1 s2.0 S0950061823021451 Main

Construction and Building Materials 397 (2023) 132429
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
Performance evaluation on bond, durability, micro-structure, cost

effectiveness and environmental impacts of fly ash cenosphere based
structural lightweight concrete
Siba S. Chanda a, Sudeep K. Patel a, Amar N. Nayak a, *, Chitta R. Mohanty b
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla-768018, Odisha, India
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Parala Maharaja Engineering College, Berhampur 761003, Odisha, India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The production of huge fly ash waste from thermal power plants and gradual depletion of natural aggregates due
Bond strength, Cost effectiveness to their high consumption in concrete making are two major threats to the sustainability of the environment. The
Durability properties strategic utilization of this waste as a replacement of natural aggregate in production of concrete can solve both
Environmental impacts
the problems simultaneously. Hence, this study aims to evaluate the performance of structural lightweight
Fly ash cenosphere
Microstructural characteristics, Structural
concrete (LWC) containing fly ash cenosphere (FAC), a by-product of fly ash, in order to check its suitability for
lightweight concrete construction. In this study, one control concrete mix, i.e., without FAC, and other ten concrete mixes utilizing
FAC as the replacement of natural fine aggregate (NFA) at the increment of 20% and with/without super
plasticizer (SP) are prepared. The Mechanical properties (compressive and bond strength), durability aspects
(sulphuric acid, magnesium sulphate and sodium chloride resistance) and the microstructural characteristics
from X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscope analyses of these mixes are evaluated. Moreover, the
environmental impact assessment and cost-effective analysis are also conducted. From this investigation, it is
found that the structural LWC can be produced by utilizing high volume FAC with/without SP with the
acceptable mechanical and durability performances. Further, the concrete with 80 % FAC and SP is found to be
optimum having compressive strength of 32.59 MPa, which satisfies M25 grade concrete as per IS 456 (2000),
meets ACI 213 (2014) requirements of structural LWC and has also acceptable durability properties. The
microstructure studies have also supported the strength and durability results of these mixes. Moreover, these
mixes are found to be cost effective and environmentally friendly. Hence, structural LWC prepared with a high
volume of FAC and SP can be recommended for construction, which reduces the cost and environmental impacts
significantly and preserves natural resources for the future generations.
1. Introduction Based on the ingredients of LWC, it can be classified into various

categories, such as no fine concrete, cellular concrete and lightweight
Concrete, which is the most widely used construction material aggregate concrete. In no fine concrete, the concrete is prepared only out
throughout the globe and is prepared from cement and natural aggre of natural coarse aggregate (NCA) and cement, which leads to more
gates, has density within 2000–2600 kg/m3. Such a high density of number of voids inside the concrete thereby reducing the density of
concrete increases the dead load (self-weight) of the structure, thereby concrete. Similarly, in cellular concrete, called also as the foam concrete,
increasing the size of the components of a structure. In this context, the the air bubbles are introduced into the cement paste of concrete by a
use of lightweight concrete (LWC) has several benefits like decrease in foaming agent to increase the number of voids, which leads to the
the dead load of the structure, saving of transportation cost and time of reduction in density of concrete, whereas the lightweight aggregate
construction etc. [1]. In addition to the above benefits, it also has several concrete (LWAC) can be produced with the use of natural/artificial
superior properties over normal concrete like fire resistance, heat and lightweight aggregates in partial/ full replacement of natural aggregates
sound insulation, and durability [2]. in order to reduce the density. In the previous study [3], the SEM images
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A.N. Nayak).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.132429
Received 28 April 2023; Received in revised form 30 June 2023; Accepted 4 July 2023
Available online 13 July 2023
0950-0618/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.S. Chanda et al. Construction and Building Materials 397 (2023) 132429
have shown that the LWAC is comparatively lighter than the solid gravity also lies below 1. Due to its lightweight nature, it can be trans
structures of the matrix in the foam concrete. Similarly, from the μ-CT ported through air medium and can be inhaled by humans causing se
images, it is found that the pore properties of lightweight aggregates vere cardiovascular disease [20]. Hence, the utilization of FAC in
strongly influence the porosity of LWAC, whereas the foam concrete is replacement to natural fine aggregate (NFA) can be a sustainable solu
completely dependent on the pore structure of the matrix. Further, it is tion for producing LWC, which will ultimately be a healthy step to
reported that when both LWAC and foam concrete have the same range promote the utilization of waste like FA.
of density, the mechanical properties of LWAC are better than those of Previously, FAC was widely used in preparation of cementitious
foam concrete although both are having almost same thermal proper composites as a partial replacement of cement. Wang et al. [21] worked
ties. Hence, LWAC is the most popular one among three types of concrete on FAC based composites to develop a method of mix design, which
due to its superior mechanical properties and comparable thermal could achieve a mix with density less than 1500 kg/m3 along with a high
insulation [4,5]. compressive strength up to 65 MPa. Xu et al. [22] investigated the effect
Moreover, LWC with density within 1120–1920 kg/m3 and of FAC on the strength, density, thermal conductivity and water resis
compressive strength higher than 17 MPa is termed as structural LWC tance of cement-based mortar for the possible production of lightweight
according to ACI 213R-14 [6]. The structural LWC is more popular in FAC based composites. Sohel et al. [23] investigated the fatigue per
case of long span bridges, high-rise frames, offshore structures etc. [7 formance of FAC based composite and found its performance compa
–9]. It is worth to mention that LWAC is very much suitable to be used as rable to cement-based composites. Pundiene and Pranckeviciene [24]
the structural LWC. However, in LWAC, as the aggregates occupy about studied the physical, mechanical, rheological and hydration character
60–80% volume of concrete, there is a huge demand of lightweight istics of FAC based composite. All the above studies reported positive
aggregates for the replacement of natural aggregates in the preparation feedback about FAC utilization in composites, which could be used in
of LWC. Moreover, to maintain sustainability, the present generation many non-structural applications. Adesina [25] presented a review on
cannot be reliable on the lightweight aggregates from the natural re the performance of fly ash cenosphere as the replacement of cementi
sources like pumice, volcanic cinder and light sand. So, artificial light tious materials for its sustainable utilization. Similarly, reviews on the
weight aggregates made from industrial wastes can be sustainable potential use of FAC as a cementitious material with respect to the en
solution from waste utilization point of view as well as to meet the urge gineering properties, such as physical, mechanical, rheological and
of lightweight aggregates for LWC. durability properties, are also reported in the literature [26,27].
One of the most commonly waste produced from the thermal power The use of NFA and NCA in LWC is a major, i.e., more than two-third,
plants, known as fly ash (FA), is expected to increase up to 44% by the as compared to cementitious materials. Hence, the sustainable use of
year 2030 from 41% by the year 2017 [10]. In India, the Central Elec FAC would be achieved if it could be utilized as the replacement of fine
tricity Board [11] recorded a total annual production of 226.4 million aggregate. Hence, McBride et al. [28] developed an LWC using FAC as
tonnes of FA in India, of which 187.8 million tonnes were used in various fine aggregate by replacing 50%, 75% and 100% of sand. It revealed that
sectors. From an environmental standpoint, the remaining 38.6 million the addition of FAC considerably reduced simultaneously the density
tonnes of FA are a concern. In terms of land use, water use and toxic and strength of concrete. Then, Satpathy et al. [29] reported that utili
material leaching, unutilized FA can have significant consequences for zation of high volume of both lightweight fine and coarse aggregates,
the ecosystem. As per the report of Sahu [12], it can be estimated that prepared from the industrial waste such as FAC and sintered fly ash
38.6 million tonnes of unutilized FA occupy about 34042.5 acres of land, aggregate (SFA), for production of LWC could provide superior perfor
or 3.64 m2 per tonne of unutilized FA. Similarly, for the disposal of mance meeting both strength and density criteria as per ACI 213 [6],
unutilized FA in form of slurry, the water requirement for 38.6 million preserving huge amount of NFA and NCA, and minimizing waste
tonnes of unused FA is 32508.9 cum/hour, or 0.8 kg/hour of water per disposal problems in comparison to the use of FAC as the replacement of
tonne of unused FA [13]. Further, it can be estimated from the literature NFA only. However, later in 2020, Patel et al. [30] established that using
[12] that 38.6 million tonnes of underutilised FA can release 4938.24 a suitable dose of superplasticizer it was possible to produce high-
tonnes of dangerous compounds into the environment, or 0.13 kg of volume FAC based LWC satisfying the strength and density criteria
poisonous elements per tonne of FA. As a result, unused FA has posed a though there would be less preservation of natural aggregates, i.e. NFA
significant threat to the health of the land, water, and animals, and only, and less utilization of industrial wastes (FAC only). Further, in
should be used appropriately to prevent the environment. order to get the better strength, Majhi et al. [31] investigated the
One of the most practical ways to address the environmental prob characterization of LWC utilizing high volume FAC (60%-100%) as the
lems associated with unutilized FA is to use it in making sustainable replace of NFA with the inclusion of 10%-20% silica fume as the binder
LWC, which preserves mostly the natural aggregates. In terms of envi replacement and reported that there was significant improvement in
ronmental impact, using 70% FA as fine aggregate in conventional mechanical properties of FAC based concrete due to addition of silica
concrete could reduce CO2 emissions by up to 60% [14]. Similarly, Li fume. Then, Majhi et al. [32] produced the LWC utilizing high volume
et al. [15] found that utilizing FA in concrete could reduce 54% SFA and FAC as replacement of NCA and NFA, respectively, with addi
greenhouse emission. In comparison to normal concrete, Flower and tion of 10%-15% silica fume and obtained improved mechanical prop
Sanjayan [16] found that using FA can make the concrete economical erties in comparison to the LWC containing SFA and FAC, but without
and reduce CO2 emissions by 13–15 percent. According to O’Brien et al. silica fume. Moreover, Kowsalya et al. [33] studied the mechanical and
[17], if FA replaces cement and obtained within 100 km of the concrete microstructural characteristics of LWC utilizing FAC as replacement of
factory, greenhouse gas emissions are reduced significantly. According NFA and found that maximum 35% of FAC could be used as replacement
to a 2014 EPD report [18], replacing up to 40% of cement with FA in of NFA from strength point of view as the strength reduces with the FAC
concrete reduces environmental impacts such as ozone depletion layer increment.
and global warming potential by 14 to 22%, depending on target From the above discussion, it is learnt that FAC can be utilized
strength. Furthermore, Turk et al. [19] recently indicated that the usage suitably as the replacement of NFA for making concrete which satisfies
of FA could minimise environmental pollution about 75%. both the density and strength criteria of structural LWC [6]. Though the
In this context, a fraction of FA, known as fly ash cenosphere (FAC), strength and density are important characteristics for feasibility of
is a very lighter material which generally floats on water in the ash pond. structural LWC, the importance of the durability and microstructure
It is a thin-walled hollow spheres having diameter ranging from 10 to aspects cannot be ignored before its final application in the aggressive
400 µm and cell thickness up to one-tenth of the diameter. Its specific environment. Therefore, it is required to ascertain the durability and
2
microstructural properties of FAC based structural LWC before its final

