DCN

LAB File

Name: Aditya Bhardwaj

Batch & Year: MAE 3rd yr.
Roll No.: 40220903618

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 INDEX

SNo Topic Page No.

1. INTRODUCTION TO ns -2 3

2. Fabrications of Cables 12

3. Peer to Peer Topology 15

4. Star Topology 18

5. IPv4 Addressing 21

6. IPv4 Sub netting 24

7. Window File Sharing 28

Experiment 1
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Aim: After completing this experiment you will be able to:
 Learn the basic concepts about open source network simulator NS-2, and
how to download, install and work with NS-2
 Defining the different agents and their applications like TCP, FTP over TCP,
UDP, CBR over UDP
 Identifying and solving typical errors encountered during installation of
NS-2
THEORY:
Network Simulator version 2 (NS-2) is discrete event packet level simulator. The
network simulator covers a very large number of application of different kind of
protocols of different network types consisting of different network elements
and traffic models. NS-2 is a package of tools that simulates behavior of
networks such as creating network topologies, log events that happen under
any load, analyze the events and understand the network. The aim of this first
experiment is to learn how to use NS-2, to get acquainted with the simulated
objects and understand the operations of network simulation. We will also look
at how to analyze the outcome of a simulation.
Platform required to run network simulator
 Unix and Unix like systems
o Linux
o Free BSD
o SunOS/Solaris
 Windows 95/98/NT/2000/XP (requires Cygwin)
Backend Environment of Network Simulator
Network Simulator is based on two languages: C++ and OTcl. OTcl is the object
oriented version of Tool Command Language. While the core of NS-2 is written
in C++, one uses OTcl to write simulation scripts. C++ helps in the following way:
 It helps to increase the efficiency of simulation.
 Its is used to provide details of the protocols and their operation.
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  It is used to reduce packet and event processing time.
OTcl helps in the following way:
 With the help of OTcl we can describe different network topologies
 It helps us to specify the protocols and their applications
 It allows fast development
 Tcl is compatible with many platforms and it is flexible for integration
 Tcl is very easy to use and it is available in free
And of course, there is a linkage between C++ and OTcl, which allows us to run
the simulation scripts.
Basics of Tcl Programming for NS-2
Network simulation with NS-2 would involve the following general steps:
1. Initialization and termination aspects of network simulator object
2. Defining the network topology: nodes, links, queues, mobility of nodes, if
any
3. Defining the network traffic: creating agents and their applications
4. Setting trace for Network Animator (NAM) [optional]
5. Tracing
In this section, we provide a brief overview of the most commonly used features
of NS-2. This summary has been prepared based on various tutorials on, and the
manual for, NS-2. See the References section for some of the different tutorials
available.
Initialization
To create a new simulator we write
1 set ns [new Simulator]
From the above command we get that a variable ns is being initialized by using
the set command. Here the code [new Simulator] is a instantiation of the class
Simulator which uses the reserved word new. So we can call all the methods
present inside the class simulator by using the variable 'ns'.

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Creating the output files
1 # Create the trace files
2 set tracefile [open out.tr w]
3 $ns trace-all $tracefile
4
5 # Create the nam files
6 set namfile [open out.nam w]
7 $ns namtrace-all $namfile
In the above we create a output trace file 'out.tr' and a NAM visualization file
'out.nam'. But in the Tcl script they are not called by their names declared, while
they are called by the pointers initialized for them such as 'tracefile' and
'namfile' respectively.The line which starts with # are commented. The next line
opens the file 'out.tr' which is used for writing is declared 'w'. The next line uses
a simulator method trace-all by which we will trace all the events in a particular
format.
The termination program is done by using a 'finish' procedure
1 # Defining the 'finish' procedure'
2
3 proc finish {} {
4 global ns tracefile namfile
5 $ns flush-trace
6 close $tracefile
7 close $namfile
8 exit 0
9 }

