IF calculated first
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 1/10/2021

1). series resistor value at 10mA

Multi-Coloured LEDs
• LEDs are available in a wide range of shapes, colours and
various sizes with different light output intensities available,
with the most common (and cheapest to produce) being the
standard 5mm Red Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP)
LED.
2). with a 100Ω series resistor. • LED's are also available in various "packages" arranged to
produce both letters and numbers with the most common
being that of the "seven segment display" arrangement.
• Nowadays, full colour flat screen LED displays are available
with a large number of dedicated ICs available for driving the
displays directly.
• Most light emitting diodes produce just a single output of
coloured light however, multi-coloured LEDs are now
available that can produce a range of different colours from
within a single device.
• Most of these are actually two or three LEDs fabricated within
193 a single package. 194

197 198

Bi-colour LEDs
• A bicolour light emitting diode has two LEDs chips
connected together in "inverse parallel" (one forwards,
one backwards) combined in one single package.
• Bicolour LEDs can produce any one of three colours for Terminal A
example, a red colour is emitted when the device is LED
connected with current flowing in one direction and a Selected AC

green colour is emitted when it is biased in the other + -

direction.
• This type of bi-directional arrangement is useful for LED 1 ON OFF ON
giving polarity indication, for example, the correct
connection of batteries or power supplies etc.
• Also, a bi-directional current produces both colours LED 2 OFF ON ON

mixed together as the two LEDs would take it in turn to

illuminate if the device was connected (via a suitable Colour Green Red Yellow
resistor) to a low voltage, low frequencyAC supply.
195 196

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 1/10/2021

Tri-colour LEDs
• The most popular type of tricolour LED comprises of a
single Red and a Green LED combined in one package
with their cathode terminals connected together
producing a three terminal device.
Output
Red Orange Yellow Green
• They are called tricolour LEDs because they can give Colour
out a single red or a green colour by turning "ON" only
one LED at a time.
LED 1
• They can also generate additional shades of colours(the Current 0 5mA 9.5mA 15mA
third colour) such as Orange or Yellow by turning "ON"
the two LEDs in different ratios of forward current as
LED 2
shown in the table thereby generating 4 different colours Current 10mA 6.5mA 3.5mA 0
from just two diode junctions

197 198

201 202

LED Biasing
• The forward voltage across an LED is considerably
greater than for a silicon diode.
• Typically the maximum Vp for LEDs is between 1.2 V
and 3.2 V, depending on the device.
• Reverse breakdown for an LED is much less than fora
silicon rectifier diode (3V to 10 V is typical).
• The LED emits light in response to a sufficient forward
current, as shown in Figure (a).
• The amount of power output translated into light is
directly proportional to the for ward current, as indicated
in Figure (b).
• An increase in IF corresponds proportionally to an
increase in light output.

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 1/10/2021

Typical LEDs LED Applications

• Standard LEDs are used for indicator lamps and readout displays on
a wide variety of instruments, ranging from consumer appliances to
scientific apparatus.
• IR light-emitting diodes are used in optical coupling applications,
often in conjunction with fiber optics.
• Areas of application include industrial processing and control,
position encoders, bar graph readers. and optical switching.
• A common type of display device using LEDs is the seven-segment
display.
• Combinations of the segments form the ten decimal digits as
illustrated in Figure.
• Each segment in the display is an LED.
• By forward-biasing selected combinations of segments, any decimal
digit and a decimal point can be formed.
• Two types of LED circuit arrangements are the common anode and
common cathode as shown.
201
202

205 206

Photo Diode

203 204

207 208

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Photo Diode • A photodiode differs from

• The photodiode is a device that operates in reverse bias. as shown a rectifier diode in that
in Figure, where Iλ is the reverse current. when its pn junction is
• The photodiode has a small transparent window that allows light to exposed to light, the
strike the pn junction. reverse current increases
• When reverse-biased. a rectifier diode has a very small reverse with the light intensity
leakage current. The same is true for a photodiode.
• W hen there is no
• The reverse-biased current is produced by thermally generated incident light. the
electron-hole pairs in the depletion region. which are swept across
the pn junction by the electric field created by the reverse voltage. reverse current, IA is
• In a rectifier diode, the reverse leakage current increases with
almost negligible
temperature due to an increase in the number of electron-hole pairs. and is called the
dark current.
• An increase in the
amount of light intensity,
expressed as irradiance
(mW/cm2), produces an
increase in the reverse
current, as shown by the
205 206
graph.

209 210

Tunnel Diode

207 208

211 212

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 1/10/2021

Tunneling Effect •

•
The tunnel diode is similar to a standard p-n junction in many
respects except that the doping levels are very high.
This heavy doping results in an extremely narrow depletion region.
• If a P-N junction is doped very heavily (1000 times or more) its • The heavy doping allows conduction for all reverse voltages so that
depletion layer becomes extremely thin there is no breakdown effect as with the conventional rectifier diode.
• Under such condition, many carriers can “punch through” the • The tunnel diode exhibits a special characteristic known as negative
junction with the speed of light even when they don’t posses enough resistance.
energy to overcome the potential barrier • This feature makes it useful in oscillator and microwave amplifier
• Therefore large forward current is produced even when the applied applications.
bias voltage is less than 0.3 V • Tunnel diodes are constructed with germanium or gallium arsenide by
• The conduction mechanism in which charge carriers (possessing doping the p and n regions much more heavily than in a conventional
little energy) bore through a barrier directly instead of climbing over rectifier diode.
is called tunneling effect
• The tunnel diode was discovered by a Ph.D. research student
named Esaki in 1958 while he was investigating the properties of
heavily doped germanium junctions for use in high speed bipolar
transistors.
• In the course of his research he produced some heavily doped
junctions and as a result found that they produced an oscillation at
microwave frequencies as a result of the tunnelling effect.
• It was subsequently
arsenide found
also produced thethat other
same materials
effect . including gallium 209 210

213 214

• The extremely narrow depletion region permits electrons

to "tunnel" through the pn junction at very low forward-
bias voltages, and the diode acts as a conductor.
Application of Tunnel Diode
• This is shown in Figure between points A andB.
• At point B, the forward voltage begins to developa
• A parallel resonant circuit can be represented by
barrier. and the current begins to decrease as the a capacitance, inductance, and resistance in
forward voltage continues to increase. parallel, as in Figure (a).
• This is the negative-resistance region. • Rp is the parallel equivalent of the series
winding resistance of the coil.
• When the tank circuit is "shocked" into oscillation
• This effect is opposite to that described in Ohm's law, by an application of voltage as in Figure, a
where an increase in voltage results in an increase in damped sinusoidal output results.
current.
• The damping is due to the resistance of the tank,
• At point C, the diode begins to act as a conventional which prevents a sustained oscillation because
forward- biased diode. energy is lost when there is current through the
resistance.
211 212

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 1/10/2021

• If a tunnel diode is placed in series with the tank circuit

and biased at the center of the negative-resistance
portion of its characteristic curve, as shownin Figure, a
sustained oscillation (constant sinusoidal voltage) will
result on the output.
• This is because the negative-resistance characteristic of
the tunnel diode counteracts the positive-resistance
characteristic of the tank resistance.

213 214

217 218

• Schottky diodes are used primarily in high-frequency and fast-

switching applications.
• They are also known as hot-carrier diodes.
• A Schottky diode is formed by joining a doped semiconductor region
(usually n-type) with a metal such as gold, silver, or platinum.
• Rather than a pn junction, there is a metal-to-semiconductor
junction, as shown in Figure.

Schottky Diode • The forward voltage drop is typically around 0.3 V.

215 216

219 220

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 1/10/2021

• The Schottky diode operates only with majority carriers.

• There are no minority carriers and thus noreverse
leakage current as in other types of diodes.
• The metal region is heavily occupied with conduction-
band electrons, and the n-type semiconductor region is Laser Diode
lightly doped.
• When forward-biased, the higher energy electrons in the
n region are injected into the metal region where they
give up their excess energy veryrapidly.
• Since there are no minority carriers, as in a conventional
rectifier diode, there is a very rapid response to a change
in bias.
• The Schottky is a fast-switching diode, and most of its
applications make use of this property.
• It can be used in high-frequency applications and in any
digital circuits to decrease switchingtimes.
218
217

221 222

• The term laser stands for light amplification by stimulated

emission of radiation.
• Laser light is monochromatic. which means that it
consists of a single color and not a mixture of colors.
• Laser light is also called coherent light, a single
wavelength, as compared to incoherent light, which
consists of a wide band of wavelengths.
• The laser diode normally emits coherent light, whereas
the LED emits incoherent light.
• The basic construction of a laser diode is shownin
Figure.
• A pn junction is formed by two layers of doped gallium
arsenide.
• The length of the pn junction bears a precise relationship
with the wavelength of the light to be emitted.
• There is a highly reflective surface at one end of the pn
junction and a partially reflective surface at the other end
produced by "polishing" the ends.
219 220
• External leads provide the anode and cathode
connections.

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• The laser diode is forward-biased by an external voltage

source. • Each photon produced
• As electrons move through the junction. recombination occurs in this process is
just as in an ordinary diode. identical to the other
• As electrons fall into holes to recombine, photons are photons in energy level,
released. phase relationship. and
• A released photon can strike an atom, causing another frequency.
photon to be released. • So a single wavelength
• As the forward current is increased, more electrons enter the of intense light emerges
depletion region and cause more photons to be emitted.
from the laser diode, as
• Eventually some of the photons that are randomly drifting indicated in Figure.
within the depletion region strike the reflected surfaces
perpendicularly. • Laser diodes have a
• These reflected photons move along the depletion region, threshold level of current
striking atoms and releasing additional photons due to the above which the laser
avalanche effect. action occurs and below
• This back and forth movement of photons increases as the which the diode behaves
generation of photons "snowballs" until a very intense beam
of laser light is formed by the photons that pass through the essentially as an LED,
partially reflective end of the pn junction. emitting incoherent light.
221 222

225 226

Application of Laser Diode

• Laser diodes and photodiodes are used in the pick-up system
of compact disk (CD) players.
• Audio information (sound) is digitally recorded in stereo on the
surface of a compact disk in the form of microscopic "pits" and
"flats."
• A lens arrangement focuses the laser beam from the diode
PIN Diode
onto the CD surface.
• As the CD rotates, the lens and beam follow the track under
control of a servomotor.
• The laser light, which is altered by the pits and flats along the
recorded track, is reflected back from the track through a lens
and optical system to infrared photodiodes.
• The signal from the photodiodes is then used to reproduce the
digitally recorded sound.

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• The pin diode consists of heavily doped p and n regions

separated by an intrinsic (i) region, as shown in Figure.
• When reverse-biased, the pin diode acts like a nearly
constant capacitance.
• When forward-biased, it acts like a current-controlled
variable resistance.
• The low forward resistance of the intrinsic region decreases
with increasing current.
• The pin diode is used as a dc-controlled microwave switch
operated by rapid changes in bias or as a modulating
device that takes advantage of the variable forward-
resistance characteristic.
• Since no rectification occurs at the pn junction, a high-
frequency signal can be modulated (varied) by a lower-
frequency bias variation.
• A pin diode can also be used in attenuator applications
because its resistance can be controlled by the amount of
current.
• Certain types of pin diodes are used as photo-detectors in 225 226
fiber-optic systems.

229 230

• The step-recovery diode uses graded doping

where the doping level of the semi conductive
materials is reduced as the pn junction is
Step Recovery Diode approached.
• This produces an abrupt turn-off time by
allowing a fast release of stored charge when
switching from forward to reverse bias.
• It also allows a rapid re-establishment of forward
current when switching from reverse to forward
bias.
• This diode is used in very high frequency (VHF)
and fast-switching applications
227 228

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• The current regulator diode is often referred to as a

constant-current diode
• Rather than maintaining a constant voltage, as the zener
diode does, this diode maintain a constant current.
• Figure shows a typical characteristic curve.
Current Regulator Diode • The current regulator diode operates in forward bias
(shaded region), and the forward current becomes a
specified constant value at forward voltages ranging
from about 1.5 V to about 6 V. depending on the diode
type.
• The constant forward current is called the regulator
current and is designated Ip.
• For example, the IN5283-IN53l4 series of diodes have
nominal regulator currents ranging from 220 µA to 4.7
mA.
• These diodes may be usedin parallel to obtain higher
229
currents.
230

233 234

• This diode does not have a sharply defined reverse

breakdown, so the reverse current begins to increase for
VAK values of less than 0V (unshaded region of the
figure).
• This device should never be operated in reverse bias.
• In forward bias, the diode regulation begins at the
limiting voltage, VL , and extends up to the POV (peak
operating voltage).
• Notice that between VK and POV, the current is
essentially constant.
• VT is the test voltage at which lp and the diode
impedance, ZT are specified on a data sheet.
• The impedance ZT has very high values ranging from
235 kΩ to 25 MΩ for the diode series mentioned before.
231 232

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Diode Limiter
• Figure (a) shows a diode limiter (also called clipper) that limits or
clips the positive part of the input voltage.
• As the input voltage goes positive, the diode becomes forward-
biased and conducts current
DIODE LIMITING AND • Because the cathode is at ground potential (0 V), the anode cannot
exceed 0.7V (silicon).