use. But, it is to inform that the durability aspects of FAC based Struc
tural LWC are yet to be investigated. Similarly, its microstructural study
is to be conducted to validate the mechanical and durability charac
teristics. Further, its cost effectiveness and environmental soundness are
two important parameters to be evaluated for achieving its sustain
ability in concrete production. This information has motivated the au
thors to carry out the further research to fill the above gaps in this field.
Hence, the present investigation aims to conduct the study on durability,
microstructure, cost effectiveness and environmental impact assessment
of the FAC based LWC. It is to mention that the density and compressive
strength of structural LWC are the key properties of structural LWC.
Moreover, its bond property, which is very much essential for its use in
reinforced concrete (RC) structures is yet to be investigated. Therefore,
the density, compressive strength and bond strength properties of FAC
based structural LWC are also investigated in the present study in
addition to its performance evaluation on the durability, micro- Fig. 1. Grading analysis of NFA.
structure, cost effective and environmental soundness, which can add
significant value to the existing literature in this field.
2. Materials and experimental methods
2.1. Materials
In this research work, the binder used in LWC is 43 Grade ordinary

Portland cement (OPC) conforming to IS: 269 [34] requirements. The
properties of cement are presented in Table 1. This table reveals that the
physical, mechanical and chemical properties of the OPC used in this
investigation satisfy the requirement of IS 269 [34].
Naturally occurring siliceous type river sand extracted from the local
sand quarry and free from gravels and impurities was utilized as natural
fine aggregate (NFA). Similarly, 20 mm and downgraded crushed
granite aggregates free from impurities, obtained from the stone crusher
of the locality, was used as NCA. The gradation of the NFA and NCA are
in confirmation with IS 383 [35]. FAC was collected from the ash pond Fig. 2. Grading analysis of FAC.
located at Vedanta Aluminium Ltd, Jharsuguda, Odisha, India by
skimming method. FAC particles are hollow spheres with diameters
ranging from 150 m to 300 m. The gradations of NFA and FAC are Table 2
furnished in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. Fig. 1 indicates that NFA satisfies Properties of FAC, NFA and NCA.
the requirement of zone II fine aggregate as per IS 383 [35] and Fig. 2 Properties FAC NFA NCA
indicates that most of the FAC particles lie within 150 µm to 300 µm.
Specific gravity 0.76 2.58 2.8
Table 2 displays the physical and mechanical characteristics of FAC, Free surface moisture (%) Nil Nil 0.02
NFA and NCA. This table indicates that the dry density of FAC is Water absorption (%) 14 0.7 0.23
remarkably less than that of NFA due to the hollow nature of FAC. Bulk density (kg/m3)
Loose: 454 1488 1518
Compact: 483 1600 1666
Abrasion value (%) – – 25.1
Table 1 Impact value (%) – – 22.03
Properties of cement (OPC). Crushing value (%) – – 19.41
Properties Cement Limit as per IS 269 [34]
Specific gravity 3.15

Fineness (cm2/g) 3200 Minimum 2250 Furthermore, because of the increased fineness of FAC with respect to
Soundness (mm) 08 Maximum 10
NFA (0.7%), it has a much higher (14%) water absorption capacity. The
Consistency (%) 34
Initial setting time (min) 140 Minimum 30 mechanical parameters of NCA (Table 2) are within the IS: 383 [35]
Final setting time (min) 360 Maximum 600 limitations for concreting work. For concrete preparation, ordinary tap
3 days compressive strength of mortar (MPa) 23.07 Minimum 23 MPa water was used. The water was free of contaminants and met all the
7 days compressive strength of mortar (MPa) 33.10 Minimum 33 MPa
provision of IS: 10500 [36]. Similarly, Sikament 2013 NS, a modified
28 days compressive strength of mortar (MPa) 43.94 Minimum 43 MPa
SiO2 (%) 19.11 naphthalene formaldehyde sulphonates-based superplasticizer that met
Al2O3 (%) 8.61 the requirements of IS: 9103 [37], was employed as an additive to keep
Fe2O3 (%) 1.79 the slump of the concrete mix constant.
CaO (%) 64.39
MgO (%) 1.62 Maximum 6.0%
SO3 (%) 2.10 Maximum 3.5% 2.2. Design of concrete mixes
LOI (%) 1.60 Maximum 5.0%
Ratio of Percentage of Al2O3 to Fe2O3 4.81 Minimum 0.66 It is worthy to note that Patel et al. [30] have considered eleven
CaO − 0.7SO3 0.968 0.66 to 1.02 specimens of FAC based concrete to study its physical and mechanical
2.8SiO2 + 1.2Al2 O3 + 0.65Fe2 O3
characteristics, namely, density, compressive strength, splitting tensile
3
strength and flexural strength. In order to extend the same for evaluation
of durability and microstructure characteristics, these eleven specimens
were also considered in this study, which include one control mix
(normal mix) for comparison. The mix design of the control mix, i.e. mix
without any replacement of NFA by FAC, was done for M25 grade
concrete in compliance with IS: 10262 [38], i.e., based on the principle
of absolute volume. These mixes were designed for a specific workability
having slump values within 85 ± 10 mm. Accordingly, the effective
water-cement ratio was fixed at 0.50. Thereafter, the contents of various
ingredients of the control mix, such as water, cement, NFA and NCA
have been estimated in accordance with IS: 10262 [38] for 1 m3 concrete
based on their absolute volumes. The absolute volume of each gradient
of the concrete is estimated as the ratio of its weight to the specific
gravity. From this estimation, the effective water content was taken as
205 kg/m3 and cement content per 1 m3 concrete was found as 410 kg
for keeping w/c equal to 0.5. The remaining ten concrete mixtures were
produced in two stages, with NFA being substituted with FAC based on
the equal absolute volume keeping the contents of cement, NCA and
effective water constant for all the mixes. In all the cases, the total ab
solute volume of cement, NFA, FAC, NCA and effective water is 1 m3.
Five concrete mixtures were prepared in the first phase, with 20%, 40%,
60%, 80% and 100% FAC replacing NFA. The effective w/c of the con
crete mixtures was kept 0.5 during this phase, and extra water was
added as needed to keep the aggregate surface saturated dry (SSD)
condition. The extra water required for making each aggregate, i.e.,
NFA, FAC and NCA, SSD condition is calculated as the product of its
content and the difference of water absorption and surface moisture
content. Hence, the total extra water to be added for making the ag Fig. 3. Typical concrete slump after its measurement.
gregates SSD condition for 1 m3 of each mix is obtained by adding the
extra water required for NFA, FAC and NCA contents of that mix. In the of a concrete mixer. Thereafter, the cement was added to continue the
second phase of the mix design, the superplasticizer (SP) was employed mixing for 3 min. After that, the water was added to the dry mix of all
to keep the slump of concrete mixes under 80 ± 5 mm instead of adding ingredients. As the ingredients were in dry state, after the addition of
more water to make the aggregate SSD, which lowered the effective water, the mixing was continued for 3 more minutes to allow the ag
water and effective water-cement ratio (w/c). The objective of adding SP gregates to absorb water and become saturated. Then, the homogenous
and not adding extra water is to lower the effective w/c and to increase concrete mix was poured into a tray and the workability of the fresh
the strength. The mix proportions and estimated quantities of various concrete was obtained by measuring its slump value. Fig. 3 shows the
constituents for all the eleven mixes incorporating FAC are furnished in typical concrete slump after its measurement. The same fresh concrete
Table 3. The amount of additional water or SP is also furnished in this was placed into the prescribed moulds for preparing the samples. These
table. samples were taken out from the moulds after 24 h and immersed in
water tank for curing at a room temperature of 27 ± 2 ◦ C. Specimens of
various sizes were prepared and cured for varied ages. Thereafter, the
2.3. Preparations of specimens specified tests were carried out to obtain the various characteristics of
concrete, which are presented in the succeeding sections.
For all the concrete mixes, the process followed for mixing the in
gredients in the concrete mixer was same. At first, all the dry ingredients
except cement mentioned in Table 3 were mixed properly with the help
Table 3
Quantity of ingredients of 1 m3 concrete of different mixes.
Mix design- Replacement of NFA with SP (kg) OPC NCA NFA FAC Effective water Extra Water for Total Effective w/c
ation FAC (%) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (w) (kg) SSD (kg) water ratio
C0 0 – 410 1162 646 – 205 9 214 0.50