In the above, the keyword proc is used to declare a procedure called 'finish'. The
keyword global is used to tell what variables are being used outside the
procedure.
flush-trace is a simulator method that dumps the traces on the respective files.
The command close is used to close the trace files and the command exec is
used to execute the NAM visualization. The command exit closes the application
and returns zero as default for clean exit.
In ns we end the program by calling the 'finish' procedure
1 # End the program
2 $ns at 125.0 "finish"
Thus the entire operation ends at 125 seconds.To begin the simulation we will
use the command

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1 # Start the the simulation process
2 $ns run

Defining nodes, links, queues (topology)

Way to create a node:
1 set n0 [$ns node]

In the above we created a node that is pointed by a variable n0. While referring
the node in the script we use $n0. Similarly we create another node n2. Now we
will set a link between the two nodes.
1 $ns duplex-link $n0 $n2 10Mb 10ms DropTail

So we are creating a bi-directional link between nodes n0 and n2 with a capacity

of 10 Mb/sec and a propagation delay of 10 ms.
In NS an output queue of a node is implemented as a part of a link whose input
is that node to handle the overflow at the queue. If the buffer capacity of the
output queue is exceeded then the last packet arrived is dropped and here we
will use a 'DropTail' option. There are other queue types such as RED (Random
Early Discard) mechanism, FQ (Fair Queuing), DRR (Deficit Round Robin), SFQ
(Stochastic Fair Queuing) also available.
Now we will define the buffer capacity of the queue related to the above link
1 # Set queue size of the link
2 $ns queue-limit $n0 $n2 20
So, if we summarize the above three things we get
01 # Create nodes
02
03 set n0 [$ns node]
04 set n1 [$ns node]
05 set n2 [$ns node]
06 set n3 [$ns node]
07 set n4 [$ns node]
08 set n5 [$ns node]
09
10 # Create links between the nodes
11
12 $ns duplex-link $n0 $n2 10Mb 10ms DropTail

13 $ns duplex-link $n1 $n2 10Mb 10ms DropTail

14 $ns simplex-link $n2 $n3 0.3Mb 100ms DropTail

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15 $ns simplex-link $n3 $n2 0.3Mb 100ms DropTail

16 $ns duplex-link $n0 $n2 0.5Mb 40ms DropTail

17 $ns duplex-link $n0 $n2 0.5Mb 40ms DropTail
18

19 # Set queue-size of the link (n2-n3) to 20

20 $ns queue-limit $n2 $n3 20

Agents and applications

TCP
TCP is used to provide reliable transport of packets from one host to another
host by sending acknowledgements on proper transfer or loss of packets. Thus,
TCP requires bi-directional links in order for acknowledgements to return to the
source.
Now we will show how to set up tcp connection between two nodes
1 # Setting a TCP connection
2
3 set tcp [new Agent/TCP]
4 $ns attach-agent $n0 $tcp
5 set sink [new Agent/TCPSink]
6 $ns attach-agent $n4 $sink
7 $ns connect $tcp $sink
8 $tcp set fid_ 1
9 $tcp set packetSize_ 552

The command set tcp [new Agent/TCP] gives a pointer called 'tcp' to the TCP
agent object of ns. The command $ns attach-agent $n0 $tcp defines the source
node of TCP connection. Next the command set sink [new
Agent/TCPSink] defines the destination of TCP by a pointer called 'sink'. The
next command $ns attach-agent $n4 $sink defines the destination node as n4.
Next, the command $ns connect $tcp $sink makes the TCP connection between
the source and the destination i.e n0 and n4. When we have several flows (such
as TCP, UDP) in a network, to identify these flows we set their flow ID by using
the command $tcp set fid_1. In the last line we set the packet size of TCP as 552
byte. The default packet size of TCP is 1000 B.
FTP over TCP
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File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard mechanism provided by the Internet
for transferring files from one host to another. FTP differs from other client
server applications in that it establishes two connections between the client and
the server. One connection is used for data transfer and other one is used for
providing control information. FTP uses the services of the TCP. The well Known
port 21 is used for control connections and the other port 20 is used for data
transfer.
Here we will learn in how to run a FTP connection over a TCP:
1 # Initiating FTP over TCP
2
3 set ftp [new Application/FTP]
4 $ftp attach-agent $tcp
In above,the command set ftp [new Application/FTP] gives a pointer called 'ftp'
which indicates the FTP application. Next, we attach the ftp application with tcp
agent as FTP uses the services of TCP.
UDP
The User datagram Protocol is one of the main protocols of the Internet
protocol suite. UDP helps the host to send send messages in the form of
datagrams to another host which is present in a Internet protocol network
without any kind of requirement for channel transmission setup. UDP provides a
unreliable service and the datagrams may arrive out of order, appear
duplicated, or go missing without notice. UDP assumes that error checking and
correction is either not necessary or performed in the application, avoiding the
overhead of such processing at the network interface level. Time-sensitive
applications often use UDP because dropping packets is preferable to waiting
for delayed packets, which may not be an option in a real-time system.
Now we will learn how to create a UDP connection in network simulator.
1 # Setup a UDP connection
2 set udp [new Agent/UDP]
3 $ns attach-agent $n1 $udp
4 $set null [new Agent/Null]
5 $ns attach-agent $n5 $null
6 $ns connect $udp $null
7 $udp set fid_ 2