CLAMPING CIRCUITS • So point A is limited to +0.7V when the input voltage exceeds this
value.

233 234

237 238

• When the input voltage goes back below 0.7 V, • If the diode is turned around, as in Figure (b), the
negativepart of the input voltage is clipped off.
the diode is reverse-biased and appears as an
• When the diode is forward-biased during the negative
open. part of the input voltage, point A is held at -0.7 V by the
• The output voltage looks like the negative part of diode drop.
the input voltage, but with a magnitude • When the input voltage goes above -0.7 V, the diode is
determined by the voltage divider formed by R1 no longer forward-biased; and a voltage appears across
RL proportional to the inputvoltage.
and the load resistor, RL as

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Example
• Draw the waveform of voltage across RL in
the limiter shown in Figure

The voltage waveform across the load resistor will be

237 238

241 242

• To limit a voltage to a specified negative level,

Biased Limiters the diode and bias voltage must be connected
as in Figure.
• The level to which an ac voltage is limited can be adjusted by adding a bias • In this case. the voltage at point A must go
•
voltage, VBlAS , in series with the diode, as shown in Figure
The voltage at point A must equal VBlAS + 0.7 V before the diode will
below – VBIAS – 0.7V to forward-bias the diode
become forward-biased and conduct. and initiate limiting action as shown.
• Once the diode begins to conduct. the voltage at point A is limited to VBlAS +
0.7 V so that all input voltage above this level is clipped off.

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• By turning the diode around, the positive

limiter can be modified to limit the output
voltage to the portion of the input voltage
waveform above VBIAS – 0.7 V, as shown
by the output waveform in Figure (a).
• Similarly. the negative limiter can be
modified to limit the output voltage to the
portion of the input voltage waveform
below –VBIAS + 0.7 V, as shown by the
output waveform in part (b).

241 242

245 246

Example Voltage Divider Bias

• Determine the output voltage waveform for the circuit shown in figure
• The bias voltage sources that have been used to illustrate the basic
operation of diode limiter can be replaced by a resistive voltage
divider that derives the desired bias voltage from the dc supply
voltage, as shown in Figure.
• The bias voltage is set by the resistor values according to the
voltage-divider formula.

When the voltage at pointA

reaches +5.7 V. diode DI
conducts and limits the The bias resistors must be
waveform to +5.7 V. small compared to RL so
Diode DI does not conduct that the forward current
until the voltage reaches - through the diode will not
5.7 V. affect the bias voltage.
Therefore, positive
voltages above +5.7 V and
negative voltages below -
243 244
5.7 V are clipped off.

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Diode Clampers
• A clamper adds a dc level to an ac voltage.
• Clampers are sometimes known as dc restorers.
• Figure shows a diode clamper that inserts a positive dc level in the
output wave-form.
• The operation of this circuit can be seen by considering the first
negative half-cycle of the input voltage.
• When the input voltage initially goes negative, the diode is
forward-biased, allowing the capacitor to charge to near the peak
of the input (Vp(out) - 0.7V), as shown in Figure (a).
• Just after the negative peak, the diode is reverse-biased.
• This is because the cathode is held near (Vp(in) - 0.7 V) by the
charge on the capacitor.
• The capacitor can only discharge through the high resistance of
RL .
• So, from the peak of one negative half-cycle to the next, the
capacitor discharges very little.
• The amount that is discharged, of course, depends on the value of
RL.
• For good clamping action, the RC time constant should be at least
ten times the period of the input frequency. 245 246

249 250

• The net effect of the clamping action is that the capacitor retains a
charge approximately equal to the peak value of the input less the
Example
diode drop. • Draw output wave-forms of the circuit shown in figure
• The capacitor voltage acts essentially as a battery in series with the
input voltage.
• The dc voltage of the capacitor adds to the input voltage by
superposition, as in Figure (b).
• If the diode is turned around. a negative dc voltage is added to the
input voltage to produce the output voltage as shown in Figure 2-46.

Ideally. a negative dc value equal to the input peak less the diode drop is
inserted by the clamping circuit.

Actually, the capacitor will

discharge slightly between peaks,
and, as a result, the
output voltage will have an average
value of slightly less than that
247 calculated 248

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Voltage Multipliers
• Voltage multipliers use clamping action to
increase peak rectified voltages without
the necessity of increasing the
Voltage Multipliers transformer's voltage rating.
• Multiplication factors of two, three, and
four are common.
• Voltage multipliers are used in high-
voltage, low-current applications such as
TV receivers.

249 250

253 254

Half-wave Voltage Doubler

• A voltage Doubler is a voltage multiplier with a multiplication factor
of two.
• A half-wave voltage doubler is shown in Figure.
• During the positive half-cycle of the secondary voltage, diode D1, is
forward-biased and D2 is reverse-biased.
• Capacitor C1 is charged to the peak of the secondary voltage (Vp)
less the diode drop with the polarity shown in part (a).
• During the negative half-cycle, diode D2 is forward-biased and D1 is
reverse-biased. as shown in part (b).
• Since C1 can't discharge, the peak voltage on C 1 adds to the
secondary voltage to charge C2 to approximately 2Vp
• Applying Kirchhoff's law around the loop as shown in part (b). the
voltage across C2 is

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Full-wave voltage Doubler

• Under a no-load condition, C2 remains charged • A fulI-wave doubler is shown in Figure.
to approximately 2Vp
• If a load resistance is connected across the • When the secondary voltage is positive,
output, C2 discharges slightly through the load D1 is forward-biased and C1 charges to
on the next positive half-cycle and is again approximately (Vp) asshown in part (a).
recharged to 2Vp on the following negative half-
cycle. • During the negative half-cycle, D2 is
• The resulting output is a half-wave. Capacitor forward-biased and C2 charges to
filtered voltage. approximately Vp as shown in part (b).
• The peak inverse voltage across each diode is • The output voltage. 2Vp is taken across
2Vp.
the two capacitors in series.
253 254

257 258

Transistors

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Transistor Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

• Introduced in 1948 at Bell Laboratories. • First developed by Dr. Schocklayat Bell Laboratories
• It is main building block of modern electronic system • Commercially used in 1952 in telephone switching circuit
• The word Transistor is an acronym, and is a combination • The BJT (bipolar junction transistor) is constructed with
of the words Transfer Varistor used to describe their
mode of operation way back in their early days of three doped semiconductor regions separated by two pn
development. junctions, as shown in the epitaxial planar structure in
• Three terminal device Figure.
• Its output current, voltage and power are controlled by • The three regions are called emitter, base, and collector.
input currents. • Physical representations of the two types of BJTs are
• It is used as amplifier in communication systems shown in Figure (b) and (c).
• It is also used as high speed switch • One type consists of two n regions separated by a p
• Two types of transistors region (npn), and the other type consists of two p regions
– (1) Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) separated by an n region (pnp).
– (2) Field Effect Transistor (FET)
257 258

261 262

• The pn junction joining the base region and the

emitter region is called the base-emitter junction.
• The pn junction joining the base region and the
collector region is called the base-collector
junction.
• A wire lead connects to each of the three
regions
• These leads are labeled E, B. and C for emitter,
base, and collector, respectively.
• The base region is lightly doped and very thin
compared to the heavily doped emitter and the
moderately doped collector regions.
• The term bipolar refers to the
– use of both holes and electrons as carriers in the
transistor structure
– Its basic construction consists of two PN-junctions
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• The forward bias from base to emitter narrows the BE

Basic Transistor operation depletion region, and the reverse bias from base to
collector widens the BC depletion region, as depicted in
• Figure shows the proper bias arrangement for both npn Figure.
and pnp transistors for active operation as an amplifier. • The heavily doped n-type emitter region is teeming with
• In both cases the conduction-band (free) electrons that easily diffuse
– base-emitter (BE) junction is forward-biased through the forward-biased BE junction into the p-type
– the base-collector (BC) junction is reverse-biased. base region where they become minority carriers, justas
in a forward-biased diode.
• The base region is lightly doped and very thin so that it
has a limited number of holes.
• Thus, only a small percentage of all the electrons flowing
through the BE junction can combine with the available
holes in the base.
• These relatively few recombined electrons flow out of the
base lead as valence electrons, forming the small base
electron current, as shown in Figure
261 262

265 266

• Most of the electrons flowing from the emitter into the

thin. lightly doped base region do not recombine hut
diffuse into the BC depletion region.
• Once in this region they are pulled through the reverse-
biased BC junction by the electric field set up by the
force of attraction between the positive and negative
ions.
• Electrons are being pulled across the reverse-biased BC
junction by the attraction of the collector supply voltage.
• The electrons now move through the collector region, out
through the collector lead, and into the positive terminal
of the collector voltage source.
• This forms the collector electron current, as shown in
Figure.
• The collector current is much larger than the base
current.
• This is the reason transistors exhibit current gain.
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264

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Transistor Currents Some Transistors

265 266

269 270

• There are two basic types of bipolar transistor

construction, NPN and PNP, which basically
describes the physical arrangement of the P-
type and N-type semiconductor materials from
which they are made.
• Bipolar Transistors are current regulating
devices that control the amount of current
flowing through them in proportion to the amount
of biasing voltage applied to their base terminal.
• The principle of operation of the two transistor
types NPN and PNP, is exactly the same the
only difference being in the biasing and the
polarity of the power supply for each type.

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• Arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction

of conventional current flow between the base terminal
and its emitter terminal, with the direction of the arrow
pointing from the positive P-type region to the negative
N-type region, exactly the same as for the standard
diode symbol.
• There are basically three possible ways to connect
a Bipolar Transistor within an electronic circuit with
each method of connection responding differently to its
input signal as the static characteristics of the transistor
vary with each circuit arrangement.
• 1. Common Base Configuration
has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.
• 2. Common Emitter Configuration
has both Current and Voltage Gain.
• 3. Common Collector Configuration
has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.
269 270

273 274

Transistor Configuration
• Three different types of configuration allows different
amplification function
• An Amplifier is a circuit that amplify (increase) a signal
Transistor Configurations • It requires four terminals; two for input and two for output
• Transistor has three terminals
• These configurations are classified according to the
terminal common to both input and output
• Three configurations are
1. Common Base Configuration
2. Common Emitter Configuration
3. Common Collector Configuration
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• This type of amplifier configuration is a non-inverting

Common Base Configuration voltage amplifier circuit, in that the signal voltages Vin
and Vout are In-Phase.
• This type of arrangement is not very commondue to its
• Common Base Also called Grounded Base configuration unusually high voltage gain characteristics.
• The BASE connection is common to both the input signal AND the output
signal • Its Output characteristics represent that of a forward
• The input signal being applied between the base and the emitter terminals. biased diode while the Input characteristics represent
• The corresponding output signal is taken from between the base and the that of an illuminated photo-diode.
collector terminals
• The base terminal grounded or connected to a fixed reference voltage • Also this type of configuration has a high ratio of Output
point. to Input resistance or more importantly "Load" resistance
• The input current flowing into the emitter is quite large as its the sum of (RL) to "Input" resistance (Rin) giving it a value of
both the base current and collector current respectively
• The collector current output is less than the emitter current input
"Resistance Gain".
• Current Gain for this type of circuit is less than "1" • Then the Voltage Gain for a common base cantherefore
• It "Attenuates" the signal. be given as:

The Common Base circuit is generally only used in single stage amplifier
circuits such as microphone pre-amplifier or RF radio amplifiers due to its
273 very good high frequencyresponse 274

