Agusan del Sur State College of Agriculture and Technology

College of Engineering and Information Studies

Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

Food Process Engineering

Application of Heat Transfer in AB Materials
Engr. Jack O. Bertulfo, MSAE
Faculty, ABE 15

Food Process Engineering

Mode of Heat Transfer
 Heat Transfer

❑ Heat transfer is the movement of energy from

one point to another by virtue of a difference in
temperature.

❑ Heating and cooling are manifestations of this

phenomenon, which is used in industrial
operations and in domestic activities.

❑ Increasing energy costs and in some cases

inadequate availability of energy will require
peak efficiency in heating and cooling
operations.
 Heat Transfer

❑ An understanding of the mechanisms of heat

transport is needed in order to recognize
limitations of heating and cooling systems, which
can then lead to adoption of practices that
circumvent these limitations.

❑ In industrial and domestic heating and cooling,

energy-use audits can be used to determine total
energy use and the distribution within the
process, to identify areas of high energy use, and
to target these areas for energy conservation
measures.
 Heat Transfer

MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER

❑ Heat will be transferred from one material to another when there is a difference in
their temperature.

❑ The temperature difference is the driving force which establishes the rate of heat
transfer.
 Conduction Heat Transfer

❑ When heat is transferred between adjacent molecules, the process is called

conduction.

❑ This is the mechanism of heat transfer in solids.

 Fourier’s 1st Law Heat Transfer

• According to Fourier’s first law, the heat flux, in conduction

heat transfer, is proportional to the temperature gradient.
Eq 4.1

Where: q = rate of heat flow

A = the area perpendicular to the heat flow
q/A = heat flux
dT/dx = temperature gradient
k = thermal conductivity of the material
 General Heat Conduction Equation

❑ When the rate of heat transfer across a solid is

not uniform (i.e., there is a difference in the
rate at which energy enters and leaves a
control volume), this difference will be
manifested as a rate of change of temperature
with time, within the control volume.

Control volume for analysis of

heat transfer into a cube
 General Heat Conduction Equation

❑ This type of problem is called unsteady state

heat transfer.

❑ Figure 1 shows a control volume for analyzing

heat transfer into a cube with sides dx, dy, and
dz.

❑ The following are heat balance equations

across the control volume in the x, y and z
directions.

Figure 1. Control volume for

analysis of heat transfer into a cube
General Heat Conduction Equation
General Heat Conduction Equation
General Heat Conduction Equation
General Heat Conduction Equation
General Heat Conduction Equation
General Heat Conduction Equation
General Heat Conduction Equation
General Heat Conduction Equation
General Heat Conduction Equation
General Heat Conduction Equation
General Heat Conduction Equation
General Heat Conduction Equation
 Heat Transfer by Convection

❑ This mechanism transfers heat when molecules move from one point to
another and exchanges energy with another molecule in the other location.

❑ Bulk molecular motion is involved in convection heat transfer.

❑ Bulk molecular motion is induced by density changes associated with

difference in fluid temperature at different points in the fluid, condensation,
or vaporization (natural convection), or when a fluid is forced to flow past a
surface by mechanical means (forced convection).

❑ Heat transfer by convection is evaluated as the rate of heat exchange at the

interface between a fluid and a solid.
 Heat Transfer by Convection

The rate of heat transfer by convection is proportional to the temperature

difference and is expressed as:

𝑞 = ℎ 𝐴 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞

Where: q = rate of heat flow

A = the area perpendicular to the heat flow
𝑇𝑠 = temperature of solid surface
𝑇∞ = temperature of fluid
h = convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2)
 Heat Transfer by Convection

❑ Convection heat transfer is often represented as heat transfer through a thin

layer of fluid that possesses a temperature gradient, at the fluid-surface
interface.

❑ The temperature, which is assumed to be uniform at Tm in the fluid bulk,

gradually changes through the fluid film until it assumes the solid surface
temperature past the film.

❑ Thus, the fluid film may be considered as an insulating layer that resists heat
flow between the fluid and the solid. The fluid film is actually a boundary
layer that has different properties and different velocity from the bulk of the
fluid.
 Heat Transfer by Convection
Natural convection
❑ Natural convection depends on gravity and density and viscosity changes
associated with temperature differences in the fluid to induce convective
currents.

❑ The degree of agitation produced by the convective currents depends on the

temperature gradient between the fluid and the solid surface.

❑ When the T is small, convective currents are not too vigorous, and the process
of heat transfer is referred to as free convection.

❑ The magnitude of the heat transfer coefficient in free convection is very low, of
the order 60 W/(m2· K) for air, and 60 to 3000 W/(m2· K) for water.
 Heat Transfer by Convection
Natural convection
❑When the surface is in contact with a liquid, and the surface temperature
exceeds the boiling point of the liquid, bubbles of superheated vapor are
produced at the solid-liquid interface.