The command set udp [new Agent/UDP] gives a pointer called 'udp' which
indicates the udp agent which is a object of ns. Then the command $ns attach-
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agent $n1 $udp defines the source node of UDP connection. Next the
command set null [new Agent/Null] defines the destination of udp by a pointer
called null. The next command $ns attach-agent $n5 $null defines the
destination node as n5. Next, the command $ns connect $udp $null makes the
UDP connection between the source and the destination i.e n1 and n5. To
identify a particular flow we mark it using the command $udp set fid_2.
Constant Bit Rate (CBR)
Constant Bit Rate (CBR) is a term used in telecommunications, relating to the
quality of service.When referring to codecs, constant bit rate encoding means
that the rate at which a codec's output data should be consumed is constant.
CBR is useful for streaming multimedia content on limited capacity channels
since it is the maximum bit rate that matters, not the average, so CBR would be
used to take advantage of all of the capacity. CBR would not be the optimal
choice for storage as it would not allocate enough data for complex sections
(resulting in degraded quality) while wasting data on simple sections.
CBR over UDP Connection
1 # Setup CBR over UDP
2
3 set cbr [new Application/Traffic/CBR]
4 $cbr attach-agent $udp
5 $cbr set packetSize_ 1000
6 $cbr set rate_ 0.01Mb
7 $cbr set random_ false
In the above we define a CBR connection over a UDP one. Well we have already
defined the UDP source and UDP agent as same as TCP. Instead of defining the
rate we define the time interval between the transmission of packets in the
command $cbr set rate_ 0.01Mb. Next, with the help of the command $cbr set
random_ false we can set random noise in cbr traffic. We can keep the noise by
setting it to false or we can set the noise on by the command $cbr set random_
1. We can set by packet size by using the command $cbr set packetSize_. The
packet size is specified in bytes.
Scheduling Events
In ns the tcl script defines how to schedule the events or in other words at what
time which event will occur and stop. This can be done using the command $ns

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at time event. Here in our program we will schedule when the ftp and cbr traffic
should start and stop.
1 # Scheduling the events
2
3 $ns at 0.1 "$cbr start"
4 $ns at 1.0 "$ftp start"
5 $ns at 124.0 "$ftp stop"
6 $ns at 124.5 "$cbr stop"
Network Animator (NAM)
When we will run the above program in ns then we can can visualize the
network in the NAM. But instead of giving random positions to the nodes, we
can give suitable initial positions to the nodes and can form a suitable topology.
So, in our program we can give positions to the nodes in NAM in the following
way
1 # Give position to the nodes (for NAM)
2
3 $ns duplex-link-op $n0 $n2 orient-right-down
4 $ns duplex-link-op $n1 $n2 orient-right-up
5 $ns simplex-link-op $n2 $n3 orient-right
6 $ns simplex-link-op $n3 $n2 orient-left
7 $ns duplex-link-op $n3 $n4 orient-right-up
8 $ns duplex-link-op $n3 $n5 orient-right-down

We can also define the color of CBR and TCP packets for identification in NAM.
For this we use the following command
1 # Marking the flows (for NAM)
2 $ns color1 Blue
3 $ns color2 Red
Tracing
Tracing Objects
NS-2 simulation can produce visualization trace as well as ASCII file
corresponding to the events that are registered at the network. While tracing ns
inserts four objects: EnqT, DeqT, RecvT, and DrpT. EnqT registers information
regarding the arrival of packet and is queued at the input queue of the link.
When overflow of a packet occurs, then the information of the dropped packet
is registered in DrpT. DeqT holds the information about the packet that is
dequeued instantly. RecvT hold the information about the packet that has been
received instantly.