C20 20 – 410 1162 517 32.9 205 13 218 0.50
CS20 20 0.205 410 1162 517 32.9 192 13 205 0.47
(0.05%)
C40 40 – 410 1162 388 65.7 205 18 223 0.50
CS40 40 0.410 410 1162 388 65.7 187 18 205 0.46
(0.10%)
C60 60 – 410 1162 259 98.6 205 22 227 0.50
CS60 60 1.64 410 1162 259 98.6 183 22 205 0.45
(0.40%)
C80 80 – 410 1162 130 131.5 205 27 232 0.50
CS80 80 3.07 410 1162 130 131.5 178 27 205 0.43
(0.75%)
C100 100 – 410 1162 0 164.3 205 31 236 0.50
CS100 100 5.33 410 1162 0 164.3 174 31 205 0.42
(1.30%)
4
Fig. 5. Typical experimental set up for sulphate attack; (a) samples submerged
in MgSO4 solution and (b) measuring of pH of the solution.
compressive strengths were recorded. These recorded data were

compared with the respective masses and compressive strengths of
specimens before immersion to compute the percentage loss in mass and
strength of the specimens. In the similar way, the resistance of concrete
to acid attack was obtained by adopting the same methodology
described in the existing literature [42]. The prepared test samples were
immersed in the sulphuric acid (H2SO4) solution of 1% concentration
(pH less than 7) for 28 and 90 days. After the required duration of im
mersion, the respective mass and strength losses in percentage were
estimated.
The resistance to chloride attack was tested over the samples of 100
mm cube removed from curing after 7 days. The samples were prepared
by sealing four faces of the cube with a layer of epoxy leaving two
opposite faces, i.e., the casting face and its opposite face, in order to
allow the penetration of solution from these faces. These samples were
then submerged in a sea water equivalent NaCl solution until 28 days
were reached as per the literature [43]. Then, the specimens were
Fig. 4. Typical experimental setup for Compressive strength test of con withdrawn, dried and split along the unsealed face. The broken surfaces
crete cube. were then sprayed with a 0.1 N AgNO3 solution which results into the
development of a white colour boundary over the broken surface. The
width of this white boundary represents the depth of penetration of
2.4. Testing procedures NaCl.
The X-ray diffraction permits to give the molecular structure of a
The testing of 100 mm size cubes for obtaining thee densities of all crystalline material by using the diffractive rays through the samples.
the eleven mixes considered here was conducted as per ASTM C642-13 This analysis of XRD gives the interference patterns which reflect lattice
[39]. Similarly, the 28 days compressive strength of 150 mm size structures by changing the incidence angle of the X-ray diffractogram. In
hardened concrete cubical specimens was evaluated as per the guideline this study, the mineral composition of the concrete was obtained by XRD
of IS: 516 [40] in a compression testing machine (CTM) of 200ton ca analysis of the sample extracted from the concrete cubes. The sample
pacity. Typical experimental setup for compressive strength test of was prepared by sieving the powdered mortar extracted from 28 days
concrete cube is furnished in Fig. 4. The bond strength between the water cured concrete cubes. The sieving was done with a 90-µm sieve.
concrete and the embedded HYSD bar was obtained by conducting the Finally, the XRD experiments were carried out over the prepared sample
pull-out test as per the guideline of IS: 2770 [41] in a universal testing for diffraction angle 2θ ranging from 100and 800 in increments of 2θ =
machine (UTM) of 100ton capacity attached with a computer for 0.01670 as per the procedures described in the literature [44] using the
recording the load applied and the displacement of rod. The specimen qualitative phase analysis which depends up on the measured peak in
consists of an 800 mm long 16 mm diameter HYSD bar embedded into tensities like a fingerprint of a crystalline phase. The crystal databases
the centroid of the cube of 150 mm size. The specimen was loaded are found by testing in the respective XRD analyser and analysis of the
gradually with a rate of 22.5 kN/min. The specimen was loaded obtained peaks of the patterns are discovered by using the “PROFEX”
continuously. When a sudden increment in displacement of the HYSD software.
bar equal to 2.5 mm was observed without the increase in load and the Similarly, the SEM analysis was done with the samples of fractured
corresponding load was recorded. Then, the bond strength was esti pieces of concrete collected from the failure cubes tested for the 28 days
mated based on the load recoded by the computer corresponding to the compressive strength. The prepared samples of size 1 cm × 1 cm × 0.5
sudden increase in displacement of 2.5 mm. cm were kept on the stub of the SEM machine after the gold coating on
The resistance of concrete to sulphate attack was determined by the concrete surface and the images were collected using back scattered
immersing the samples in 1% magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) solution electron method as described in the previous investigations [44]. The
(pH greater than 7) for 28 and 90 days as per the procedure mentioned in primary electron beams make a collision on solid mass that scattered and
the literature [42], as shown in Fig. 5. After removing the samples from absorbed by different type of signals. The SEM analysis is done at sec
immersion, the samples were surface dried and their masses and ondary electrons image mode or backscattered electron mode of anal
ysis. The Secondary electrons (SE) are having lesser amount of energy
5
electrons which results from an inelastic collision of a primary beam