277 278

• In this type of configuration, the current flowing

Common Emitter Configuration out of the transistor must be equal to the
• Common Emitter or Grounded Emitter configuration, currents flowing into the transistor as the emitter
• The input signal is applied between the base and emitter current is given as Ie = Ic + Ib.
• The output is taken from between the collector and the emitter.
• This type of configuration is the most commonly used circuit for transistor based • Also, as the load resistance (RL) is connected in
amplifiers
• It represents the "normal" method of connection. series with the collector, the Current gain of the
• The common emitter amplifier configuration produces the highest current and power
gain of all the three bipolar transistorconfigurations.
Common Emitter Transistor Amplifier is quite
• This is mainly because the input impedance is LOW as it is connected to a forward- large as it is the ratio of Ic/Ib and is given the
biased junction, while the output impedance is HIGH as it is taken from a reverse-
biased junction. symbol of Beta, (β).
• Since the relationship between these three
currents is determined by the construction of the
transistor itself, any small change in the base
current will result in a large change in the
collector current.
• Then, small changes in current flowing in the
base will thus control the current in the
275
Emitter/Collector circuit. 276

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Common Collector Configuration

• Common Collector or Grounded Collector configuration
• The collector is common
• The input signal is connected to the Base and collector
• The output is taken from the Emitter and collector.
• Where "IC" is the current flowing into the collector • This type of configuration is commonly known as a Voltage
terminal, "IB" is the current flowing into the base terminal Follower or Emitter Follower circuit.
and "IE" is the current flowing out of the emitter terminal. • The Emitter follower configuration is very useful for impedance
• This type of bipolar transistor configuration has a greater matching applications because of the very high input impedance, in
the region of hundreds of thousands of Ohms, and it has relatively
input impedance, Current and Power gain than that of low output impedance.
the common Base configuration but its Voltage gain is
much lower.
• The common emitter is an inverting amplifier circuit
resulting in the output signal being 180o out of phase
with the input voltage signal.
277 278

281 282

• The Common Emitter configuration has a current gain equal to

•
the β value of the transistor itself.
In the common collector configuration the load resistance is situated Transistor Characteristics
in series with the emitter so its current is equal to that of the emitter
current.
• The static characteristics for Bipolar Transistor amplifiers can be
• As the emitter current is the combination of the collector AND base
divided into the following main groups.
currents combined, the load resistance in this type of amplifier
configuration also has both the collector current and the input Input Characteristics:- Common Base - IE ÷ VEB
current of the base flowing through it.
• Then the current gain of the circuit is given as: Common Emitter - IB ÷ VBE

•This type of bipolar transistor configuration is a

non-inverting amplifier circuit in that the signal Output Characteristics:- Common Base - IC ÷ VC
voltages of Vin and Vout are "In-Phase".
Common Emitter - IC ÷ VC
•It has a voltage gain that is always less than "1"
(unity).
•The load resistance of the common collector
amplifier configuration receives both the base Transfer Characteristics:- Common Base - IE ÷ IC
and collector currents giving a large current gain
(as with the Common Emitter configuration) Common Emitter - IB ÷ IC
therefore, providing good current amplification 279 280
with very little voltage gain.

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• The characteristics of the different transistor

configurations given in the following table:

Common Common Common

Characteristic Base Emitter Collector

Input impedance Low Medium High

Transistors Characteristics
Output impedance Very High High Low

Phase Angle 0o 180o 0o

Voltage Gain High Medium Low

Current Gain Low Medium High

Power Gain Low Very High Medium

281 282

285 286

• When a transistor is connected to dc bias

voltages, as shown in Figure for both npn and
pnp types. VBB forward-biases the base-emitter
DC Beta βdc and DC Alpha αdc
junction, and Vcc reverse-biases the base-
collector junction. • DC current gain = βdc = IC / IB
• Typical values 20 to 200.

• αdc = IC / IE
• Typical values 0.95 to 0.99
• Always less than 1
• Because IE = IC + IB So IC = IE - IB
• IC is less than I E
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Relationship between βdc and αdc

Prove that αdc = βdc / (1+ βdc )

• αdc = IC / IE But IE = IC + IB
• αdc = IC / (IC + IB)
• Multiplying and dividing by IB
• αdc = IC / (IC + IB) * IB /IB
• αdc = ( IC / IB ) / (IC /IB + IB /IB)
• βdc = IC / IB
• αdc = βdc / (1+ βdc) Proved

285 286

289 290

Prove that βdc = αdc / (1- αdc ) Current and Voltage Analysis
• βdc = IC / IB
• But IE = IC + IB So I B = IE -IC
• βdc = IC / (IE - IC)
• Multiplying and dividing by IE
• βdc = IC / (IE - IC) * IE /IE
• βdc = ( IC / IE ) / (IE /IE - IC /IE)
• αdc = IC / IE
• βdc = αdc / (1- αdc) Proved
287 288

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• VBB forward-biases the base-emitter junction, and VCC

reverse-biases the base-collector junction.
• When the base-emitter junction is forward-biased, it is
like a forward-biased diode and has a nominal forward
voltage drop of VBE = 0.7 V
• Although in an actual transistor VBE can be as high as
0.9 V and is dependent on current but to synchronize
with the diode 0.7V will be considered.
• Since the emitter is at ground (0 V), by Kirchhoff's
voltage law, the voltage across RB is

289 290

293 294

Determine IB, IC, IE, VBE, VCE and VCB in the circuit of Figure.
The transistor has a βDC = 150. Collector Characteristic Curves
• Circuit shown in figure
can be used to generate
collector characteristic
curves that show howthe
collector current, IC varies
with the collector-to-
emitter voltage, VCE for
specified values of base
current, lB
• Notice in the circuit
diagram that both VBB
and VCC are variable
sources of voltage.
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• Assume that VBB is set to produce a certain value of IB and

VCC is zero.
• For this condition, both the base-emitter junction and the
base-collector junction are forward-biased because the
base is at approximately 0.7 V while the emitter and the
collector are at 0 V.
• The base current is through the base-emitter junction
because of the low impedance path to ground and,
therefore, IC is zero.
• When both junctions are forward-biased, the transistor is in
the saturation region of its operation.
• As VCC is increased, VCE increases gradually as the
collector current increases.
• This is indicated by the portion of the characteristic curve
between points A and B in Figure.
• IC increases as VCC is increased because VCE remains less
than 0.7 V due to the forward-biased base-collector
junction.
293 294

297 298

• When VCE reaches a sufficiently high voltage,

• Ideally, when VCE exceeds 0.7 V, the base-collector the reverse-biased base-collector junction goes
junction becomes reverse-biased and the transistor goes into breakdown; and the collector current
into the active or linear region of its operation. increases rapidly as indicated by the part of the
• Once the base-collector junction is reverse-biased, IC curve to the right of point C in Figure.
levels off and remains essentially constant for a given
• A transistor should never be operated in this
value of IB as VCE continues to increase.
breakdown region.
• Actually, IC increases very slightly as VCE increases due
• A family of collector characteristic curves is
to widening of the base-collector depletion region.
produced when IC versus VCE is plotted for
• This results in fewer holes for recombination in the base severa values of IB , as illustrated in Figure(c).
region which effectively causes a slight increase in βdc
• When IB = 0, the transistor is in the cutoff region
• This is shown by the portion of the characteristic curve although there is a very small collector leakage
between points B and C in Figure. current as indicated.
• For this portion of the characteristic curve, the value of IC • The amount of collector leakage current for IC=0
is determined only by the relationship expressed as is exaggerated on the graph for illustration.
Ic = βdc IB
296
295

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Cutoff
• When IB = 0, the transistor is in the cutoff region of its operation.
• This is shown in Figure with the base lead open. resulting in a base
current of zero.
• Under this condition, there is a very small amount of collector
leakage current. ICEO due mainly to thermally produced carriers.
• Because ICEO is extremely small. it will usually be neglected in circuit
analysis so that VCE = VCC .
• In cutoff, both the base-emitter and the base-collector junctions are
reverse-biased.

297 298

301 302

Saturation DC Load Line

• When the base-emitter junction becomes forward-biased and the base
current is increased, the collector current also increases (lc= (βdc IB) and VCE
decreases as a result of more drop across the collector resistor • Cutoff and saturation can be illustrated in relation to the
(VCE=VCC-IcRc).
• This is illustrated in Figure. When VCE reaches its saturation value. VCE(sat),
collector characteristic curves by the use of a load line.
the base-collector junction becomes forward-biased and Ic can increase no
further even with a continued increase in lB. • Figure shows a dc load line drawn on a family of curves
• At the point of saturation, the relation (lc= (βdc IB) is no longer valid. connecting the cutoff point and the saturation point.
• VCE(sat) for a transistor occurs somewhere below the knee of the collector
curves, and it is usually only a few tenths of a volt for silicon transistors. • The bottom of the load line is at ideal cut-off where IC = 0 and
VCE = VCC.
• The top of the load line is at saturation where IC = IC(sat) and
VCE = VCE(sat)
• In between cutoff and saturation along the load line is the
active region of the transistor's operation.

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Numerical
Determine whether or not the transistor shown in
figure is in saturation. Assume VCE(sat)=0.2V.

301 302

305 306

Maximum Transistor Rating

• A transistor, like any other electronic device,has
limitations on its operation.
• These limitations are stated in the form of maximum
ratings and are normally specified on the manufacturer's
data sheet.
• Typically, maximum ratings are given for collector-to-
base voltage, collector-to-emitter voltage, emitter-to-
base voltage, collector current and power dissipation.
• The product of VCE and IC must not exceed the maximum
power dissipation.
• Both VCE and IC cannot be maximum at the same time.
• If VCE is maximum. IC can be calculated asIC=PD(max)/VCE
303
304

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• For any given transistor, a maximum power dissipation curve can be

plotted on the collector characteristic curves, as shown in Figure.
• Assume PD(max) is 500 mW, VCE(max) is 20 V, and IC(max) is 50 mA.
• The curve shows that this particular transistor cannot be operated in
the shaded portion of the graph. Which rating would be exceeded first?
• IC(max) is the limiting rating between points A and B, PD(max) is the
limiting rating between points B and C, and V VCE(max) is the limiting
rating between points C and D. The transistor in Figure has the
following maximum ratings: P = D(max)
800 mW. VCE(max) = 15 V, and IC(max) = 100 mA.

Determine the maximum value to

which V can be adjusted without exceeding a rating.
CC

305 306

309 310

Derating PD(max)
• PD(max) is usually specified at 25°C.
• For higher temperatures, PD(max) is less.
• Data sheets often give derating factors for
determining PD(max) at any temperature above
25°C.
• For example, a derating factor of 2 mW/oC
indicates that the maximum power dissipation is
reduced 2 mW for each degree centigrade
increase in temperature.

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DC BIAS
• Bias establishes the dc operating point for proper linear operation of
an amplifier.
• If an amplifier is not biased with correct dc voltages on the input and
output. it can go into saturation or cutoff when an input signal is
Transistor Biasing •
applied.
Figure shows the effects of proper and improper dc biasing of an
inverting amplifier.
• In part (a), the output signal is an amplified replica of the input signal
except that it is inverted, which means that it is 1800 out of phase with
the input.
• The output signal swings equally above and below the dc bias level
of the output, VDC(out).
• Improper biasing can cause distortion in the output signal, as
illustrated in parts (b) and (c).
• Part (b) illustrates limiting of the positive portion of the output voltage
as a result of a Q-point (dc operating point) being too close to cutoff.
309 • as
Parta (c)
result of a limiting
shows dc operating
of the point being
negative too close
portion of thetooutput
saturation.
voltage 310

313 314

• The transistor in Figure (a) is biased with

variable voltages VCC and VBB to obtain certain
values of lB, IC, IE, and VCE

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315 316

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313 314

317 318

• IB = 400 µA IC = 400 mA
DC Load Lines
• Notice that when IB increases, IC increases and VCE
decreases.
• When IB decreases, IC decreases and VCE increases.
• As VBB is adjusted up or down, the dc operating point of the
transistor moves along a sloping straight line, called the dc
load line, connecting each separate Q-point.
• At any point along the line, values of IB, IC, and VCE can be
picked off the graph, as shown in Figure.
• The dc load line intersects the VCE axis at 10 V. the point
where VCE = VCC
• This is the transistor cutoff point because IB and IC are zero
(ideally).
• Actually. there is a small leakage current, ICB0 , at cutoff as
indicated, and therefore VCE is slightly less than 10 V but
normally this can be neglected.
• The dc load line intersects the IC axis at 45.5 mA
315
• ideally. This is the transistor saturation point because Ic is316
maximum at the point where VCE = 0 V and Ic = VCC /RC
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• Actually, there is a small voltage (VCE(sat)) across

the transistor, and IC(sat) is slightly less than 45.5
mA,
• Note that Kirchhoff's voltage law applied around
the collector loop gives
VCC - ICRC - VCE = 0
• This results in a straight line equation for the
load line of the form y = mX + b

317 318

321 322

Linear Operation
• The region along the load line including all points between
saturation and cutoff is generally known as the linear region of the
transistor's operation.
• As long as the transistor is operated in this region, the output
voltage is ideally a linear reproduction of the input.
• Figure shows an example of the linear operation of a transistor.
• Assume a sinusoidal voltage, Vinp is superimposed on VBB causing
the base current to vary sinusoidally 100 µA above and below its Q-
point value of 300 µA.
• This, in turn, causes the collector current to vary 10 mA above and
below its Q-point value of 30 mA.
• As a result of the variation in collector current. the collector-to- emitter
voltage varies 2.2 V above and below its Q-point value of 3.4 V.
• Point A on the load line corresponds to the positive peak of the
sinusoidal input voltage.
• Point B corresponds to the negative peak, and point Q corresponds
to the zero value of the sine wave, as indicated.
• VCEQ , ICQ , and IBQ are the Q-point values with no input sinusoidal 319
voltage applied. 320

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Numerical :
Determine the Q-point for the circuit in Figure. Find
the maximum peak value of base current for
linear operation. Assume βDC = 200.