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 Fi
gure-01: NS-2 trace file format (wired networks)

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 Experiment 2

Aim: 1) To practise the colour code for different cables.

2) Observe the Lan Tester and make the decision accordingly.

Theory:
A twisted pair consists of two insulated conductor twisted together in the shape
of a spiral. It can be shielded or unshielded. The unshielded twisted pair cables
are very cheap and easy to install. But they are very badly affected by the
electromagnetic noise interference.

Twisting of wires will reduce the effect of noise or external interference. The
induced Emf into the two wires due to interference tends to cancel each other
due to twisting. Number of twists per unit length will determine the quality of
cable. More twists means better quality.

There are 3 types of UTP cables:-

1) Straight-through cable
2) Crossover cable
3) Roll-over cable

A. Straight-through cable
Straight-Through refers to cables that have the pin assignments on each end of
the cable. In other words, pin 1 connector A goes to Pin 1 on connector B, pin 2
to Pin 2 etc. Straight-Through wired cables are most commonly used to connect
a host to client. When we talk about cat5e patch cables, the Straight-Through
wired cat5e patch cable is used to connect computers, printers and other
network client devices to the router switch or hub (the host device in this
instance).

B. Crossover cable
Crossover wired cables (commonly called crossover cables) are very much like
Straight-Through cables with the exception that TX and RX lines are crossed
(they are at opposite positions on either end of the cable. Using the 568-B
standard as an example below you will see that Pin 1 on connector A goes to Pin
3 on connector B. Pin 2 on connector A goes to Pin 6 on connector B etc.
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Crossover cables are most commonly used to connect two hosts directly.
Examples would be connecting a computer directly to another computer,
connecting a switch directly to another switch, or connecting a router to a
router. Note: While in the past when connecting two host devices directly a
crossover cable was required. Now days most devices have auto sensing
technology that detects the cable and device and crosses pairs when needed.

C. Roll-over cable
Rollover wired cables most commonly called rollover cables, have opposite Pin
assignments on each end of the cable or in other words it is "rolled over". Pin 1
of connector A would be connected to Pin 8 of connector B. Pin 2 of connector
A would be connected to Pin 7 of connector B and so on. Rollover cables,
sometimes referred to as Yost cables are most commonly used to connect to a
devices console port to make programming changes to the device. Unlike
crossover and straight-wired cables, rollover cables are not intended to carry
data but instead create an interface with the device.

Procedure:
1) The aim is to Fabricate a UTP Cable.
2) To perform the experiment follow the below steps
3) A choice list would be given that which type of cable is to be fabricated
4) Select the choice out of the three choices given
5) Once a selection is done then the user have to make the cable ready
6) In-order to do so select the colour codes on both the sides i.e. Switch port
and PC port.
7) After assigning the colour codes click on the Start button to observe that the
cable made is correct or not.
8) Based on the observations made select if cable made is correct or not.

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Simulation:

Experiment 3
Aim: 1) To construct Peer to Peer Topology

Theory:
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The word physical network topology is used to explain the manner in which a
network is physically connected. Devices or nodes in a network get connected
to each other via communication links and all these links are related to each
other in one way or the other. The geometric representation of such a
relationship of links and nodes is known as the topology of that network.

These topologies can be classifies into two types:-

1. Peer to peer
2. Primary - Secondary

Peer to peer is the relationship where the devices share the link equally. The
examples are ring and mesh topologies.

In Primary - Secondary relationship, one device controls and the other devices
have to transmit through it. For example star and tree topology.