electron with an electron of specimen atom. Because of their minimum
amount of energy, the electrons are easily absorbed and only those
formed closer to the surface escape, showing an image of surface
topography. The crystal forms of the concrete surface shall be observed
in the SE image which has lesser voids on its surface.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Density
For each mix, three samples of 100 mm size cubes were tested to
obtain its density. The mean values of density and their standard de
viations for all the eleven concrete mixes in the present investigation are
furnished in Fig. 6. The dry density of the control concrete (C0) is 2420
kg/m3. It decreases with the increment of FAC content as the replace Fig. 7. 28 days compressive strength of concrete mixes utilizing FAC.
ment of NFA. The reductions are 3.7%, 7.7%, 11.8%, 16.0% and 20.1%
for the concrete mixes with 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% contents of and 100% of FAC, the reductions in the strength are 8.4%, 20.08%,
FAC, respectively, with respect to the control mix. The above reduction 42.6%, 39.2%, and 45.2%, respectively. The results indicate that the
in the density of these mixes is due to addition of lighter material of FAC compressive strength of concrete samples prepared without super
having specific gravity of 0.76 as the fine aggregate in place of heaver plasticizer decreases with the increment in FAC content up to 60% and
material of river sand having specific gravity of 2.58. then up to 80% FAC content. Again, it decreases up to 100% FAC con
When the above concrete mixes are prepared with superplasticiser tent. It is also verified that the similar trend has also been reported in the
(SP) and without additional water for SSD condition, these reductions previous studies [28,30]. The trend of FAC based concrete is mainly
are less pronounced as compared to their counterpart mixes without SP. because of the three reasons, i.e., inferior quality of FAC as compared to
The corresponding reductions in this case are 3.3% (CS20), 7.2% (CS40), NFA, weak ITZ characteristics between cement paste containing FAC
11.0% (CS60), 15.5% (CS80) and 19.8% (CS100). The less reduction of and aggregate, and smaller size of FAC for better filling of voids and
the density in this case is due to the addition of SP, which reduces the improving packing density. The above three activities decrease/increase
total amount of water to be added in the mix with similar workability the compressive strength of FAC based concrete in an interactive
and consequently, less voids are formed. The similar decreasing trend of manner, which is very complex. Firstly, when FAC content in the con
density due to the addition of FAC in replacement of NFA is also reported crete increases, the compressive strength of the mix decreases continu
in the literature [28,30]. It is found that out of ten FAC based concrete ously due to its inferior quality as compared to NFA. Secondly, the
mixes with/without SP, C100 and CS100 have densities of 1934 kg/m3 strength of ITZ depends on the CSH produced by the pozzolanic reaction
and 1941 kg/m3, respectively, which are less than 2000 kg/m3 and between calcium hydroxide (CaOH) available from the hydration of
hence, satisfy the density requirement of LWC. Moreover, the densities cement and amorphous silica obtained from FAC. This pozzolanic re
of C80 and CS80 are 2032 kg/m3 and 2069 kg/m3, respectively, the action produces more CSH gel and lowers the CaOH level, which en
values of which are very close to that of LWC and can be used as LWC. hances the strength of ITZ. The concrete strength increases up to a
specific amount, i.e., 80%, as the pozzolanic reaction enhances with FAC
3.2. Compressive strength and thereafter, there may not be any further pozzolanic reaction due to
the lack of CaOH. As a result, the compressive strength of the concrete
For determining the compressive strength of each concrete mix, utilizing FAC more than 80% reduces once again. Thirdly, the packing
three samples were tested at 28 days. The mean value of the compressive density enhances with the increment in FAC content up to a specific level
strength of three samples and their standard deviation (error bar) for beyond which the addition of further FAC cannot increase the packing
each mix is calculated and presented in Fig. 7 for discussion. Fig. 7 shows density. The compressive strength of the mix increases/decreases/re
the 28 days compressive strength of the mixes containing various mains constant with the similar trend of the packing density. The
amounts of FAC. The 28 days compressive strength of the control con combination of the above three complex activities may decrease the
crete (C0) is 37.26 MPa. When NFA is replaced by 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% strength with the FAC increment up to 60%, then increase up to 80% and
thereafter decrease up to 100%. Hence, the concrete mix C100 has the
lowest compressive strength of 20.44 MPa. The above behaviour will be
clearly understood from the microstructural investigation.
It is to mention that the compressive strength results of concrete with
FAC content in the literature [33] indicate the similar trend as in the
case of present study. The decreasing trend of the compressive strength
with the increment in FAC content is observed in both the cases. In the
previous investigation [33], the decreases in the compressive strength of
the concrete mixes with 20%, 40% and 100% FAC contents are 11.1%,
25.8% and 61.4%, respectively, whereas in this investigation, the cor
responding compressive strength values are 8.4%, 20.2% and 45.2%.
However, less decrease in the compressive strength is observed with the
same percentage increment of FAC in the present investigation as
compared to the earlier one [33] indicating the better performance of
present mixes.
Furthermore, when SP is used, the strength of the concrete mixes
with 20%-100% FAC content with an increment of 20%, the enhance
ments of their compressive strengths as compared to the respective
Fig. 6. Dry density of concrete mixes utilizing FAC. mixes without SP are 10.85%, 21.39%, 40.06% and 25.36%. This could
6
Table 4
Reduction in various negative environmental impacts for using FAC in the preparation of 1 m3 concrete.
Mix NA FAC Reductions in various environmental Emission of CO2 due to the use of NA in Reduction in the emission of CO2 of FAC based
designations impacts for preparation of 1 m3 preparation of 1 m3 concrete concrete in comparison to the control concrete
concrete
Land Water Toxic

usage usage content
(Tonne) (Tonne) (m2) (kg/h) (kg) (Tonne) (%)
C0 1.808 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.233 0.0

C20 1.679 0.033 0.120 0.026 0.004 0.217 6.9
C40 1.550 0.066 0.239 0.053 0.009 0.200 14.2
C60 1.421 0.099 0.359 0.079 0.013 0.183 21.5
C80 1.292 0.132 0.479 0.105 0.017 0.167 28.3
C100 1.162 0.164 0.598 0.131 0.021 0.150 35.6
CS20 1.679 0.033 0.120 0.026 0.004 0.217 6.9
CS40 1.550 0.066 0.239 0.053 0.009 0.200 14.2
CS60 1.421 0.099 0.359 0.079 0.013 0.183 21.5
CS80 1.292 0.132 0.479 0.105 0.017 0.167 28.3
CS100 1.162 0.164 0.598 0.131 0.021 0.150 35.6
be the effect of the reduction in w/c of concrete due to the addition of SP