321 322

325 326

• However, Ic can decrease by 39.6 mA before cutoff (Ic =

0) is reached. Biasing Methods
• Therefore, the limiting excursion is 21 mA becausethe
Q-point is closer to saturation than to cutoff.
• The 21 mA is the maximum peak variation of the
• Base Bias
collector current. • Emitter Bias
• Actually, it would be slightly less in practice because
VCE(sat) is not quite zero. • Collector Feedback Bias
• Voltage divider Bias

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Base Bias
Q-Point Stability of Base Bias
• IC is dependent on βDC
• The disadvantage of this is that a variation in βDC causes
IC and as a result, VCE to change, thus changing the Q-
point of the transistor.
• This makes the base bias circuit extremely beta-
dependent and very unstable.
• βDC varies with temperature and collector current.
• In addition, there is a large spread of βDC values from
one transistor to another of the same type due to
manufacturing variations.
• Base Bias is not normally used in linear operations
• It is suitable for switching operations such as relay
switching circuits
325 326

329 330

Numerical
• Determine how
much the Q-point
(IC, VCE) for the
circuit in Figure
will change over a
temperature range
where βDC
increases from 85
to 100 and VBE
decreases from
0.7 V to 0.6 V.
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Emitter Bias
• Emitter bias uses both a positive and a negativesupply
voltage.
• In the circuit shown in Figure, the VEE supply voltage
forward-biases the base-emitter junction.

329 330

333 334

331 332

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Numerical
Q-Point Stability of Emitter Bias • Determine how
• The formula for IE shows that the emitter bias circuit is dependent on much the Q-point
VBE and βDC, both of which change with temperature and current. (IC, VCE) for the
circuit in Figure
will change over a
temperature range
where βDC
increases from 85
to 100 and VBE
decreases from
0.7 V to 0.6 V.
333 334

337 338

335 336

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Collector Feedback Bias

• In Figure, the base resistor RB is
connected to the collector rather than
to VCC, as it was in the base bias.
• The collector voltage provides the bias
for the base-emitter junction.
• The negative feedback creates an
"offsetting" effect that tends to keep
the Q-point stable.
• If IC tries to increase, it drops more
voltage across RC, thereby causing VC
to decrease.
• When VC decreases, there is a
decrease in voltage across RB , which
decreases lB
• The decrease in IB produces less IC
which, in turn, drops less voltage
across RC and thus offsets the
decrease in VC .
337 338

341 342

• As you have learned, βDC varies directly with

Q-Point Stability Over Temperature temperature, and VBE varies inversely with temperature.
• As the temperature goes up in a collector-feedback
circuit, βDC goes up and VBE goes down.
• the collector current is dependent to some • The increase in βDC acts to increase IC.
extent on βDC and VBE • The decrease in VBE acts to increase IB which, in turn
also acts to increase IC.
• This dependency, of course, can be • As IC tries to increase, the voltage drop across R C also
minimized by making (RE >>RB/βDC) and tries to increase.
(VEE >>VBE). • This tends to reduce the collector voltage and therefore
the voltage across RB , thus reducing IB and offsetting
• An important feature of collector-feedback the attempted increase in IC and the attempted decrease
bias is that it essentially eliminates the βDC in VC
and VBE dependency even if the stated • The result is that the collector-feedback circuit maintains
a relatively stable Q-point.
conditions are met. • The reverse action occurswhen the temperature
decreases.
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Numerical
• Calculate Q-point
values (IC, VCE) for
the circuit shown
in Figure.

341 342

345 346

Voltage Divider Bias

• A practical bias method is to use VCC as the single bias
source, as shown in Figure
• To simplify the schematic, the battery symbol is omitted
and replaced by a line termination circle with a voltage
indicator VCC
• A dc bias voltage at the base of the transistor can be
developed by a resistive voltage divider that consists of
R1 and R2, as shown in Figure .
• VCC is the dc collector supplyvoltage.
• Two current paths are between point A and ground: one
through R2 and the other through the base-emitter
junction of the transistor and RE.

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• If the base current is much smaller than the

current through R2, the bias circuit can be
viewed as a voltage-divider consisting of R1 and
R2, as indicated in Figure (a).
• If IB is not small enough to neglect compared to
12, then the dc input resistance, RIN(base), that
appears from the base of the transistor to
ground must be considered.
• RIN(base) is in parallel with R2, as shown in Figure
(b).

345 346

349 350

Input Resistance at the Transistor base

• To develop a formula for the
dc input resistance at the
base of a transistor, we will
use Figure
• VIN is applied between base
and ground, and IIN is the
current into the base as
shown.
• By Ohm's law,

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Analysis of Voltage Divider Bias

• A voltage-divider biased npn
transistor is shown in Figure.
• Voltage at the base using the
voltage-divider formula

349 350

353 354

351 352

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Numerical

353 354

357 358

• Looking out from the base

Stability of Voltage Divider Bias terminal, the bias circuit can be
redrawn as shown in Figure
(a).
• Another way to analyze a
• Apply Thevenin's theorem to
voltage-divider biased
the circuit left of point A, with
transistor circuit is to apply
VCC replaced by a short to
Thevenin's theorem.
ground and the transistor
• We will use this method to disconnected from the circuit.
evaluate the stability of the
• The voltage at point A with
circuit. First, let's get an
respect to ground is
equivalent base-emitter circuit
for Figure Thevenin's theorem.

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• The Thevenin equivalent

of the bias circuit,
connected to the
transistor base, is shown
in the beige box
• Applying Kirchhoff's
voltage law around the • This last equation shows that IE, and therefore IC, is
independent of βDC (notice that βDC does not appear in
equivalent base-emitter
the equation) for the stated condition.
loop
• This can be achieved in practice by selecting a value for
RE that is at least ten times the resistance of the parallel
combination of the voltage-divider resistors (RTH) divided
by the minimum βDC
• Voltage-divider bias is widely used because reasonably
good stability is achieved with a single supply voltage.
357 358

361 362

• In a schematic, the PNP is often drawn

upside down so that the supply voltage line
Voltage Divider Bias for PNP Transistor can be drawn across the top of the
schematic and ground at the bottom, as in
Figure 5-17.
• A PNP transistor requires bias polarities opposite to the NPN.
• The analysis procedure is basically the
• This can be accomplished with a negative collector supply voltage. as
same as for an NPN transistor circuit,
in Figure (a), or with a positive emitter supply voltage, as in Figure
(b). • The base voltage is determined by using the
voltage-divider formula.

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Numerical

361 362

365 366

Numerical

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Transistor as a Switch
• Figure illustrates the basic operation of the transistor as a switching
device.
• In part (a). the transistor is in the cutoff region because the base-
emitter junction is not forward- biased.
• In this condition, there is, ideally, an open between collector and
Transistor Applications emitter, as indicated by the switch equivalent.
• In part (b), the transistor is in the saturation region because the base-
emitter junction and the base-collector junction are forward-biased and
the base current is made large enough to cause the collector current
to reach its saturation value.
• In this condition, there is, ideally, a short between collector and
emitter, as indicated by the switch equivalent.
• Actually, a voltage drop of up to a few tenths of a volt normally
occurs, which is the saturation voltage. VCE(sat)

365 366

369 370

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Numerical

369 370

373 374

371 372

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Numerical
The LED in Figure requires 30 mA to emit a sufficient level
of light. Therefore, the collector current should be
approximately 30 mA.
For the following circuit values, determine the amplitude of
the square wave input voltage necessary to make sure that
the transistor saturates.
Use double the minimum value of base current as a safety
margin to ensure saturation.
VCC = 9V, VCE(sat) = 0.3V,
RC = 270Ω, RB = 3.3kΩ,,
and βDC = 50

373 374

377 378

Transistor as Amplifier
• A transistor amplifies current because the collector
current is equal to the base Current multiplied by the
Current gain (β)
• The base current in a transistor is very small compared
to the collector and emitter currents.
• Because of this, the collector current is approximately
equal to the emitter current.
• Look at the circuit in Figure.
• An ac voltage, Vin is superimpo sed on the dc bias
voltage VBB by connecting them in series with the base
resistor, RB , as shown.
• The dc bias voltage VCC is connected to the collector
through the collector resistor, RC
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• The ac input voltage produces an ac base current, which

results in a much larger ac collector current.
• The ac collector current produces an ac voltage across
RC, thus producing an amplified. but inverted,
reproduction of the ac input voltage in the active region
of operation, as illustrated in Figure (b).
• The forward-biased base-emitter junction presents a
very low resistance to the ac signal
• This internal ac emitter resistance is designated r’e in
Figure (a), the ac emitter current is

377 378

381 382

JFET
Junction Field Effect Transistor
JFET
Junction Field Effect Transistor

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• To illustrate the operation of a JFET, Figure shows dc

JFET bias voltages applied to an n-channel device.
• Figure (a) shows the basic • VDD provides a drain-to-source voltage and supplies
structure of an n-channel JFET current from drain to source.
(junction field-effect transistor).
• Wire leads are connected to • VGG sets the reverse-bias voltage between the gate and
each end of the n-channel; the the source, as shown.
drain is at the upper end, and
the source is at the lower end. • The JFET is always operated with the gate-source pn
• Two p-type regions are diffused junction reverse-biased.
in the n-type material to form a
channel, and both p-type • Reverse-biasing of the gate-source junction with a
regions are connected to the negative gate voltage produces a depletion region along
gate lead.
• For simplicity, the gate lead is the pn junction, which extends into the n channel and
shown connected to only one of thus increases its resistance by restricting the channel
the p regions. width.
• A p-channel JFET is shown in
Figure (b).

381 382

385 386

• The channel width and thus the channel resistance can be

controlled by varying the gate voltage, thereby controlling the amount
of drain Current, ID.
• Figure illustrates this concept.
• The white areas represent the depletion region created by the
reverse bias.
• It is wider toward the drain end of the channel because the reverse-
bias voltage between the gate and the drain is greater than that
between the gate and the source.

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385 386

389 390

JFET Characteristics
• Consider the case when the gate-to-source voltage is zero (VGS = 0
V). This is produced by shorting the gate to the source, as in Figure
(a) where both are grounded.
• As VDD (and thus VDS) is increased from 0V, ID will increase
proportionally, as shown in the graph of Figure (b) between points A
and B.
• In this area, the channel resistance is essentially constant because
the depletion region is not large enough to have significant effect.
• This is called the ohmic area because VDS and ID are related by Ohm's
law.
• At point B in Figure (b), the curve levels off and ID becomes
essentially constant.
• As VDS increases from point B to point C, the reverse-bias voltage
from gate to drain (VGD) produces a depletion region large enough to
offset the increase in VDS, thus keeping ID relatively constant.

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389 390

393 394

Pinch Off Voltage • The JFET action that produces the drain characteristic
curve to the point of breakdown for VGS = 0 V is
• For VGS = 0 V, the value of VDS at which ID becomes essentially constant
illustrated in Figure.
(point B on curve in Figure (b)) is the pinch-off voltage (Vp) .
• For a given JFET, Vp has a fixed value.
• A continued increase in VDS above the pinch-off voltage produces an almost
constant drain current.
• This value of drain current is lDSS (Drain to Source current with gate shorted)
and is always specified on JFET data sheets.
• IDSS is the maximum drain current that a specific JFET can produce
regardless of the external circuit. and it is always specified for the condition,
VGS = 0 V.
• Breakdown occurs at point C when ID begins to increase very rapidly with any
further increase in VDS
• Breakdown can result in irreversible damage to the device, so JFETs are
always operated below breakdown and within the constant-current area
(between points B and C on the graph).