Features of Peer to peer:-

In peer to peer architecture every node is connected to other node directly.
Every computer node is referred as peer.
Every peer provides services to other peers as well as uses services of them.
There is no central server present.

Advantages of Peer to peer:-

1) It is easy to install and so is the configuration of computers on this network,
2) All the resources and contents are shared by all the peers
3) P2P is more reliable as central dependency is eliminated. Failure of one peer
doesn’t affect the functioning of other peers.
4) There is no need for full-time System Administrator. Every user is the
administrator of his machine. User can control their shared resources.

Disadvantages of Peer to peer:-

1) In this network, the whole system is decentralised thus it is difficult to
administer. That is one person cannot determine the whole accessibility setting
of whole network.
2) Data recovery or backup is very difficult. Each computer should have its own
back-up system.

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Procedure:
1) The aim is to Create the topology.
2) To perform the experiment follow the below steps
3)A blank square area would be given which defines the working area
4)A series of components would be given
5)In order to build a topology first select on the component and then
immediately click on the working area to place it
6)To draw a line between two components first select the line click on the port
of first component and then immediately click on the port of second component
7)Once the topology is built then click on the Submit button to test whether the
give topology is built correctly or not.

Simulation:

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 Experiment 4
Aim: 1) To construct Star Topology
Theory:
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The word physical network topology is used to explain the manner in which a
network is physically connected. Devices or nodes in a network get connected
to each other via communication links and all these links are related to each
other in one way or the other. The geometric representation of such a
relationship of links and nodes is known as the topology of that network.

These topologies can be classifies into two types:-

1. Peer to peer
2. Primary - Secondary

Peer to peer is the relationship where the devices share the link equally. The
examples are ring and mesh topologies.

In Primary - Secondary relationship, one device controls and the other devices
have to transmit through it. For example star and tree topology.

Features of Star Topology:-

1) Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
2) Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3) Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology:-

1) Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2) Hub can be upgraded easily.
3) Easy to troubleshoot.
4) Easy to setup and modify.
5) Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology:-

1) Cost of installation is high.
2) Expensive to use.
3) If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.
4) Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity.

Procedure:
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1) The aim is to Create the topology.
2) To perform the experiment follow the below steps
3)A blank square area would be given which defines the working area
4)A series of components would be given
5)In order to build a topology first select on the component and then
immediately click on the working area to place it
6)To draw a line between two components first select the line click on the port
of first component and then immediately click on the port of second component
7)Once the topology is built then click on the Submit button to test whether the
give topology is built correctly or not.

Simulation:

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 Experiment 5
Aim: 1) To give IP Address of different classes in given network ID.

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Theory:
IP addresses enable computers to communicate by providing unique identifiers
for the computer itself and for the network over which it is located. An IP
address is a 32 bit value that contains a network identifier(net -id) and a host
identifier (host-id).

The network administrators need to assign IP addresses to the system on their

network. This address needs to be a unique one. All the computers on a
particular subnet will have the same network identifier but different host
identifiers. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) assigns network
identifiers to avoid any duplication of addresses.
Host Identifier Network Identifier 32 bits

The 32 bit IPv4 address is grouped into groups of eight bits, separated by dots.
Each 8-bit group is then converted into its equivalent binary number. Thus each
octet (8bit) can take value from 0 to 255. The IPv4 in the dotted decimal
notation can range from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255. The IPv4 Address are
classified into 5 types as follows:

1. Class A 2. Class B
3. Class C 4. Class D
5. Class E

Class A
The first bit of the first octet is always set to 0 (zero). Thus the first octet ranges
from 1-127 i.e.
00000000 - 01111111
1-127
Class A addresses only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x only. The IP
range 127.x.x.x is reserved for loopback IP addresses. The default subnet mask
for class Class A IP address is 255.0.0.0 which implies that Class A addressing can
have 126 networks and 167777214 hosts. Class A IP address format is thus :
0NNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH

Class B
An IP address which belongs to class B has the first two bits in the first octet set
to 10, i.e.
10000000 - 10111111
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128 - 191
Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0.x.x to 191.255.x.x. The default subnet
mask for Class B is 255.255.x.x. Class B has 16384 Network addresses and 65534
Host addresses. Class B IP addresses format is:
10NNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH

Class C
The first octet of Class C IP address has its first 3 bits set to 110,that is:
11000000 - 11011111
192 - 223
Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.x to 223.255.255.x. The default subnet
mask for Class C is 255.255.255.x. Class C gives 2097152 Network addresses and
254 Host addresses. Class C IP address format is:
110NNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH
Procedure:
1) The aim is to Give IP Addresses to the PCs.
2) To perform the experiment follow the below steps
3) A choice list would be given defining the Classes
4) The user has to select the class in which they choose to give IP Addresses
5) After that a Network ID would be given and the user has to enter the IP
Addresses according to the Network ID.
6) Click on submit to test whether the IP address given to PCs make them into
Network or not.

Simulation:

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 Experiment 6

Aim: 1) To give IP Address of different classes in given network ID and

subnet.
Theory:
Each IP class is equipped with its own default subnet mask which bounds that IP
class to have prefixed number of Networks and prefixed number of Hosts per
network. Glassful IP addressing does not provide any flexibility of having less
number of Hosts per Network or more Networks per IP Class. CIDR or Classless
Inter Domain Routing provides the flexibility of borrowing bits of Host part of
the IP address and using them as Network in Network, called Subnet. By using
subletting, one singled Class A IP address can be used to have smaller
subnetworks which provides better network management capabilities.
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Class A
In Class A, only the first octet is used as Network identifier and rest of three
octets are used to be assigned to Hosts (i.e. 16777214 Hosts per Network). To
make more subnet in Class A, bits from Host part are borrowed and the subnet
mask is changed accordingly. For example, if one MSB (Most Significant Bit) is
borrowed from host bits of second octet and added to Network address, it
creates two Subnets with 8388606 Hosts per Subnet. The Subnet mask is
changed accordingly to reflect subletting. Given below is list of all possible
combination of Class A subnets:

Class B
By default, using Glassful Networking, 14 bits are used as Network bits providing
16384 Networks and 65534 Hosts. Class B IP Addresses can be subsetted the
same way as Class A addresses, by borrowing bits from Host bits. Below is given
all possible combination of Class B sub netting:

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Class C
Class C IP addresses are normally assigned to a very small size networks because
it can only have 254 hosts in a network. Given below is a list of all possible
combination of subsetted Class B IP addresses:

Procedure:
1) The aim is to Give IP Addresses to the PCs.
2) To perform the experiment follow the below steps
3) A choice list would be given defining the Classes
4) The user has to select the class in which they choose to give IP Addresses
5) After that a Network ID would be given and the user has to enter the IP
Addresses according to the Network ID.

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6) Click on submit to test whether the IP address given to PCs make them into
Network or not.

Simulation:

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 Experiment 7

Aim: 1) To share a folder from a computer and access the shared folder
from another computer.

Theory:
It’s a common situation — you have several computers near each other and you
want to transfer files between them. You don’t have to pull out a USB drive, nor
do you have to send them over email — there are faster, easier ways.

This is easier than it was in the past, as you don’t have to mess with any
complicated Windows networking settings. There are lots of ways to share files,
but we’ll cover some of the best.

Windows Home group

Assuming the computers are using Windows 7 or Windows 8, a Windows Home
group is one of the easiest ways to share files between them. Windows home
networking has been extremely complicated to configure in the past, but Home
group is easy to set up. Just create a Home group from the Home group option
within Windows Explorer (File Explorer on Windows 8) and you’ll get a
password. Enter that password on nearby computers and they can join your
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Home group. They’ll then have access to your shared files when they’re on the
same network — you can select the libraries you want to share while creating a
Home group.

Procedure:
1) The aim is to Share the files between Two Pc’s.
2) To perform the experiment follow the below steps
3) Click on the first Pc
4) Follow the step to share a folder from the given location
5) Close the Pc by clicking on the black bar
6) Click on second Pc
7) follow the step to access the files
8) Close the Pc
9) If all the steps are performed correctly then Experiment is successful
10)Else Need to do it again

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