❑As these bubbles leave the surface, the boundary layer is agitated resulting in
very high heat transfer coefficients. This process of heat transfer is called
nucleate boiling, and the magnitude of the heat transfer coefficient for water is
of the order 5000 to 50,000 W/(m2· K).

❑When the T is very high, excessive generation of vapor at the interface produces
an insulating layer of vapor that hinders heat transfer. This process of heat
transfer is called film boiling, and the heat transfer coefficient is much lower
than that in nucleate boiling.
 Heat Transfer by Convection
Natural convection
❑Another form of natural convection is the transfer of heat from condensing
vapors.

❑Condensing vapors release a large amount of energy on condensation,

therefore, heat transfer coefficients are very high.

❑When the vapors condense as droplets, which eventually coalesce and slide
down the surface, the vapor is always in direct contact with a clean surface, and
therefore, heat transfer coefficients are very high. This type of heat transfer is
called dropwise condensation.
 Heat Transfer by Convection
Forced convection
❑In forced convection heat transfer, heat transfer coefficients depend on the
velocity of the fluid, its thermophysical properties, and the geometry of the
surface.

❑In general, heat transfer coefficients for noncondensing gases are about two
orders of magnitude lower than that for liquids.
 Heat Transfer by Radiation

❑ Heat transfer by radiation is independent of and additive to that transferred

by convection.

❑ Electromagnetic waves traveling through space may be intercepted by a

suitable surface and absorbed, raising the energy level of the intercepting
surface.

❑ When the electromagnetic waves are of the frequency of light, the

phenomenon is referred to as radiation.

❑ All bodies at temperatures higher than absolute zero emit energy in

proportion to the fourth power of their temperatures. In a closed system,
bodies exchange energy by radiation until their temperatures equalize.
 Heat Transfer by Radiation

❑ Radiation heat transfer, like convection, is a surface phenomenon, therefore

the conditions at the surface determine the rate of heat transfer.

❑ Thermal radiation includes the spectrum ranging from the high ultraviolet
(0.1µm) through the visible spectrum (0.4 to 0.7µm) to infrared (0.7 to 100
µm).

❑ Surfaces emit thermal radiation in a range of wavelengths, therefore

radiation may be expressed as a spectral intensity, which is the intensity at
each wavelength, or a total intensity, which is the integral of the energy
emitted over a range of wavelengths.

❑ Surfaces also receive energy from the surroundings.

 Heat Transfer by Radiation

❑ When radiant energy strikes a material surface,

part of the radiation is reflected, part is absorbed,
and part is transmitted, as shown in the figure.
We define the reflectivity ρ as the fraction
reflected, the absorptivity α as the fraction
absorbed, and the transmissivity τ as the fraction
transmitted.

ρ+ α+τ=1
 Heat Transfer by Radiation

❑ Most solid bodies do not transmit thermal

radiation, so that for many applied problems the
transmissivity may be taken as zero. Then

ρ+α=1
❑ Two types of reflection phenomena may be
observed when radiation strikes a surface. If the Specular reflection
angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection, the reflection is called specular.

❑ On the other hand, when an incident beam is

distributed uniformly in all directions after
reflection, the reflection is called diffuse.
Diffuse reflection
 Heat Transfer by Radiation

❑ Emissivity (ε) is a property that is the fraction of radiation emitted or

absorbed by a black body at a given temperature that is emitted or
absorbed by a surface at the same temperature.

❑ The emissive power of a body E is defined as the energy emitted by the

body per unit area and per unit time.

❑ Thus black bodies have ε = 1. If a surface absorbs a fraction (ε< 1) of

incident radiation equally at all wavelengths , the surface is considered
gray.
 Heat Transfer by Radiation

❑ A body at constant temperature is in equilibrium with its surroundings, and

the amount of energy absorbed by radiation will be exactly the same as that
emitted.

❑ Thus, the absorptivity of a surface (α) is exactly the same as the emissivity (ε),
and these two properties may be used interchangeably
 Heat Transfer by Radiation

❑ The energy flux emitted by a black body is directly proportional to the

fourth power of the absolute temperature.