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393 394

397 398

JFET with VGS

395 396

399 400

100
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397 398

401 402

399 400

403 404

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Cut Off Voltage

• The value of VGS that makes ID approximately zero is the
cutoff voltage. VGS(off) .
• The JFET must be operated between VGS = 0 V and
VGS(off)
• For this range of gate-to-source voltages, ID will vary
from a maximum of lDSS to a minimum of almost zero.
• For an n-channel JFET, the more negative VGS is, the
smaller ID becomes in the constant current area.
• When VGS has a sufficiently large negative value, ID is
reduced to zero.
• This cutoff effect is caused by the widening of the
depletion region to a point where it completely closes the
channel, as shown in Figure.
401 402

405 406

• The basic operation of a p-channel JFET is the same as

for an n-channel device except that a p-channel JFET
requires a negative VDD and a positive VGG, as illustrated
in Figure.

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Comparison of Pinch Off and Cut Off Numerical

• There is a difference between pinch-off and cutoff.
For the JFET in Figure VGS(off) = - 4 V and lDSS = 12
• There is also a connection, Vp is the value of VDS at which the
drain Current becomes constant and is always measured at mA. Determine the minimum value of VDD required
VGS = 0V. to put the device in the constant-current area of
• However, pinch-off occurs for VDS values less than Vp when operation.
VGS is nonzero.
• So, although Vp is a constant, the minimum value of VDS at
which ID becomes constant varies with VGS.
• VGS(off) and Vp are always equal in magnitude but opposite in
sign.
• A data sheet usually will give either VGS(off) or Vp but notboth.
• However. when you know one, you have the other.
• For example. if VGS(off) = -5 V. then Vp = +5 V. as shown in
Figure (b).
405 406

409 410

Numerical

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• Notice that the bottom end of the curve is at a point on

JFET Transfer Characteristics the VGS axis equal to VGS(Off), and the top end of the
curve is at a point on the ID axis equal to lDSS.
• VGS varies from zero to VGS(off) • This curve, of course shows the operating limits of a
controls the amount of drain JFET
current. • ID = 0 When VGS = VGS(Off)
• For an n-channel JFET, VGS(off) is • ID=IDSS when VGS = 0
negative. and for a p-channel • The transfer characteristic curve can be developed from
JFET, VGS(off) is positive the drain characteristic curves by plotting values of ID for
• Because VGS controls lD, the the values of VGS taken from the family of drain curves at
relationship between these two pinch off, as illustrated in Figure for a specific set of
quantities is very important. curves.
• Figure is a general transfer • Each point on the transfer characteristic curve
characteristic curve that corresponds to specific values of VGS and ID on the drain
illustrates graphically the curves.
relationship between VGS and ID. 409 410

413 414

• A JFET transfer characteristic curve is

2
1− 𝑉 𝐺𝑆
expressed as 𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝑂𝑓𝑓
• With this Equation, ID can be determined for any
VGS if VGS(off) and lDSS are known.
• These quantities are usually available from the
data sheet for a given JFET.
• Notice the squared term in the equation.
Because of its form, a parabolic relationship is
known as a square law; and therefore, JFETs
For example, when VGS = -2V, ID = 4.32mA. and MOSFETs are often referred to as square-
Also, for this specific JFET, law devices
VGS(off) = -5 V and lDSS = 12mA.
411 412

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Numerical JFET Forward Transconductance

For a JFET, lDSS = 9 mA and VGS(off) = - 8 V (maximum). • The forward transconductance (transfer conductance), gm is the
Using these values, determine the drain current for VGS= change in drain current (∆ID) for a given change in gate-to-source
0V, - 1 V. and -4 V. voltage (∆VGS) with the drain-to-source voltage constant.
• It is expressed as a ratio and has the unit of siemens (S).
For VGS = 0 V 𝑉𝐺 𝑆
2
𝑔𝑚 = 𝑔𝑚 0 1 −
lD = lDSS = 9 mA 𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝑂 𝑓𝑓
• When a value of gmo is not available, you can calculate it using
values of loss and VGS(off)
For VGS = -1 V 2𝐼 𝐷𝑆𝑆
2 𝑔𝑚=0
𝑉𝐺𝑆 1 2
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 1 − 𝑉 = 9 1− = 6.89 𝑚𝐴 𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝑂𝑓𝑓
𝐺𝑆 𝑂𝑓𝑓 −8

For VGS = -4 V
2
𝑉𝐺𝑆 −4 2
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 1 − 𝑉 = 9 1− = 2.25 𝑚𝐴
𝐺𝑆 𝑂𝑓𝑓 −8
413 414

417 418

Input Resistance
• A JFET operates with its gate-source junction reverse-biased, which
makes the input resistance at the gate very high.
• This high input resistance is one advantage of the JFET over the
BJT. (Recall that a bipolar junction transistor operates with a forward-
biased base-emitter junction.)
• JFET data sheets often specify the input resistance by giving a value
for the gate reverse current, IGSS, at a certain gate-to-source voltage.
• The input resistance can then be determined using the following
equation
𝑉

𝐺𝑆
• 𝑅𝐼 =
𝑁
𝐼 𝐺𝑆𝑆
• For example, the 2N5457 data sheet gives a maximum IGSS of -1.0 nA
for VGS = -15V at 25°C.
• IGSS increases with temperature, so the input resistance decreases.
• The input capacitance, CIN, is a result of the JFET operating with a
415 reverse-biased pn junction. 416

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Drain to source Resistance JFET Biasing

• From the drain characteristic curve it can be • Self Bias
observed that, above pinch-off, the drain current – (special mid point bias)
is relatively constant over a range of drain-to-
source voltages. • Voltage Divider bias
• Therefore, a large change in VDS produces only
a very small change in lD.
• The ratio of these changes is the drain-to-source
resistance of the device, r’ds
′ ∆𝑉𝐷𝑆
𝑟𝑑𝑠=
∆𝐼𝐷
417 418

421 422

Self Bias
• Self-bias is the most common type of JFET bias.
• A JFET must be operated such that the gate-source
junction is always reverse-biased.
• This condition requires a negative VGS for an n-channel
JFET and a positive VGS for a p-channel JFET.
• This can be achieved using the self-bias arrangements
shown in Figure.

The gate resistor, RG , does not affect the bias because it has
essentially no voltage drop across it; and therefore the gate
remains at 0 V.
RG is necessary only to isolate an ac signal from ground in
419 amplifier applications. 420

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• For the n-channel JFET in Figure (a), IS

produces a voltage drop across RS and makes
Numerical
• Find VDS and V GS in Figure. For
the source positive with respect to ground, the particular JFET in this circuit,
the internal parameter values
• Since IS = ID and VG = 0, then VS = IDRS. such as gm , VGS(off), and IDSS are
such that a drain current (lD) of
• The gate-to-source voltage is
approximately 5 mA is produced.
𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 𝑉𝐺 − 𝑉𝑆= 0 − 𝐼𝐷𝑅𝑆 = −𝐼𝐷𝑅𝑆
• The Drain voltage
𝑉𝐷 = 𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝐼𝐷𝑅𝐷
• Drain to source voltage
𝑉𝐷𝑆 = 𝑉𝐷 − 𝑉𝑆
= 𝑉𝐷 − 𝐼𝐷𝑅𝐷 − 𝐼𝐷𝑅𝑆
= 𝑉𝐷 − 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝐷 − 𝑅𝑆

421 422

425 426

• Setting the Q-point of JFET by self bias

• The basic approach to establishing a JFET bias point is Numerical
to determine ID for a desired value of VGS or vice versa. • Determine the value of RS
• Then calculate the required value of RS using the required to self-bias an n-
following relationship. channel JFET that has the
𝑉𝐺 𝑆 transfer characteristic
• 𝑅𝑆= curve shown in Figure, at
𝐼𝐷
• For a desired value of VGS, ID can be determined in either VGS = -5 V.
of two ways:
• from the transfer characteristic curve for the particular
JFET
• from Equation
2
𝑉𝐺𝑆
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 1 −
𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝑂𝑓𝑓

423 424

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• For ID = 0.5 IDSS

Mid Point Bias 0.5𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 = 𝐼 𝐷𝑆𝑆 1 − 𝑉

𝑉 𝐺𝑆
𝐺 𝑆 (𝑂𝑓𝑓)
2
0.5 = 1 −
𝑉 𝐺𝑆
𝑉𝐺 𝑆 (𝑂𝑓𝑓)
2

• Taking Square root

• It is usually desirable to bias a JFET near the 𝑉𝐺𝑆
0.5 = 1 −
𝑉 𝐺𝑆(𝑂𝑓𝑓)
midpoint of its transfer characteristic curve
𝑉 𝐺𝑆
where ID = lDSS/2. 𝑉 𝐺𝑆(𝑂𝑓𝑓)
=1− 0.5 = 1 − 0.7071 = 0.3

• Under signal conditions, midpoint bias allows the

maximum amount of drain current • 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 0.3 𝑉𝐺𝑆(𝑂𝑓𝑓)
swing 𝑉 𝐺𝑆 𝑂𝑓𝑓 𝑉 𝐺𝑆 𝑂𝑓𝑓
between IDSS and 0. • Or 𝑉 𝐺𝑆
= 1
0.3
=
3.4

• For ID = IDSS/2 so ID = 0.5 IDSS

Therefore for a mid point bias (ID = IDSS/2) we have to set VGS = VGS(off) /3.4
2
𝑉𝐺𝑆
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 1 − To set the drain voltage at midpoint (VD = VDD/2), select a value of RD to
𝑉𝐺𝑆(𝑂𝑓𝑓) produce the desired voltage drop.
Choose RG arbitrarily large to prevent loading on the driving stage in a
425 cascaded amplifier arrangement. 426

429 430

• Numerical
• Select resistor values for RD and RS in Figure to set up
Voltage Divider Bias
an approximate midpoint bias. For this particular JFET,
the parameters are lDSS = 12 mA and VGS(off) = -3 V. VD • An n-channel JFET with
should be approximately 6 V (one-half of VDD). voltage-divider bias is
shown in Figure.
For mid point bias ID = IDSS/2 = 12 / 2 = 6 mA • The voltage at the source
and of the JFET must be
𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝑂𝑓𝑓 3
𝑉𝐺𝑆 = =− = −882 𝑚𝑉 more positive than the
3.4 3.4
Then voltage at the gate in
𝑉𝐺 𝑆 −882 𝑚𝑉 order to keep the gate-
𝑅𝑆= = = 147Ω
𝐼𝐷 6 𝑚𝐴 source junction reverse-
biased.
𝑉𝐷 = 𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝐼 𝐷𝑅 𝐷

𝑉𝐷𝐷 −
𝐷 𝑉 12 − 6
𝑅 𝐷= = = 1𝑘Ω
𝐼𝐷 6 ∗ 10 −3
427 428
𝑅 𝐺 = 10𝑀Ω

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Source voltage is
VS = ISRS =IDRS
• Numerical
The gate voltage is set by resistors R1 and R2 as expressed by the following Determine ID and VGS for the JFET with voltage divider bias
equation using the voltage-divider formula: shown in figure. For this particular JFET VD is 7V.
𝑅2
𝑉𝐺 = 𝑉𝐷 𝐷
𝑅1 + 𝑅 2
𝑉𝐷𝐷
− 𝑉𝐷 12 − 7
The gate to source voltage is 𝐼𝐷= = = 1.52 𝑚𝐴
VGS = VG - VS 𝑅𝐷 3.3 ∗ 10 3

Source Voltage Source voltage

VS = VG – VGS 𝑉𝑆 = 𝐼 𝐷𝑅 𝑆 = 1.52 𝑚𝐴 2.2 𝑘Ω = 3.34𝑉
Gate voltage
Drain current 𝑅2 1
𝑉𝐺 = 𝑉𝐷 =
𝐷 12 = 1.54 𝑉
𝑉𝑆 𝑉 − 𝐺𝑉 𝐺𝑆 𝑅1 + 𝑅 2 6.8 + 1
𝐼𝐷= =
𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝑆 Gate to source voltage
The drain voltage is VGS = VG - VS = 1.54 – 3.34 = -1.8 V
VD = VDD - ID RD

The drain to source voltage is

VDS = VD - VS
429 430

433 434

Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field

Effect Transistor (MOSFET)
• The MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor field-effect
MOSFET transistor) is another category of field-effect transistor.