(Table 4), which leads to the reduction in the creation of voids in the
harden concrete. The compressive strength of concrete with SP increases
at a faster rate in comparison to the concrete without SP (Fig. 7). The 28-
days compressive strength of concrete containing 20% FAC and SP
(CS20) improves by 1.6 % with respect to the control mix. However,
beyond this replacement level (CS40, CS60, CS80 and CS100), the
strength gradually decreases up to 31.3% for mix having 100% FAC and
SP. It’s worth noting that the strength of FAC based mixes (CS20, CS40,
and CS80) show higher strength than the intended strength of M25
Grade concrete [38]. Though CS20 and CS40 possess the compressive
strength closer to that of C0, these two mixes contain lesser amount of
FAC than CS80. On the other hand, CS80 provides more strength, i.e.,
32.59 MPa, than the mean target strength equal to 31.6 MPa by utilizing
higher FAC amount and preserving the equal content of NFA. Further
more, the density of the aforesaid mix is closer to the lightweight con Fig. 8. 28 days bond strength of concrete mixes utilizing FAC.
crete’s maximum density limit. Furthermore, all the mixes studied here
meet the minimum requirement of strength (17 MPa) for structural LWC comparison to that of the concrete, C0. However, for mixes with
[6]. Considering both strength and environmental benefit, the CS80 mix superplasticizer and 40% − 100% FAC (CS40, CS60, CS80 and CS100),
can be considered as the best mix for producing long-term structural the bond strength increases up to 34.4% as compared to the respective
LWC of M25 Grade. FAC based mixes without SP. Moreover, with respect to C0, the re
It is worth mentioning that FAC based lightweight aggregate con ductions are found to be within 36.7%. This shows the beneficial effect
crete (LWAC) mixes in the present study show higher strength and also of using SP in high volume FAC based concrete mixes. The explanations
higher specific strength (strength/density) in comparison to those of the regarding these variations caused by FAC with/without superplasticizer
foam concrete mixes available in the literature [3] indicating the better have already been addressed in the previous section.
performance of LWAC over foam concrete. The values of compressive In spite of all these variations due to FAC with/without SP, the
strength and specific strength of LWAC mixes even with 100 %FAC and concrete mixes are able to achieve the bond strength values more than
without/with SP (C100 and CS100) are 20.45 MPa and 10.57 MPa.m3/ 2.24 MPa, a value recommended by IS: 456 [45] for structural concrete
kg; and 25.6 MPa and 13.2 MPa.m3/kg; respectively, whereas the of M25 Grade. Therefore, it is inferred that all the mixes in this inves
maximum values of strength and specific strength of the foam concrete tigation are suitable for construction of reinforced concrete structures
mixes reported in the literature are 8.5 MPa and 7.9 MPa.m3/kg, from the bond strength point of view as per IS: 456 [45].
respectively, indicating superior performance of LWAC as compared to
foam concrete. 3.4. Durability properties
3.3. Bond strength For any durability property test, three concrete samples were made
for each mix and tested. The mean value of the results of three specimens
Three samples of each mix are tested to obtain the mean bond for each test is calculated and considered as the final property of that
strength and standard deviation. The mean of the 28 days bond strength mix. Moreover, the standard deviation (error bar) of the results of three
obtained from three specimens of each mix is considered as the 28 days samples is also obtained. The mean values and standard deviations of all
bond strength of that mix. The 28 days bond strengths of the nine con the mixes for a specific durability test are presented in a graphical form
crete mixes along with their standard deviations (error bars) are for discussion.
graphically illustrated in Fig. 8. The bond stress of the control mix (C0) is
9.8 MPa. It is observed from Fig. 8 that the bond stress varies in a similar 3.4.1. Resistance to sulphate attack
manner as the compressive strength. This is because the value of bond A series of chemical reactions of hydrated cement take place in the
strength depends upon the compressive strength value of the corre magnesium sulphate attack, i.e., chemical reactions with calcium hy
sponding concrete mix. The reduction in bond strengths of the concrete droxide, calcium silicate and calcium aluminate. In the 1st phase, the
mixes containing 40% − 100% FAC without SP are within 41.8% in chemical reaction between magnesium sulphate and calcium hydroxide
7
takes place to form gypsum (CaSO4). In the 2nd phase, both gypsum and
magnesium sulphate react with calcium aluminate available during the
hydration of the cement to produce calcium sulpho-aluminate in the
early stage, termed as ettringite. In the latter stage, further formation of
ettringite takes place in the concrete because of continuous increase in
the concentration of SO4 ions. The excess growth of ettringite increases
the concrete volume due to which expansion, cracking and spalling of
concrete take place and hence, there is loss in the mass of the concrete.
In the 3rd phase, the chemical reaction between magnesium sulphate
and calcium silicate available during the hydration of cement to form
more ettringite along with silica hydrate (SiO2.aq) and magnesium hy
droxide, which react each other to produce a non-cementitious com
pound, known as magnesium silicate hydrate (MSH). The formation of
MSH is the decalcification of CSH, which reduces the calcium to silica
ratio of CSH progressively due to which CSH is converted to a non-
cementitious compound by losing its biding capacity and hence, the Fig. 10. Loss of compressive strength of concrete mixes due to sulphate attack.
concrete loses its compressive strength [42].
The sulphate resistance in terms of mass and strength losses of con increase in mass loss and strength loss of concrete samples at 28 days of
crete mixes utilizing FAC at different fractions due to immersion in the sulphate immersion as compared to the samples for 90 days immersion
solution of magnesium sulphate for 28 days and 90 days are furnished in in magnesium sulphate solution. When concrete samples are subjected
Figs. 9 and 10, respectively. The 28 days sulphate immersion results to external sulphate solution, ettringites are formed at the initial stage.
depict that the mass of concrete mixes C0, C40, C60, C80 and C100 are The rate of growth of ettringite needles inside the concrete sample is
decreased marginally by 0.183%, 0.217%, 0.262%, 0.2815% and comparatively low as compared to that of in acid attack. The less growth
0.320%, respectively, as compared to those of the water cured samples. of these needle-like structures inside the concrete samples at 28 days
However, when SP is added, the FAC based concrete mixes with SP causes very marginal destruction in the concrete. Hence, in this case, the
(CS40, CS60, CS80 and CS100) show comparatively less decrease in mass and strength losses of FAC based concrete mixes without SP at 28
mass in 28 days, in comparison to the respective samples without SP. days immersion in sulphate solution are marginal. The similar trend is
The loss of mass due to the addition of SP are found as 0.143%, 0.182%, also observed in the investigation of Patel et al. [30]. Patel et al. [30]
0.207% and 0.271% at 28 days, as compared to those of 28 days water evaluated the sulphate resistance of the structural lightweight concrete
cured samples. Similar observation is found in case of strength variation utilizing FAC and SFA as the replacement of NFA and NCA, respectively,
due to sulphate attack at both ages of immersion. The loss of strength at at 28 days and 56 days. The mass and strength losses of different mixes
28 days for the FAC based concrete mixes without SP (C40, C60, C80 and with FAC and SFA at 28 days of immersion in magnesium sulphate so
C100) range between 2.74% and 6.71% and for the FAC based concrete lution are comparatively very less as compared to those of the corre
mixes with SP (CS40, CS60, CS80 and CS100), the increments are within sponding mixes at 56 days. Moreover, when SP is used there is reduction
the range of 0.80%-4.90%. in water content causing less formation of voids due to which there is
Further, in case of the samples immersed in magnesium sulphate less ingress of sulphate solution and small formation of ettringite as
solution for 90 days, the mass loss and strength loss are significant as compared to concrete without SP due to which the mass and strength
compared to those of samples immersed for 28 days. The mass losses are losses of these mixes are comparatively less in comparison to those of the
within 3.21%- 3.57% for FAC based mixes without SP. When SP is respective FAC based concrete without SP.
added, the mass losses are found between 2.90% − 3.31%, which is However, at 90 days of immersion, due to continuous exposure to
comparatively less as compared to those of without SP. In a similar way, external sulphate ions and sulphate attack for a long period, there is
the strength losses for the concrete mixes with 40% − 100% FAC increase in the growth in the ettringite needles as compared to that in 28
without and with superplasticizer range within 9.19%-16.73% and days. This higher growth of ettringite at 90 days cause spalling of con
5.99%-15.92%, respectively. It is to mention that the mass loss and crete that causes significant mass and strength loss of the concrete mixes.
strength loss increase with the increase in FAC content in both type of Again, due to the addition of higher content of FAC, the voids inside the
the concrete mixes, i.e., with/without SP. Moreover, the FAC based concrete increases further, which allow more formation of ettringite
concrete mixes with SP show less mass loss and strength loss as inside the concrete sample. More is the ettringite, more is the expansion
compared to the respective FAC based mixes without SP. at 90 days; hence, mass and strength loss increase with increase in FAC
The above results depict that there is comparatively very less content for both types of mixes, i.e., FAC based concrete mixes without/
with SP.
3.4.2. Resistance to acid attack

When concrete comes into contact with sulphuric acid, a series of
chemical reactions occur that can lead to the degradation of the concrete
as presented in the literature [42]. At initial stage, sulphuric acid
(H2SO4) reacts with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂), which is present in
the hydrated cement paste, to form gypsum (CaSO4⋅2H2O) like magne
sium sulphate. This reaction results in the depletion of calcium hy
droxide, an essential compound for the strength and durability of
concrete. Hence, the concrete loses its alkalinity and becomes more
susceptible for further degradation. Then, the gypsum, if not soluble,
reacts with the calcium aluminate compounds (3CaO.Al2O3⋅12H2O)
present in the cement paste to form calcium sulpho-aluminate (3CaO.
Al2O3.3CaSO4⋅32H2O), which is termed as ettringite. It is a crystalline
compound that occupies more space as compared to the initial condition
Fig. 9. Loss of mass of concrete mixes due to sulphate attack. before reaction, leading to internal expansion and cracking within the
8
concrete. Moreover, at the advanced stage, the sulphuric acid dissolute