Where: σ is the Stephan-Boltzman constant which has a value

of 5.6732 ×10−8 W/(m2 ·K4)
For gray bodies:
 Thermal Resistance Network

❑ Consider a steady one-dimensional heat transfer through a plane wall of

thickness L, area A, and thermal conductivity k that is exposed to
convection on both sides to fluids at temperatures T1 and T2 with heat
transfer coefficients h1 and h2

Under steady conditions we have:

 Thermal Resistance Network

Which can be re-arranged as:

 Thermal Resistance Network

The heat transfer can then be calculated as:

The total thermal resistance can be calculated as:

 Thermal Resistance Network

❑ It is sometimes convenient to express heat transfer through a medium in an

analogous manner to Newton’s law of cooling as:

where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient with the unit W/m2·K. The
overall heat transfer coefficient is usually used in heat transfer calculations
associated with heat exchangers.
 Heat Exchangers

❑ Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the exchange of heat between two
fluids that are at different temperatures while keeping them from mixing with
each other.

❑ Heat exchangers are commonly used in practice in a wide range of

applications, from heating and air-conditioning systems in a household, to
chemical processing and power production in large plants.

❑ Heat exchangers differ from mixing chambers in that they do not allow the two
fluids involved to mix.
 Heat Exchangers

Shell-and-tube heat exchanger with one tube pass

 Heat Exchangers

Coiled tube-in-tube exchanger

Heat Exchangers

Cross-flow heat exchanger, one

fluid mixed and one unmixed.
Heat Exchangers

Cross-flow heat exchanger,

both fluids unmixed.
 Heat Exchangers

Diagram of a double-pipe heat exchanger.

 Log Mean Temperature Difference

❑ Consider the double-pipe heat exchanger

shown in the Figure 1.

❑ The fluids may flow in either parallel flow or

counterflow, and the temperature profiles
for these two cases are indicated in Figure 2
and 3.
Figure 1
 Log Mean Temperature Difference

Figure 2. Temperature profile for Figure 3. Temperature profile for

parallel flow counter flow
 Log Mean Temperature Difference

The heat transfer in this double-pipe arrangement can be calculated

 Log Mean Temperature Difference

❑ The temperature difference is called the log mean temperature difference (LMTD).

❑ It is the temperature difference at one end of the heat exchanger less the
temperature difference at the other end of the exchanger divided by the natural
logarithm of the ratio of these two temperature differences.

LMTD=

❑ The assumptions are that the fluid specific heats do not vary with temperature
and the convection heat-transfer coefficients are constant throughout the heat
exchanger.
 Sample Problem

Water at the rate of 68 kg/min is heated from 35 to 75°C by an oil having a specific
heat of 1.9 kJ/kg°C. The fluids are used in a counterflow double-pipe heat
exchanger, and the oil enters the exchanger at 110 °C and leaves at 75°C. The
overall heat-transfer coefficient is 320 W/m2C. Calculate the heat-exchanger area.

Tc2=water
Tc1= 75°C
Th1= 110°C
Tc1=water Th2=oil
Tc2= 35°C

Th2= 75°C
Th1=oil
 Sample Problem

Water at the rate of 68 kg/min is heated from 35 to 75°C by an oil having a specific
heat of 1.9 kJ/kg°C. The fluids are used in a counterflow double-pipe heat
exchanger, and the oil enters the exchanger at 110 °C and leaves at 75°C. The
overall heat-transfer coefficient is 320 W/m2C. Calculate the heat-exchanger area.
Solution:
The total heat transfer is determined from the energy absorbed by the
water:
 Sample Problem

Water at the rate of 68 kg/min is heated from 35 to 75°C by an oil having a specific
heat of 1.9 kJ/kg°C. The fluids are used in a counterflow double-pipe heat
exchanger, and the oil enters the exchanger at 110 °C and leaves at 75°C. The
overall heat-transfer coefficient is 320 W/m2C. Calculate the heat-exchanger area.
Solution:
Calculate for the LMTD:

Then, since q=UATm

Then:
 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

❑ A heat exchanger typically involves two flowing fluids separated by a solid wall.

❑ Heat is first transferred from the hot fluid to the wall by convection, through the
wall by conduction, and from the wall to the cold fluid again by convection.

❑ Any radiation effects are usually included in the convection heat transfer
coefficients.
 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

❑ The thermal resistance network associated with this

heat transfer process involves two convection and one
conduction resistances

❑ Here the subscripts i and o represent the inner and

outer surfaces of the inner tube.
 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

❑ For a double-pipe heat exchanger, the thermal

resistance of the tube wall is

❑ The total thermal resistance becomes:

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
❑ In the analysis of heat exchangers, it is
convenient to combine all the thermal
resistances in the path of heat flow from the hot
fluid to the cold one into a single resistance R,
and to express the rate of heat transfer between
the two fluids as

❑ The overall heat transfer coefficient is

 Dimensionless Quantities
❑ A major problem in heat transfer is the estimation of heat transfer coefficients
to be used for design purposes.

❑ These values of h must be determined from the properties of the fluid and the
geometry of the system.

❑ The use of dimensionless quantities arises from the principle of similarity.