Metal oxide semiconductor • The MOSFET differs from the JFET in that it has no PN
junction structure; instead, the gate of the MOSFET is
Field Effect Transistor insulated from the channel by a silicon dioxide (SiO2)
layer.
• The two basic types of MOSFETs are depletion (D) and
enhancement (E).
• Because of the insulated gate, these devices are
sometimes called IGFETs (Insulated Gate Field Effect
Transistors).
431 432

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Depletion MOSFET D-MOSFET Symbols

• One type of MOSFET is the depletion MOSFET • The substrate, indicated by the arrow, is normally (but
(D-MOSFET), and Figure illustrates its basic not always) connected internally to the source.
structure. • Sometimes, there is a separate substrate pin.
• The drain and source are diffused into the • An inward-pointing substrate arrow is for n channel, and
substrate material and then connected by a an outward-pointing arrow is for p channel.
narrow channel adjacent to the insulated gate.

433 434

437 438

• The D-MOSFET can be operated in either of two

modes-the depletion mode or the enhancement Depletion Mode
mode-and is sometimes called a • A capacitor is formed by gate and channel with
depletion/enhancement MOSFET. metal oxide as dielectric.
• Since the gate is insulated from the channel, • The gate is one plate of a parallel-plate capacitor
either a positive or a negative gate voltage can and the channel as the otherplate.
be applied. • The silicon dioxide insulating layer is the dielectric.
• The n-channel MOSFET operates in the • With a negative gate voltage, the negative charges
depletion mode when a negative gate-to- source on the gate repel conduction electrons from the
voltage is applied and in the enhancement mode channel, leaving positive ions in theirplace.
when a positive gate-to-source voltage is • Thereby, the n channel is depleted of some of its
applied. electrons, thus decreasing the channelconductivity.
• These devices are generally operated in the
depletion mode. 435 436

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• The greater the negative voltage on the gate,

the greater the depletion of n-channel electrons.
• At a sufficiently negative gate-to-source voltage,
VGS(off), the channel is totally depleted and the
drain current is zero.
• Like the n-channel JFET, the n-channel D-
MOSFET conducts drain current for gate-to-
source voltages between VGS(off) and zero.
• In addition. the D-MOSFET conducts for values
of VGS above zero.

437 438

441 442

Enhancement Mode
• With a positive gate voltage, more
conduction electrons are attracted into the
channel, thus increasing (enhancing) the
channel conductivity,

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• This is indicated on the general transfer

D-MOSFET Transfer Characteristic characteristic curves in Figure for both n-
channel and p-channel MOSFETs.
• D-MOSFET can operate with either • The point on the curves where VGS = 0
positive or negative gate voltages. corresponds to IDSS
• The point where ID = 0 corresponds to VGS(off)
• As with the JFET, VGS(off) = - Vp .
• The square-law expression for the JFET curve
also applies to the D-MOSFET curve,

441 442

445 446

Numerical D-MOSFET Biasing

• For a certain D-MOSFET, IDSS = 10 mA and VGS(off) = - 8 V
(a) Is this n-channel or p-channel
(b) Calculate ID at VGS = - 3 V • 1. Gate Bias
(c) Calculate ID at VGS = + 3 V
• 2. Self Bias
• 3. Voltage Divider Bias
• 4. Zero Bias

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Zero Bias
• In Zero bias VGS = 0
• D-MOSFETs can be operated with either
positive or negative values of VGS.
• A simple bias method is to set VGS = 0, so
that an ac signal at the gate varies the
gate-to-source voltage above and below
this 0 V bias point.
• A MOSFET with zero bias is shown in
Figure (a).
445 446

449 450

Numerical:
• Since VGS = 0, ID = IDSS as indicated. Determine the Drain to source voltage for an n-
• The drain-to-source voltage is expressed channel D-MOSFET with zero bias.
The parameters are Vp = 8V and IDSS = 12 mA.
as follows:
RD= 620 Ω and RG = 1 MΩ. VDD = 18V
VDS = VDD – IDSSRD
• The purpose of RG is to accommodate an
ac signal input by isolating it from ground,
• As this D-MOSFET is zero bias so
• Since there is no dc gate current RG does
ID = IDSS = 12 mA
not affect the zero gate- to-source bias.
• Drain to source voltage
VDS = VDD – ID RD

447
= (18 V) – (12 mA)(620Ω) = 10.6 V 448

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E-MOSFET
Enhancement MOSFET
• E-MOSFET operates only in the enhancement
mode and has no depletion mode.
• It differs in construction from the D-MOSFET in
that it has no structural channel.
• Notice in Figure (a) that the substrate extends
completely to the SiO2 layer.
• For an n-channel device, a positive gate voltage
above a threshold value induces a channel by
creating a thin layer of negative charges in the
substrate region adjacent to the SiO2 layer. as
shown in Figure (b). 449 450

453 454

• The conductivity of the channel is enhanced by

increasing the gate-to-source voltage and thus
pulling more electrons into the channel area.
• For any gate voltage below the threshold value,
there is no channel.
• The schematic symbols for the n-channel and p-
channel E-MOSFETs are shown in Figure
• The broken lines symbolize the absence of a
physical channel.
• Like the D-MOSFET, some devices have a
separate substrate connection.

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E-MOSFET Transfer Characteristics

• The E-MOSFET uses only channelenhancement.

• Therefore, an n-channel device requires a positive
gate-to-source voltage, and a p-channel device
requires a negative gate-to-source voltage.
• Figure shows the general transfer characteristic
curves for both types of E-MOSFETs.
• As you can see, there is no drain currentwhen
VGS = O.
• Therefore, the E-MOSFET does not have a
significant IDSS parameter, as do the JFET and the
D-MOSFET. 453 454

457 458

• Notice also that there is ideally no drain current until VGS

reaches a certain non zero value called the threshold
Numerical
voltage, VGS(th). • A certain E-MOSFET has ID(on) = 50 mA at
• The equation for the parabolic transfer characteristic
VGS = 10V and VGS(th) = 1V. Determine the
curve of the E-MOSFET differs from that of the JFETand
the D-MOSFET because the curve starts at VGS(th) rather drain current for VGS = 5V.
than VGS(off) on the horizontal axis and never intersects
the vertical axis.
• The equation for the E-MOSFET transfer characteristic
curve is

ID = K (VGS – VGS(th) )2
• The constant K depends on the particular MOSFET and
can be determined from the data sheet by taking the
specified value of ID, called ID(on), at the given value of
VGS and substituting the values into above Equation. 455 456

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E-MOSFET Bias Voltage Divider bias

• As E-MOSFET must have a VGS greater

than VGS(th) so zero bias will not work.
• So common biasing methods for E-
MOSFET are
1. Voltage divider bias
2. Drain feedback bias

457 458

461 462

From Circuit
Numerical RD = 200 Ω, R1 = 100 k Ω, R2 = 15 k Ω, VDD = +24V
• Determine the VGS
and VDS for the circuit
shown in figure.
Assume that this Now finding K from the given values of ID(on) and VGS
particular MOSFET
has ID(on) = 200 mA at
VGS = 4V and VGS(th) Now calculating ID for VGS = 3.13 V
= 2V.

Finally Calculating VDS

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Drain feedback Bias

In the Drain
feedback bias,
Passive Filters
there is very small
current flow in the
gate resistance.
Voltage Drop in RG
is negligible
therefore VGS =VDS 461 462

465 466

Filters Types of filters

• A Filter is a circuit that can be designed to modify, • 1. Active 2. Passive
reshape or reject all unwanted frequencies of an
electrical signal and accept or pass only those • Active filters are transistors or Op-Amps
signals wanted by circuit designer. combined with passive RC, RL and RLC
• Electronic filters are electronic circuit, which perform circuits. These active devices provide
signal processing functions, specifically to remove
unwanted frequency components from the signal, to voltage gain
enhance wanted ones, or both. • Passive filters provide only frequency
• The Selectivity of the filter is its property which selectivity. These are made of R,L and C
enables it to pass signal with certain selected
frequencies and reject signals with other frequencies components.

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Passive Filters Advantages of Passive filters

• A passive filter is a kind of electronic filter that is made only
from passive elements
• In contrast to an active filter, it does not require an external • A passive filter has several advantages over an
power source (beyond the signal). active filters
• Since most filters are linear, in most cases, passive filters are – Guaranteed stability
composed of just the four basic linear elements
– resistors, capacitors, inductors, and transformers. – Passive filters scale better to large signals (tens of
• More complex passive filters may involve nonlinear elements, amperes, hundreds of volts), where active devices
or more complex linear elements, such as transmission lines. are often impractical
• In low frequency applications (up to 100kHz), passive filters – No power consumption.
are usually made from simple RC (Resistor-Capacitor)
networks while higher frequency filters (above 100kHz) are – May be less expensive in discrete designs (unless
usually made from RLC (Resistor-Inductor-Capacitor) large coils are required)
components.
– For linear filters, may be, more linear than filters
• Passive filters are made up of passive components such as
resistors, capacitors and inductors and have no amplifying including active (and therefore non-linear) elements,
elements (transistors, op-amps, etc) so have no signal gain, depending on components required.
therefore their output level is always less than the input. 465
466

469 470

Applications of Passive filters Types of Passive filters

• They are commonly used in
1. Low pass filter
– speakers crossover design (due to the moderately
large voltages and currents, and the lack of easy 2. High pass filter
access to power),
– filters in power distribution networks (due to the large 3. Band pass filter
voltages and currents),
– power supply bypassing (due to low cost, and in 4. Band stop filter or band reject filter
some cases, power requirements),
– a variety of discrete and home brew circuits (for low-
cost and simplicity).
• Passive filters are uncommon in monolithic integrated
circuit design, where active devices are inexpensive
compared to resistors and capacitors, and inductors are
prohibitively expensive.
468
467

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• Filters are named according to the frequency of signals

they allow to pass through them. • As the function of any filter is to allow signals of a given
• There are Low-pass filters that allow only low band of frequencies to pass unaltered while attenuating
frequency signals to pass, or weakening all others that are not wanted, we can
define the amplitude response characteristics of an ideal
• High-pass filters that allow only high frequency signals filter by using an ideal frequency response curve of the
to pass through, four basic filter types as shown.
• Band-pass filters that allow signals falling within a
certain frequency range to pass through.
• Simple First-order passive filters (1st order) canbe made
by connecting together a single resistor and a single
capacitor in series across an input signal, (Vin) with the
output of the filter, (Vout) taken from the junction of these
two components.
• Depending on which way around we connect the resistor
and the capacitor with regards to the output signal
determines the type of filter construction resulting in
either a Low Pass Filter or a High Pass Filter. 469 470

473 474

Low Pass Filter

• A Low Pass Filter can be a combination of capacitance,
inductance or resistance intended to produce high
attenuation above a specified frequency and little or no
attenuation below that frequency.
• The frequency at which the transition occurs is called the
"cutoff" frequency.
• A simple passive Low Pass Filter or LPF, can be easily made
by connecting together in series a single Resistor with a
single Capacitor as shown in figure.
• In this type of filter arrangement the input signal (Vin) is
applied to the series combination (both the Resistor and
Capacitor together) but the output signal (Vout) is taken
across the capacitor only.
• This type of filter is known generally as a "first-order filter" or
"one-pole filter",
• why first-order or single-pole?, because it has only "one"
reactive component in the circuit, the capacitor.
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• The reactance of a capacitor varies inversely • According to

with frequency, while the value of the resistor voltage divide rule
remains constant as the frequency changes.
• At low frequencies the capacitive reactance, (Xc)
of the capacitor will be very large compared to • capacitive
the resistive value of the resistor, R and as a reactance of a
result the voltage across the capacitor, Vc will capacitor in an AC
also be large while the voltage drop across the circuit
resistor, Vr will be much lower.
• At high frequencies the reverse is true with Vc
being small and Vr being large.