the CSH phase present in the cement paste to produce silica (SiO2) and
gypsum. As a result, there is a loss of cohesion in the concrete. Hence,
both the growth of ettringite in the initial stage and dissolution of CSH
phase in the advanced stage due to the acid attack are responsible for the
loss of mass and strength in the concrete [42].
As discussed above, the variations in resistance of FAC based con
crete to sulphuric acid are determined in terms of mass and strength loss
at 28 days and 90 days and presented in Figs. 11 and 12, respectively.
From these figures, it is found that the acid attack behaviour is different
from that due to the sulphate attack for the FAC based concrete mixes.
From Fig. 11, it is found that the mass losses at the end of 28 and 90
days immersion period of the control mix specimen are 0.106% and
3.667%, respectively, of the mass of the water cured control specimen.
These mass losses marginally increase with the FAC increment in con Fig. 12. Loss of compressive strength of concrete mixes due to acid attack.
crete and are found to be 0.124%, 0.135%, 0.147% and 0.172% for C40,
C60, C80 and C100, respectively. However, the mass losses at 90 days of
sulphuric acid attack of structural LWC utilizing FAC and SFA, and
these corresponding mixes are significant as compared to 28 days im
recycled aggregate concrete utilizing ground granulated blast furnace
mersion, i.e., 3.667%, 3.958%, 4.194%, 4.381% and 4.796%. When SP
slag, respectively. They also reported the similar trend with regard to the
is used, the mass losses of the concrete mixes with SP (CS40, CS60, CS80
mass and strength loss of the above-mentioned concrete mixes subjected
and CS100) are reduced to 0.106%, 0.117%, 0.128% and 0.151%,
to acid attack. Moreover, the detrimental effects in terms of mass and
respectively, at 28 days immersion and 3.779%, 3.901%, 4.173% and
strength losses of the concrete samples of 90 days immersion are more
4.498%, respectively, at 90 days of immersion.
prominent than those of 28 days of immersion because of the continuous
Fig. 12 represents the strength losses due to acid attack of 28 days
exposure of the concrete samples in acid solution for a longer time.
and 90 days of immersion period. From Figs. 11 and 12, it is found that
Further, the losses in both mass and compressive strength at 28 and
for all the mixes with/without SP, the compressive strength variation
90 days increase as the FAC content in concrete mix increases. This trend
follows the same trend as that of reduction of mass at 28 days and 90
is observed in both types of concrete mixes, i.e., concrete mixes with/
days. The strength losses for the control concrete at 28 and 90 days are
without SP. This is because of higher water absorbing capacity of FAC in
found to be 1.58% and 11.80%, respectively. The highest reductions in
comparison to NFA in concrete. From the consideration of all mixes with
compressive strength for C100 are 5.98% and 21.84% at 28 days and 90
and without SP, it is observed that mix containing SP has improved
days, respectively. The corresponding mix with SP, i.e., CS100, the
resistance against sulphuric acid in comparison to the mixes without SP.
losses in strength at 28 and 90 days are found to be 4.73% and 19.07%,
The reason behind this is the reduced water absorption capacity and
respectively.
permeable voids of the mixes with SP, as in comparison to the mixes
From the results of the mass losses and strength losses at 28 and 90
without SP. The two optimum mixes satisfying the strength criteria CS40
days, it is found that all the concrete mixes suffer loss in mass and
and CS80 have mass loss of 0.106% and 0.128% at 28 days of immersion
strength as compared to the respective water cured specimens. This is
and 3.779% and 4.173% at 90 days of immersion, respectively. Simi
due to reason that the calcium salt is formed during the early stage of
larly, the reductions in strength value for CS40 and CS80 are 1.67% and
immersion when acid attacks the calcium hydroxide of the wet cement
3.45% at 28 days and 12.62% and 16.10% at 90 days of immersion,
paste. If it is soluble, it may be leached off due to which the cement paste
respectively. Though both CS40 and CS80 achieve target mean strength,
becomes porous and hence weaker. If it is not soluble, it combines with
CS80 may be preferred to CS40 based on its waste utilizing capacity. But
the tri-calcium aluminate phase formed by the hydration of cement to
in terms of durability, CS40 has improved acid resistance than CS80,
generate ettringite. The growth of ettringite, which is generally more in
which is nearly equal to the acid resistance of the control mix. Thus,
acid immersion as compared to sulphate immersion, causes expansion,
CS40 is more preferable to lightweight concrete when both strength and
cracking or spalling of concrete at early stage. In the later stage of im
durability aspects are considered.
mersion, sulphuric acid also reacts CSH phase due to which the CSH gel
dissolves quickly. Therefore, the concrete suffers significant loss in mass
3.4.3. Resistance to chloride attack
and compressive strength because of the excess growth of ettringite and
The chloride attack resistance obtained after 28 and 90 days of im
dissolution of CSH phase. The above explanation is also supported by
mersion of concrete samples subjected to saline environment are
Patel et al. [30] and Majhi and Nayak [42] in their investigations of
Fig. 13. Depth of chloride penetration of the concrete mixes due to chlo
Fig. 11. Loss of mass of concrete mixes due to acid attack. ride attack.
9
presented in Fig. 13. The depth of chloride penetration of the concrete, et al. [30] for the strength development. The peaks of similar phases,
C0, at 28 and 90 days are 8.10 mm and 17.25 mm, respectively. It de such as CSH, quartz, calcite and ettringites, are also observed in the XRD
creases with the FAC increment with/without SP. The depth of pene patterns of normal concrete in the investigation of Patel et al. [30] and
tration ranges from 7.75 mm to 5.42 mm at 28 days and from 15.5 mm to Kowsalya et al. [33] in which they reported the XRD patterns of normal
10.6 mm at 90 days with the increment in FAC content from 40% to cement concrete and FAC and SFA based/ FAC based concrete after 28
100%. This decrease in chloride penetration is due to the finer particles days curing. For the mix C40, the diffractogram (Fig. 15.a) shows the
of FAC which leads to higher filling of concrete voids created by ag less appearance of CSH and ettringite peaks unlike the control concrete.
gregates. Similarly, when SP is added along with FAC, the depth of Also, the peak of the di-calcium silicate (C2S) becomes weaker. So, all
penetration further decreases. The ranges of depths of penetration are these observed facts could be the possible reason for strength degrada
found to be from 7.58 mm to 5.3 mm at 28 days and from 15.1 mm to tion in case of C40. However, when SP is used, the portlandite peaks
9.5 mm at 90 days with the increment in FAC content with SP from 40% become little weaker in the mix CS40 as shown in the diffractogram
to 100%. Hence, the addition of SP improves the chloride resistance by (Fig. 16.a). This observation indicates less voids in the mix for which the
creating fewer voids inside the concrete with respect to the concrete strength of CS40 is higher than that of C40.
without superplasticizer. The similar trend of increasing chloride resis When 60% NFA is replaced with FAC (C60), the corresponding dif
tance with the addition of cementitious material is reported by Otsuki fractogram shows disappearance of the peaks of CSH (Fig. 15.b), which
et al. [43]. causes the strength degradation as compared to C40. However, with
The above study reveals that the chloride resistance improves with addition of SP, the peaks corresponding to ettringite, C2S and quartz
the FAC increment in the concrete mixes. It is due to the filling action of become prominent (Fig. 16.b), which causes strength enhancement in
finer particles of FAC. It is worthy to note that the all the FAC based the mix CS60 as compared to C60. In case of the concrete mix C80, it is
concrete mixes with/without SP show superior performance to the seen from Fig. 15 (c) that there is strong appearance of CSH, C2S and
control mix with respect to the chloride resistance. Therefore, these quartz. The strong formation of CSH is due to the optimum pozzolanic
mixes can be considered suitable for the use in the construction of LWC reaction as discussed earlier. These facts are responsible for strength
structures subjected to saline environments. enhancement in the mix C80 as compared to C60. Further, with addition
of SP, the ettringite and CSH peaks become more prominent for the mix
CS80 (Fig. 16.c) in comparison to those seen in C80, which is responsible
3.5. Microstructural properties
for the strength enhancement in CS80 as compared to C80.
When 100% FAC replaces NFA, the corresponding diffractogram
3.5.1. Study of XRD patterns
indicates the formation of more portlandite (calcium hydroxide) and
Figs. 14, 15 and 16 show the XRD patterns of powdered samples
disappearance of CSH and C2S as shown in Fig. 15(d) due to the presence
corresponding to the control concrete mix (C0), and other FAC based
of more FAC and consequently, more voids in the mix, which may cause
concrete mixes without SP (C40, C60, C80 and C100) and with SP (CS40,
the reduction in strength as compared to the other concrete mixes (CS40,
CS60, CS80 and CS100), respectively. The XRD patterns of all the
CS60 and CS80). However, with addition of superplasticizer, there is
powdered samples employing the commercial software PROFEX 3.13.0
slight appearance of CSH and stronger calcite in the mix CS100 (Fig. 16.
confirms the presence of different hydrated phases in the concrete, such
d). Calcite can act as filler and this effect, in addition to the presence of
as calcium silicate hydrate with ID: 04–014-0553, quartz with ID:
CSH, cause strength enhancement in CS100 as compared to C100.
04–012-0490, portlandite with ID: 04–010-3117, calcite with ID:
It is worth to note that there are very limited previous XRD studies on
04–008-0788 and ettringite with ID: 04–013-3691.
the FAC based concrete. In this regard, only one work is available in the
Calcite, quartz, and ettringites have strong peaks in the diffracto
literature [33], which shows the XRD study of the concrete with 30%
gram for the mix, C0, as indicated in Fig. 14. Furthermore, the dif
FAC content. When it is compared with the XRD study of concrete with
fractogram also shows indications of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH). The
40% FAC content in the present wok (C40), it is found that both studies
presence of CSH along with quartz and ettringite in the control concrete
are similar, i.e., the peaks of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and ettrin
confirms the development of strength and calcite also serves as inert
gite (E) are seen in both the cases with the exception that the peak of
filler within the concrete. This explanation is also supported by Patel
calcite (C) is seen in the case of Kowsalya et al. [33] whereas the peaks of
portlandite (P) are seen in the present case. It may be due to the higher
percentage of FAC is added in case of the mix C40 of the present work as
compared to the previous study [33], i.e. the mix with 30% FAC content.
3.5.2. Study of SEM images