❑ Equations that describe different systems having similar characteristics can be

superimposed on each other to form a single expression suitable for all
systems.
 Dimensionless Quantities

❑ Thus, if the physical characteristics of a fluid and the conditions that exist in an
experiment are expressed in terms of dimensionless quantities, it will be
possible to extrapolate results of an experiment to other fluids and other
conditions.

❑ In dimensional analysis, an equation relating the various variables is first

assumed, and by performing an analysis of the base dimensions of the
variables to make the equation dimensionally consistent, specific groupings of
the variables are formed.
 Dimensionless Quantities

Nusselt number (Nu):

❑ This expression involves the heat transfer coefficient (h), the characteristic
dimension of the system (d), and the thermal conductivity of the fluid (k).

❑ This dimensionless expression may be considered as the ratio of the

characteristic dimension of a system and the thickness of the boundary layer
of fluid that would transmit heat by conduction at the same rate as that
calculated using the heat transfer coefficient.

𝒉𝑫
𝑵𝒖 =
𝒌
 Dimensionless Quantities

• Reynolds number (Re):

• This expression involves the characteristic dimension of the

system (D), the velocity of the fluid (V), the density (ρ), and
the viscosity (μ). It may be considered as the ratio of inertial
forces to the frictional force.
𝝆𝑽𝑫
𝑹𝒆 =
𝝁
 Dimensionless Quantities
Prandtl number (Pr):

❑ This expression involves the specific heat (Cp), the viscosity (𝜇), and the
thermal conductivity (k).

❑ It may be considered as the ratio of rate of momentum exchange between

molecules and the rate of energy exchange between molecules that lead to the
transfer of heat.

𝝁𝑪𝒑
𝑷𝒓 =
𝒌
 Dimensionless Quantities

Grashof number (Gr):

❑ This quantity involves the characteristic dimension of a system (D), the

acceleration due to gravity (g), the thermal expansion coefficient (Β), the
density of the fluid (ρ), the viscosity (𝜇), and the temperature difference T
between a surface and the fluid temperature beyond the boundary layer.

❑ This number may be considered as a ratio of the force of gravity to buoyant

forces that arise as a result of a change in temperature of a fluid.

𝒈𝑫𝟑Β𝝆𝟐∆𝑻
𝑮𝒓 =
𝝁
Application and Problem Solving
 Sample Problem 1

Calculate the rate of heat loss through the vertical walls of a boiler furnace of
size 4m by 3 m by 3 m high. The walls are constructed from an inner fire brick
wall 25 cm thick of thermal conductivity 0.4 W/mK, a layer of ceramic blanket
insulation of thermal conductivity 0.2 W/mK and 8 cm thick, and a steel
protective layer of thermal conductivity 55 W/mK and 2 mm thick. The inside
temperature of the fire brick layer was measured at 600 °C and the temperature
of the outside of the insulation 60 °C. Also find the interface temperature of
layers.
 Sample Problem 1
Given:

Composite Wall
l= 4m w= 3m h= 3m
Area of rectangular wall lxw = 4x3 = 12m2
L1 = 25 cm Fire brick
kı = 0.4 W/mK
L2 =0.002m Steel
k2 = 54 W/mK
L3 = 0.08 m insulation
kı = 0.2 W/mK
T1 = 600 °C
T2 = 60 °C
 Sample Problem 1
Find
(i) Q (ii) (T3 –T4)

We know that:
Sample Problem 1
Sample Problem 1
 Sample Problem 2
A mild steel tank of wall thickness 10 mm contains water at 90 °C. The
thermal conductivity of mild steel is 50 W/m °C , and the heat transfer
coefficient for inside and outside of the tank area are 2800 and 11 W/m2 °C,
respectively. If the atmospheric temperature is 20°C , calculate

(i) The rate of heat loss per

m2 of the tank surface
area.

(ii) The temperature of the

outside surface tank.
 Sample Problem 2
Solution:
 Sample Problem 2
Solution:
To find T2
 Sample Problem 3
Applesauce is being cooled from 80°C to 20°C in a swept surface heat exchanger.
The overall coefficient of heat transfer based on the inside surface area is 568
W/m2· K. The applesauce has a specific heat of 3187 J/kg ·K and is being cooled at
the rate of 50 kg/h. Cooling water enters in countercurrent flow at 10°C and
leaves the heat exchanger at 17 °C. Calculate:

a) the quantity of cooling water required

b) the required heat transfer surface area for the heat exchanger.
 Sample Problem 3

Diagram of a heat exchanger in a counterflow configuration for

the fluids exchanging heat.
 Sample Problem 3
Solution:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝∆𝑇

Note: Heat is transferred to the water

𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝∆𝑇
 Sample Problem 3
Solution:

Note: LMTD