473 474

477 478

Example
• A Low Pass Filter circuit consisting of a resistor of 4.7kΩ in Frequency Response
series with a capacitor of 47nF is connected across
10V sinusoidal supply. Calculate the output voltage (Vout) at
a frequency of 100Hz and again at frequency of 10,000Hz or • As the frequency
10kHz. increases from 100Hz
to 10kHz, the output
voltage (Vout)
decreases from 9.9v
to 0.718v.
• By plotting the output
voltage against the
input frequency,
the Frequency
Response
Curve or Bode
Plot function of the
low pass filter canbe
found
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• The Bode Plot shows the Frequency Response of the filter to

• This "Cut-off", "Corner" or "Breakpoint" frequency is defined be nearly flat for low frequencies and all of the input signal is
as being the frequency point where the capacitive reactance passed directly to the output, resulting in a gain of nearly 1,
and resistance are equal, called unity, until it reaches its Cut-off Frequency point (ƒc ).
• R = Xc = 4.7kΩ.
• This is because the reactance of the capacitor is high at low
• When this occurs the output signal is attenuated to 70.7% of frequencies and blocks any current flow through the capacitor.
the input signal value or -3dB (20 log (Vout/Vin)) of the input.
• After this cut-off frequency point the response of the circuit
• Although R = Xc, the output is not half of the input signal. decreases giving a slope of -20dB/ Decade or (-6dB/Octave)
• This is because it is equal to the vector sum of the two and is "roll-off" as signals above this frequency become greatly
therefore 0.707 of the input. attenuated, until at very high frequencies the reactance of the
• As the filter contains a capacitor, the Phase Angle ( Φ ) of the capacitor becomes so low that it gives the effect of a short
output signal LAGS behind that of the input and at the -3dB circuit condition on the output terminals resulting in zero
cut-off frequency ( ƒc ) and is -45o out of phase. output.
• This is due to the time taken to charge the plates of the • For this type of Low Pass Filter circuit, all the frequencies
capacitor as the input voltage changes, resulting in the output below this cut-off, ƒc point that are unaltered with little or no
voltage (the voltage across the capacitor) "lagging" behind attenuation and are said to be in the filters Pass band zone.
that of the input signal. • This pass band zone also represents the Bandwidth of the
• The higher the input frequency applied to the filter the more filter.
the capacitor lags and the circuit becomes more and more • Any signal frequencies above this point cut-off point are
"out of phase". generally said to be in the filters Stop band zone and they will
be greatly attenuated.
477 478

481 482

• Cut-off frequency and phase shift

Time constant
• The filters cut-off frequency (ƒc) is the product of the
resistance (R) and the capacitance (C) in the circuit with
respect to some specified frequency point and that by
altering any one of the two components alters this cut-off
• The gain of the filter or any filter for that matter, is frequencypoint by either increasing it or decreasing it.
generally expressed in Decibels and is a function • We also know that the phase shift of the circuit lags
behind that of the input signal due to the time required to
of the output value divided by its corresponding charge and then discharge the capacitor as the sine
input value and is given as: wave changes.
• This combination of R and C produces a charging and
discharging effect on the capacitor known as its Time
Constant (τ) of the circuit similar to the RC Circuit

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• The time
constant, tau (τ),
is related to the
cut-off
frequency ƒc as.
High Pass filter
• or expressed in
terms of the cut-
off
frequency, ƒc as.

481 482

485 486

High Pass Filter

• A High Pass Filter or HPF, is the exact opposite to
that of the seen Low Pass filter circuit,
• The two components have been interchanged with
the output signal (Vout) being taken from across the
resistor.
• Where the low pass filter only allowed signals to • In this circuit arrangement, the reactance of the capacitor
pass below its cut-off frequency point, ƒc, the is very high at low frequencies so the capacitor acts like
passive high pass filter circuit as its name implies, an open circuit and blocks any input signals at Vin until
only passes signals above the selected cut-off the cut-off frequency point (ƒc) is reached.
point, ƒc, eliminating any low frequency signals from • Above this cut-off frequency point the reactance of the
the waveform. capacitor has reduced sufficiently as to now act more
like a short circuit allowing all of the input signal to pass
directly to the output as shown in the High Pass
483
Frequency Response Curve. 484

487 488

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• The Bode Plot or Frequency Response Curve above for

a High Pass filter is the exact opposite to that of a low
pass filter.
• Here the signal is attenuated or damped at low
frequencies with the output increasing at +20dB/Decade
(6dB/Octave) until the frequency reaches the cut-off
point (ƒc) where again R = Xc.
• It has a response curve that extends down from infinity
to the cut-off frequency, where the output voltage
amplitude is 1/√2 = 70.7% of the input signal value or -
3dB (20 log (Vout/Vin)) of the input value.
• The phase angle ( Φ ) of the output signal LEADS that of
the input and is equal to +45o at frequencyƒc.
• The frequency response curve for a high pass filter
implies that the filter can pass all signals out to infinity.
• However in practice, the high pass filter response does
not extend to infinity but is limited by the characteristics
of the components used.
485 486

489 490

• The cut-off frequency point for a first order high pass

filter can be found using the same equation as that of the
low pass filter, but the equation for the phase shift is Second Order High pass filter
modified slightly to account for the positive phase angle
as shown below.

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Band Pass filter

• Some times it is necessary to only pass a certainrange
of frequencies that do not begin at 0Hz, (DC) or end at
some high frequency point but are within a certain
Band Pass filter frequency band, either narrow or wide.
• By connecting or "cascading" together a single Low
Pass Filter circuit with a High Pass Filter circuit, we
can produce another type of passive RC filter that
passes a selected range or "band" of frequencies that
can be either narrow or wide while attenuating all those
outside of this range.
• This new type of passive filter arrangement producesa
frequency selective filter known commonly as a Band
Pass Filter or BPF for short.
489 490

493 494

• Unlike a low pass filter that only pass signals of a low

frequency range or a high pass filter which pass signals of
a higher frequency range, a Band Pass Filters passes
signals within a certain "band" or "spread" of frequencies
without distorting the input signal or introducing extra noise.
• This band of frequencies can be any width and is
commonly known as the filters Bandwidth.
• Bandwidth is defined as the frequency range between two
specified frequency cut-off points (ƒc), that are 3dB below
the maximum centre or resonant peak while attenuating or
weakening the others outside of these two points.
• Then for widely spread frequencies, we can simply define
the term "bandwidth", BW as being the difference between
the lower cut-off frequency ( ƒcLOWER ) and the higher cut-
off frequency ( ƒcHIGHER ) points.
• In other words, BW = ƒH - ƒL. Clearly for a pass band filter
to function correctly, the cut-off frequency of the low pass
filter must be higher than the cut-off frequency for the high
491 pass filter.
492

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• The "ideal" Band Pass Filter can also be

used to isolate or filter out certain
frequencies that lie within a particular band
of frequencies, for example, noise
cancellation.
• Band pass filters are known generally as
second-order filters, (two-pole) because
they have "two" reactive component within
their circuit design.
• One capacitor in the low pass circuit and
another capacitor in the high pass circuit.
493 494

497 498

• he Bode Plot or frequency response curve above shows • A band pass filter is regarded as a second-order (two-
the characteristics of the band pass filter. pole) type filter because it has "two" reactive
• Here the signal is attenuated at low frequencies with the components within its circuit structure, then the phase
output increasing at a slope of +20dB/Decade angle will be twice that of the previously seen first-order
(6dB/Octave) until the frequency reaches the "lower cut- filters, ie 180o.
off" point ƒL. • The phase angle of the output signal LEADS that of the
• At this frequency the output voltage is again 1/√2 = input by +90o up to the centre orresonant
70.7% of the input signal value or -3dB (20 log frequency, ƒr point were it becomes "zero" degrees (0o)
(Vout/Vin)) of the input.
or "in-phase" and then changes to LAG the input by -
• The output continues at maximum gain until it reaches
the "upper cut-off" point ƒH where the output decreases 90o as the output frequencyincreases.
at a rate of -20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave) attenuating any • The upper and lower cut-off frequency points for a band
high frequency signals. pass filter can be found using the same formula as that
• The point of maximum output gain is generally the for both the low and high pass filters,
geometric mean of the two -3dB value between the lower • For example.`
and upper cut-off points and is called the "Centre
Frequency" or "Resonant Peak" valueƒr.
• This geometric mean value is calculated as being
• ƒr2 = ƒ(upper) x ƒ(lower). 495 496

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Band Stop filter

• A band-stop filter or band-rejection filter is a filter that passes
most frequencies unaltered, but attenuates those in a specific range to very
low levels.
• It is the opposite of a band-pass filter.

Band Stop filter

• A notch filter is a band-stop filter with a narrow stopband (high Q factor).
• Narrow notch filters (optical) are used in raman spectroscopy, live sound
reproduction (Public Address systems, also known as PA systems) and in
instrument amplifier (especially amplifiers or preamplifiers for acoustic
instruments such as acoustic guitar, mandolin, bass instrument amplifier,
etc.) to reduce or prevent feedback, while having little noticeable effect on
the rest of the frequency spectrum (electronic or software filters).
• Other names include 'band limit filter', 'T-notch filter', 'band-elimination filter',
and 'band-reject filter'.
• Typically, the width of the stop band is less than 1 to 2 decades (that is, the
highest frequency attenuated is less than 10 to 100 times the lowest
frequency attenuated).
• In the audio band, a notch filter uses high and low frequencies that may be
only semitones apart.

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Regulated Power Supplies

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• Output of an ordinary d.c power supply is

Regulated Power Supply fed to a voltage regulator, which
produces the final output.
• A d.c regulated power supply consists of an • The output voltage remains constant
ordinary power supply and a voltage regulator. whether the land current changes or
• A Regulated power supply maintains the output there are fluctuations in the input a.c.
voltage constant irrespective of fluctuations or supply
load variations
• A regulated d.c. power supply is
combination of three circuits
1. Full wave rectifier
2. A capacitor filter C
3. A voltage regulator
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Need of Regulated Power Supplies Types of voltage Regulators

• In ordinary power supply, voltage regulation is • 1. Series voltage regulator 2. Shunt voltage Regulator
• The series voltage regulator is placed in series with the load.
very poor i.e. d.c. output voltage changes with
• The shunt voltage regulator is placed in parallel with the load.
variations in supply voltage and load.
• This effects performance of the equipments and
may cause damage
• Input supply variations caused by system
impedance and overall load variations
• The internal resistance of an ordinary power
supply is relatively large. Therefore output
voltage is affected by the amount of load current
drawn from the power supply

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• The circuit shown in figure is called series

Transistor Series Voltage regulator voltage regulator because the load current
passes through the series transistor
• The unregulated d.c. supply is fed to input
terminals and regulated output is taken
across the load
• Zener diode provides the reference
voltage

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• The advantage of this circuit is that the

Operation changes in zener current are reduced by a
factor β. Therefore the effect of zener
• The base voltage of transistor is held to a relatively impedance is greatly reduced and much more
constant voltage across the zener diode. stabilized output is obtained.
• For example if 10V Zener diode (Vz=10V) is used, the
base voltage of transistor will remain approximately 10V. • Limitations
• Vout = VZ – VBE 1. Although the changes in zener current are
• If the output voltage decreases the increasedbase- reduced, yet the output is not absolutely
emitter voltage causes transistor to conduct more,
thereby raising the output voltage constant. It is because both VBE and VZ
• As a result the output voltage is maintained at a constant decrease with an increase n temperature.
level.
• If the output voltage decreases, the decreased base-
2. The output voltage can not be changed easily
emitter voltage causes, transistor to conduct less thereby as no such means are provided.
reducing the output voltage
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Numerical • Solution
• Output voltage
• For the series voltage regulator shown in Vout = VZ – VBE = 12 – 0.7 = 11.3 V
figure, calculate output voltage and zener • Voltage across Rs
current. Assume β = 50. Vin – Vz = 20 – 12 = 8 V
• Current through Rs
IR = VRs / Rs = 8/220 = 36.4 mA
• Load current
IL = Vout / RL = 11.3/1000 = 11.3 mA
• Base current
IB = IC / β = 11.3 / 50 = 0.226 mA
• Zener current
Iz = IR – IB = 36.4 – 0.226 = 36.17 mA
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• A shunt voltage regulator provides regulation by

Transistor Shunt Voltage Regulator shunting current away from the load.
• The voltage drop across the series resistor
depends upon the current supplied to the load
RL.
• The output voltage is equal to the sum of zener
voltage Vz and transistor base-emitter voltage
VBE.
• Vout = Vz + VBE
• If the load resistance decreases, the current
through base of transistor decrease and less
collector current is shunted.
• Therefore the load current becomes larger and
maintains the regulated voltage across the load.
• Reverse happens when the load resistance
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Numerical
Drawbacks
• Determine regulated voltage and various
currents for the shunt regulator shown in figure.
• A larger portion of the total current through
Rs flows through transistor than the load
• There is continuous power loss in Rs
• There are problems of over-voltage
protection in this circuit.

• For the reasons, a series voltage regulator

is preferred over a shunt regulator.
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• Output voltage
Vout = Vz + VBE
= 8.3 + 0.7 = 9.0 V
• Load current
IL = Vout / RL
= 9/100 = 90 mA Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
• Current through Rs
Is = (Vin – Vout) / Rs
= (22-9)/130 = 100mA
• Collector current
IC = IS – IL
= 100 – 90 = 10 mA
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Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

• Uni + junction means one pn junction
• The UJT (unijunction transistor) is a three-
terminal device whose basic construction is
shown in Figure (a)
• The schematic symbol appears in Figure (b).
• Terminals are labeled
– Emitter (E),
– Base 1 (B1)
– Base 2 (B2 ).