The images obtained from the SEM analysis for the nine concrete
mixes including one control mix, four FAC based concrete mixes without
SP and four FAC based concrete mixes with SP, are studied in 1 μm scale
and furnished in Figs. 17-19. The SEM image of the control concrete
indicated in Fig. 17 confirms the uniform spreading of Calcium silicate
hydrate (CSH) gel throughout the image along with few ettringite (E)
and calcium hydroxide (CH). It is known that CSH gel in the concrete
helps in developing the strength of concrete. Though the presence of
calcium hydroxide at few locations in the SEM image of the control mix
reduces its strength to some extent, the good arrangement and uniform
spreading of CSH gel and a well dense and compacted microstructure
due to the filling effect of ettringite in this image, in comparison to other
mixes, are responsible for the highest strength among all the mixes. The
SEM image of the concrete with 40% of FAC content and without SP
(C40), as shown in Fig. 18 (a), confirms the presence of calcium hy
Fig. 14. Diffractogram of the control concrete mix (C0) [C: Calcite; P: Por droxide (CH) at many locations and CSH gel at few locations. Moreover,
tlandite, Q: Quartz, E: Ettringite, CSH: Calcium silicate hydrate, C2S: Di- the overall microstructure is also seen as less compacted in comparison
calcium silicate]. to the control mix due to excess presence of CH and number of pores.
10
Fig. 15. Diffractograms of FAC based concrete mixes without SP: (a) C40, (b) C60, (c) C80 and (d) C100 [C: Calcite; P: Portlandite, Q: Quartz, E: Ettringite, CSH:
Calcium silicate hydrate, C2S: Di-calcium silicate].
The decrease in strength of the mix C40 with respect to the control lower strength of this mix with respect to the control concrete. Further,
concrete is due to the above two reasons. when FAC content increases to 100% in the concrete mix (C100), the
In the SEM image of the mix C60, as indicated in Fig. 18 (b), the CSH gel again disappears (Fig. 18.d). However, the presence of excess
disappearance of CSH gel along with the excess presence of CH is CH is observed along with more pores in the image. The absence of CSH
observed. Though there is also presence of ettringite at few locations, the gel along with the excess CH and less dense microstructure make the mix
overall microstructure is less compacted having more pores as compared inferior having the least strength among all the mixes. Further, it is
to the mixes C0 and C40. All the above reasons are responsible for the worthy to mention that the compactness of the microstructure normally
strength decrement in the concrete further. In the SEM image of the mix decreases with the FAC increment as seen from the SEM images of these
C80 (Fig. 18.c), the re-appearance of CSH gel at different locations is mixes (Fig. 18) and hence, the reduction in the resistance to sulphate/
marked unlike the mix C60 along with the presence of CH at few places. acid attack is observed. This is also justified in the durability test of FAC
This may be the reason of higher strength of this mix in comparison to based concrete mixes without SP.
the mix C60. However, the overall microstructure of this mix is also less It is to mention that there is only one study is available in the liter
compacted/dense along with more number of pores as compared to the ature [33], which shows the SEM image of the concrete with 30% FAC
control concrete due to FAC increment, which may be the reason for the content. When it is compared with the SEM image of the comparable
11
Fig. 16. Diffractograms of FAC based concrete mixes with SP: (a) CS40, (b) CS60, (c) CS80 and (d) CS100 [C: Calcite; P: Portlandite, Q: Quartz, E: Ettringite, CSH:
Calcium silicate hydrate, C2S: Di-calcium silicate].
concrete mix of present study, i.e., the concrete with 40% FAC content in the images of the mixes C60 and C100 as indicated in Fig. 18 (b) and
(C40), it is seen that both SEM images are similar, i.e., both the SEM 18 (d), respectively. Further, the presence of CH is observed at fewer
images show the presence of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and calcium locations in these mixes as compared to the respective mixes without SP.
hydroxide (CH) indicating that the present SEM analysis is supported by Similarly, the presence of ettringite is also observed in all these mixes
the earlier one [33]. except CS100. These are the other reasons for which the strengths of FAC
When SP is added to the above FAC based concrete mixes, the based concrete with SP are higher than those of the respective FAC based
amount of water in these mixes is reduced, which reduces the creation of concrete mixes without superplasticizer.
pores. Hence, it is observed that the overall microstructures of these Further, the presence of CSH gel along with ettringite at more loca
mixes (Fig. 19) are denser/ more compacted as compared to those of the tions in the SEM image of CS80 (Fig. 19.c) as compared to the images of
respective FAC based mixes without SP (Fig. 18). This is the one of the CS60 (Fig. 19.b) justifies its higher strength in comparison to the mix
reason due to which the strengths and resistances to sulphate and acid C60 in spite of the increase in FAC content like the FAC based concrete
attack of the FAC based concrete with SP are found to be higher than without SP (C80 and C60). It is found that the microstructural obser
those of respective FAC based concrete mixes without SP. Further, it is vations of all the above nine mixes obtained from the SEM analysis
worth to note that there is the presence of CSH gel in the SEM images of match well with those obtained from the XRD analysis and both SEM
all the mixes (CS40, CS60, CS80 and CS100) as shown in Fig. 19 unlike and XRD studies strongly justify the trends of mechanical and durability
12
compared to that of the control mix (C0) as indicated in Table 4. It’s