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Equivalent Circuit
• Do not confuse this symbol with that of a • The equivalent circuit for the UJT is shown in Figure (a).
JFET; the difference is that the arrow is at • The diode shown in the figure represents the pn junction,
r’BI represents the internal dynamic resistance of the
an angle for the UJT. silicon bar between the emitter and base 1,

• The UJT has only one pn junction, and • r’B2 represents the dynamic resistance between the
emitter and base 2.
therefore, the characteristics of this device • The total resistance between the base terminals is the
sum of r’BI and r’B2 and is called the inter-base
are different from those of either the BJT resistance, r’BB . r’BB = r’BI + r’B2
or the FET.

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• value of r’B1 varies inversely with emitter current

IE and therefore, it is shown as a variable
resistor.
• Depending on IE, the value of r’B1 can vary from
several thousand ohms down to tens of ohms.
• The internal resistances r’B1 and r’B2 form a
voltage divider when the device is biased, as
shown in Figure (b).
• The voltage across the resistance r’B1 can be
expressed as

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• When VEB1 reaches Vp , the pn junction becomes

Standoff ratio η (eta) forward-biased and IE begins.
• Holes are injected into the n-type bar from the p-type
• Standoff ratio (η) is an important characteristics of UJT emitter.
and is given by • This increase in holes causes an increase in free
electrons, thus increasing the conductivity between
emitter and B1 (decreasingr’B1)
• After turn-on, the UJT operates in a negativeresistance
• As long as the applied emitter voltage VEB1 is less than
region up to a certain value of IE, as shown by the
Vr’B1 + Vpn there is no emitter current because the pn
characteristic curve in Figure.
junction is not forward-biased (Vpn is the barrier potential
of the pn junction). • As you can see, after the peak point (VE=VP and IE = IP ),
VE decreases as IE continues to increase, thus producing
• The value of emitter voltage that causes the pn junction
the negative resistance characteristic.
to become forward- biased is called Vp (peak-point
voltage) and is expressed as • Beyond the valley point (VE = VV and IE = IV). the device
is in saturation, and VE increases very little with an
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Numerical
• For a UJT, η =0.6, If VBB = 20V determine
the peak point voltage VP.

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UJT Applications
• Trigger circuits for SCR
• Saw tooth oscillator Silicon Controlled Rectifier
SCR

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• The SCR operation can best be understood by

SCR thinking of its internal pnpn structure as a two-
transistor arrangement, as shown in Figure.
• An SCR (silicon-controlled rectifier) is a 4-layer
pnpn device with three terminals: anode,
cathode, and gate.

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• The upper pnp layers act as a transistor, Q1, and the lower npn layers • Thus, the device stays on (latches) once it is triggered
act as a transistor, Q2 on, as shown in Figure 11-9( c).
• The two middle layers are "shared." • In this state, the very low resistance between the anode
• When the gate current, IG is zero, as shown in Figure 11-9(a), the and cathode can be approximated by a closed switch, as
device acts in the off state.
indicated.
• In this state, the very high resistance between the anode and cathode
can be approximated by an open switch.
• When a positive pulse of current (trigger) is applied to the gate, both
transistors turn on (the anode must be more positive than the
cathode).
• This action is shown in Figure (b). IB2 turns on Q2 providing a path for
IB1 into the Q2 collector, thus turning on Q1.
• The collector current of Q1 provides additional base current for Q2 so
that Q2 stays in conduction after the trigger pulse is removed from the
gate.
• By this regenerative action, Q2 sustains the saturated conduction of
Q1 by providing a path for IB1; in turn, Q1 sustains the saturated
conduction of Q2 by providing IB2.
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• An SCR can also be turned on without gate triggering by

increasing the anode-to-cathode voltage to a value • The forward break-over voltage decreases as IG is
exceeding the forward-breakover voltage VBR(F), as increased above 0 V, as shown by the set of curves in
shown on the characteristic curve in Figure a). Figure b).
• Eventually, a value of IG is reached at which the SCR
turns on at a very low anode-to-cathode voltage.
• So, as you can see, the gate current controls the value
of forward breakover voltage VBR(F), required for turn-on .
• Although anode-to-cathode voltages in excess of V BR(F)
will not damage the device if current is limited, this
situation should be avoided because the normal control
of the SCR is lost.
• It should normally be triggered on only with a pulse at the
gate.

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Turning The SCR Off

• When the gate returns to 0V after the trigger pulse is
removed, the SCR cannot turn off; it stays in the forward-
conduction region.
• The anode current must drop below the value of the
holding current, IH, in order for turn-off to occur.
• The holding current is indicated in figure
• The process of turning the SCR off is called
Commutation.
• There are two basic methods for turning off an SCR:
anode current interruption and forced commutation.
• The anode current can be interrupted by either a
momentary series or parallel switching arrangement, as
shown in Figure.
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• The series switch in part (a) simply reduces the anode current to
zero and causes the SCR to turn off.
• The basic circuit, as shown in Figure consists of a switch
• The parallel switch in part (b) routes part of the total current away
from the SCR. thereby reducing the anode current to a value less
(normally a transistor switch) and a battery in parallel
than IH with the SCR.
• The forced commutation method basically requires momentarily • While the SCR is conducting, the switch is open. as
forcing current through the SCR in the direction opposite to the shown in part (a).
forward conduction so that the net forward current is reduced below
the holding value. • To turn off the SCR, the switch is closed, placing the
battery across the SCR and forcing current through it
opposite to the forward current. as shownin part (b).
• Typically, turn-off times for SCRs range from a few to
about 30 microseconds.

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• Forward breakover voltage, VBR(F) is the voltage at

Important Terms in SCR Characteristics which the SCR enters the forward-conduction region.
The value of VBR(F) is maximum when IG = 0 and is
designated V BR(F0) When the gate current in increased, V
BR(F) decreases and is designated V BR(F1), V BR(F2), and so
on, for increasing steps in gate current (I G1, 1G2 and so
on).
• Holding current, IH is the value of anode current below
which the SCR switches from the forward-conduction
region to the forward-blocking region. The value
increases with decreasing values of IG and is maximum
for IG =0.
• Gate trigger current, IGT is the value of gate current
necessary to switch the SCR from the forward-blocking
region to the forward-conduction region under specified
conditions.
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•
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• Average forward current, IF(avg) is the maximum • Reverse-breakdown voltage, VBR(R) This parameter
continuous anode current (dc) that the device can specifies the value of reverse voltage from cathode to
withstand in the conduction state under specified anode at which the device breaks into the avalanche
conditions. region and begins to conduct heavily (the same as in a
• pn junction diode).
• Forward-conduction region corresponds to the on •
condition of the SCR where there is forward current from • Peak Reverse Voltage (PRV), It is the maximum
anode to cathode through the very low resistance reverse voltage (cathode positive w.r.t anode) that can
(approximate short) of the SCR. be applied to an SCR before it starts conducting in
• reverse direction
• Forward-blocking and reverse-blocking regions
These regions correspond to the off condition of the SCR
where the forward current from anode to cathode is
blocked by the effective open circuit of the SCR.

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SCR as a Switch
• Figure shows an SCR circuit that permits current to be switched to a
load by the momentary closure of switch SWI and removed from the
load by the momentary closure of switch SW2.
• Assuming the SCR is initially off, momentary closure of SWI
provides a pulse of current into the gate, thus triggering the SCR on
so that it conducts current through RL.
• The SCR remains in conduction even after the momentary contact of
SWI is removed if the anode current is equal to or greater than the
holding current IH.
• When SW2 is momentarily closed, current is shunted around the
SCR, thus reducing its anode current below the holding value, IH.
• This turns the SCR off and reduces the load current to zero.

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• Numerical
Advantages of SCR as a Switch

• It has no moving parts therefore it gives

noiseless operation at higher efficiencies.
• The switching speed is very high upto 109
operations per second.
• It permits control over large load current (say
100A) by means of small gate current (few mA)
• It has small size and gives trouble free service.

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Half wave Power Control

SCR turn-on methods
• A common application of SCRs is in the control of ac
power for lamp dimmers, electric heaters, and electric
(1)Gate triggering motors.
(2)Forward Breakover • A half-wave, variable-resistance, phase-control circuit is
shown in figure
(3)dv/dt turn on
(4)Light turn on
(5)Temperature turn on

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• 120V ac are applied across terminals A and B: RL represents the • Figure shows triggering at the 45° point as an example.
resistance of the load (for example, a heating element or lamp • When the ac input goes negative, the SCR turns off and
filament).
does not conduct again until the trigger point on the next
• Resistor R1 limits the current, and potentiometer R2 sets the trigger
positive half-cycle.
level for the SCR.
• By adjusting R2 the SCR can be made to trigger at any point on the • The diode prevents the negative ac voltage from being
positive half-cycle of the ac waveform between 0° and 90°, as shown applied to the gate of the SCR
in Figure 11-16.
• When the SCR triggers near the beginning of the cycle
(approximately 0°), as in Figure, it conducts for approximately 180°
and maximum power is delivered to the load.
• When it triggers near the peak of the positive half-cycle (90°), as in
Figure 11- 1 6(b), the SCR conducts for approximately 90° and less
power is delivered to the load.
• By adjusting R2 triggering can be made to occur anywhere between
these two extremes, and therefore, a variable amount of power can
be delivered to the load.

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• Numerical
A half wave rectifier circuit employing an
SCR is adjusted to have a gate current of
1mA. The forward breakdown voltage of
SCR is 100V for IG= 1mA. If a sinusoidal
voltage of 200V peak is applied, find
(a)firing angle
AverageVoltage (b)conduction angle
Vavg = (Vm /2π)(1+Cosα);
Average Current (c)average voltage
Iavg = Vavg/RL
Output power = Vavg * Iavg (d)average current

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Assume load resistance is 100 ohms and holding current is zero.

Solution
Comparison between Transistors
V=V m sinθ
Here V=100V, V = 200V and firing
m
and SCR
angle α = θ sin α = V/Vm = Sr. Transistor SCR
100/200 = 0.5 1 3 Layers, 2 junction device 4 layers 3 junction device
α = sin-1 (0.5) = 300 2 Fast response Very Fast response
3 High Efficiency Very High Efficiency
Conduction angle = 1800 - α =1800 - 300
4 High Reliability Very High Reliability
5 Small Voltage drop Very Small Voltage drop
=1500 Average Voltage Vavg = Vavg 6 Long Life Very Long Life
7 Small to medium power rating Very Small to high power rating
= (Vm/2π)(1+Cos α) 8 Small turn ON and turn OFF time Very Small turn ON and turn OFF time
= (200 / 2π)(1+cos30) = 59.39V 9 Low power consumption Very Low power consumption
10 Low control Capability High control Capability
Average current Iavg = Vavg /RL 11 Requires a continuous flow of Requires a small pulse for triggering and
Average
= 59.39 Power Iavg = Vavg * Iavg
/ 100 = 0.594A current to maintain conduction state thereafter remaining in conduction state
= 59.39 *0.594 = 35.277 W 555 556

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Theft Alarm
• The circuit shown in figure can be used to protect a car
tape deck from theft. The switch S is located at some
concealed point is kept closed.
• Since the gate G is grounded through Tape, the SCR is
off and horn is silent.
• If the deck is removed, gate is no longer grounded.
Instead it is connected to car battery through R.
• Consequently gate current is setup which triggers the
SCR. Therefore the horn starts to blow and continue to
do so until S is opened.

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Emergency Lighting System • When there is an interruption of ac power. the capacitor

discharges through the closed path D 3 , R1, and R3,
• As another example of SCR applications. let's examine a circuit that will making the cathode less positive than the anode or the
maintain lighting by using a backup battery when there is an ac power gate.
failure.
• Figure 11-19 shows a center- tapped full-wave rectifier used for providing ac
• This action establishes a triggering condition, and the
power to a low-voltage lamp, SCR begins to conduct.
• As long as the ac power is available, the battery charges through diode D 3 • Current from the battery is through the SCR and the
and R1.
lamp, thus maintaining illumination, as shown in Figure
• The SCR's cathode voltage is established when the capacitor charges to the
peak value of the full-wave rectified ac (6.3V rms less the drops across R2 (b).
and D1). • When ac power is restored, the capacitor rechargesand
• The anode is at the 6 V battery voltage. making it less positive than the
cathode, thus preventing conduction.
the SCR turns off.
• The SCR's gate is at a voltage established by the voltage divider made up • The battery begins recharging.
of R2 and R3
• Under these conditions the lamp is illuminated by the ac input power and
the SCR is off, as shown in Figure ( a).
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Best of Luck

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