worth noting that replacing NFA with 0.164 tonnes of FAC in 1 m3 of
FAC-based concrete can save up to 0.217 tonnes of CO2. The above
advantages make these concrete mixes sustainable.
To estimate the environmental impact (EI) of the FAC based concrete
mixes, the combined influence of concrete ingredients, such as OPC,
NFA, FAC, NCA, water and SP on different environmental aspects is
analysed. Some of the environmental considerations considered here are
ozone depletion potential (ODP), global warming potential (GWP),
photochemical ozone production potential (POCP), acidification po
tential (AP), and eutrophication potential (EP). Table 5 displays statis
tics from the literature [47] on the impact of each component in the
preparation of 1 m3 concrete. Based on the data furnished in Table 5, an
environmental impact analysis of the control and FAC-based concrete
mixes is performed. The environmental impacts of ten FAC based con
crete mixes with and without SP on various environmental aspects have
been assessed as the percentage decrease as compared to the control
mix, and the findings are furnished in Fig. 20.
Fig. 20 reveals that the estimated environmental impact potentials of
the five concrete mixes utilizing FAC are lower with respect to those of
the control concrete. The concrete mix C100, i.e., with 100% FAC has
Fig. 17. SEM image of the control concrete mix (C0) [CSH: Calcium silicate
the lowest environmental impact in comparison to all other concrete
hydrate, CH: Calcium hydroxide, E: Ettringite].
mixes. The GWP, ODP, POCP and AP of C100 are 1.38%, 0.03%, 4.11%,
2.29% and 3.62% less than those of the control mix. This may be due to
characteristics of the control mix and FAC based concrete mixes with/
the lower environmental impact factors of FAC in all categories i.e.,
without SP.
GWP, ODP, POCP, AD and EP as compared to NFA (Table 5). Further, it
is found from Fig. 20 that the environmental impact potentials except
3.6. Environmental impact analysis ODP of the FAC based concrete mixes prepared with SP are lower in
comparison to the mix C0 as in case of the concrete mixes with FAC only.
This section consists of two parts. The first part compiles statistics The ODPs of these mixes with SP are marginally higher (0.006% to
from the literature on the detrimental effects of unutilized fly ash on 0.26%) with respect to the control mix. This inferior performance may
land usage, water consumption and dangerous material leaching. Based be due to the reason that there is the emission of hazardous gases and
on the current Indian environment, the approximate negative ramifi chemicals during the production of SP. Further, it is found that the
cations are quantified using these statistics. Based on the computed re concrete mixes containing FAC without SP have a lower environmental
sults, the reduction of the aforementioned negative effects by using FA impact than the concrete having FAC and SP.
products has been examined in this work. Similarly, statistics on CO2 From the above study, it is inferred the FAC based concrete mixes
emissions from natural aggregate production have been gathered from with/without SP have the lower environmental impacts with respect to
the literature. In the second part, the reduction in environmental impact the mix C0 with the exception that ODPs of these mixes with SP are
(EI) on different environmental aspects of the FAC based concrete mixes marginally higher than the normal concrete. At the same time, these
with/without SP is estimated in comparison to the control concrete mixtures conserve an equivalent quantity of natural resources, ensuring
using various data available in the literature. The quantitative facts ecological balance and environmental safety. Furthermore, the manu
linked to various environmental hazards raised by unutilized fly ash and facture of these concrete mixes utilizes a large volume of FAC, the in
natural aggregate production are provided below. dustrial waste, reducing solid waste disposal issues due to which
sustainability in the construction could be achieved.
• 3.64 m2 of land is used for every tonne of unutilized FA [12]
• Water consumption per tonne of unutilized FA is around 0.8 kg/hour 3.7. Cost-benefit analysis
[13].
• Toxic elements are leached at a rate of 0.13 kg per tonne of unutilized The cost analysis of all the eleven concrete mixes is done considering
FA [12]. the cost of the component materials to determine the cost-benefit of the
• The extraction of 1 tonne of natural aggregate emits about 0.129 FAC based concrete mixes prepared with/without SP. The base price and
tonne of CO2 [46]. transportation charges for materials like OPC, NFA, and NCA are
considered from the Schedule of Rates [48] of the Works Department,
The reduction in various negative environmental impacts for using Govt. of Odisha, India, filed under “File no. 07556900012013–13827/W
FAC in the preparation of 1 m3 concrete is quantified from the previous on September 16, 2017”. But the basic rate and transportation charges of
data available in the literature [12,13,46] as mentioned above and FAC and SP considered here are the actual market rates at the time of
presented in Table 4. In the evaluation of negative consequences, FAC is procurement as the rate of FAC and SP are not available in the above
classified as unutilized FA, whereas NFA and NCA are likewise consid schedule of rates. Thereafter, the total costs of all these materials are
ered as natural aggregates. According to Table 4, employing unutilized calculated by adding the basic cost with the transporting charges. The
FA in 1 m3 of FAC-based concrete with full replacement of NFA can save obtained costs per unit quantity of the materials are INR 6644/- for one
up to 0.598 m2 of land and 0.131 kg/hour of water. Another significant metric ton of OPC, INR 593.67 for one ton of NFA, INR 954.39 for one
advantage is that toxic element leaching is minimised to 0.021 kg per m3 ton of NCA, INR 670.00 for one ton of FAC and INR 38000.00 for one ton
of FAC-based concrete. This reduces the impact of toxic element leach of SP. In the above calculation, the cost of FAC includes the collection
ing on the environment, which damages human health, plant develop charges from the ash pond by pond skimming and the transporting
ment and water/air quality. charges for 55kms. The higher cost of FAC in comparison to NFA is a
Moreover, the FAC-based concrete mix can conserve up to 100% of result of the higher basic cost and the higher distance of the ash pond
NFA, resulting in CO2 emissions being decreased up to 35.6% when from the university batching plant as compared to the distance between
13
Fig. 18. SEM images of FAC based concrete mixes without SP: (a) C40, (b) C60, (c) C80 and (d) C100 [CSH: Calcium silicate hydrate, CH: Calcium hydroxide,
E: Ettringite].
sand quarry and university batching plant. The higher basic cost of the utilize a substantial amount of FCA, these three mixes have lost their
FAC as compared to the NFA is due to the effort required for collecting values in the current sustainable concrete environment. The mix CS80 is
the FAC from the ash ponds by pond skimming. The individual costs of found to be the most sustainable concrete because of its greater cost-
the concrete ingredients along with the calculated cost of the concrete benefit ratio, higher strength and increased waste utilisation. This con
mixes are furnished in Table 6. Further, Fig. 21 indicates the cost-benefit crete has a lower density than that of the control mix by 15.97% satis
analysis of all concrete mixes described in this investigation. The per fying the requirement of LWC and desired strength of M25. As a result, it
centage cost savings owing to the addition of FAC and SP compared to can be suitably used for structural LWC of M25 Grade.
the control mix (C0) are calculated and displayed on the Y-axis. In the
same way, the X-axis reflects the decrease in the compressive strength of
the FAC based mixes in comparison to the control one. 3.8. Sensitivity analysis of cost
From Fig. 21, it is seen that due to the addition of FAC in the concrete
mixes with/without SP, the cost of concrete mixes reduces to make them The base cost and transportation cost of the constituent materials
economical, but simultaneously the compressive strength also reduces have a remarkable impact on the cost of concrete. Cement and super
except CS20. The compressive strength of CS20 is higher than that of the plasticizer were obtained from a local market in Sambalpur, India. As a
control mix. Moreover, the highest cost saving can be achieved by result, under the existing scenario, the source and price of cement and
replacing 100% NFA with FAC (C100) followed by the concrete mixes superplasticizer cannot be modified and hence, the total cost of these
C80, C60, C40, CS80, CS60, CS40, CS100, C20 and CS20. Among these commodities are fixed. Natural aggregates, such as NFA and NCA, have
mixes, C100, C80, C60, CS100, C40 and CS60 have lower compressive the same basic costs as the foregoing materials because the mining
strength as compared to the target strength of concrete of M25 Grade. queries are located at a constant distance from the batching plant. It is
However, the concrete mixes, CS20, CS40, C20 and CS80 can be worth noting that these aggregates are sourced from the mining quarries
considered as the suitable concrete mixes from the strength and eco closest to the batching plant. FAC, on the other hand, has no base cost
nomic consideration. As the concrete mixes C20, CS20 and CS40 do not and was brought from Vedanta Aluminium’s ash pond in Jharsuguda. As
a result, the only cost of FAC is transportation, which is determined by
14
Fig. 19. SEM images of FAC based concrete mixes with SP: (a) CS40, (b) CS60, (c) CS80 and (d) CS100 [CSH: Calcium silicate hydrate, CH: Calcium hydroxide,
E: Ettringite].
15
Table 5
Environmental impact data for the preparation of 1 kg of ingredients of concrete.
Material Author GWP ODP POCP AP EP
kg CO2 kg CFC- kg C2H4 kg SO2 kg PO4
eq 11 eq eq eq eq
OPC Kurda 9.27 × 9.47 × 7.52 × 2.55 × 3.50 ×

et al. [47] 10− 01 10− 08 10− 05 10− 03 10− 04
NFA Kurda 9.87 × 1.71 × 2.80 × 4.58 × 1.08 ×
et al. [47] 10− 03 10− 11 10− 06 10− 05 10− 05
NCA Kurda 2.44 × 2.43 × 7.83 × 1.44 × 3.18 ×
et al. [47] 10− 02 10− 10 10− 06 10− 04 10− 05
FAC Kurda 3.92 × 9.88 × 5.49 × 7.26 × 1.05 ×
et al. [47] 10− 03 10− 13 10− 07 10− 06 10− 06
Water Kurda 1.33 × 5.93 × 4.99 × 3.87 × 9.70 ×
et al. [47] 10− 04 10− 12 10− 08 10− 08 10− 07
SP Kurda 7.71 × 8.78 × 5.68 × 4.26 × 1.05 × Fig. 21. Cost-benefit analysis of the FAC based concrete mixes.
et al. [47] 10− 01 10− 08 10− 05 10− 03 10− 03
Fig. 22. Cost benefit in obtaining FAC near the batching plant location.
Fig. 20. Reduction in various environmental impacts of FAC based concrete original scenario. As shown in Fig. 22, cost reduction is primarily
mixes with respect to the control concrete. determined by the % FAC content. Due to variations in other in
gredients, it has a negligible effect on cost.
the location of the ash pond. A truck was used to bring FAC to the
University’s batching plant in the current situation. The distance trav 4. Conclusions
elled for the above action is 70 km. FAC has no cost of its own, as pre
viously stated in the cost analysis section, and is simply connected with The following conclusions are obtained from the present study:
transportation costs in the current situation. As a result, the in-hand cost
of FAC is now comparable to that of NFA. As a result, the cost of FAC • The compressive strength of concrete gradually decreases as the FAC
transportation governs the cost of concrete mix in this scenario. If an ash content increases. However, an improvement in the compressive
pond is available near the batching facility, i.e., if a thermal plant is strength is seen at an 80% replacement level of NFA with FAC. The
located near the batching plant, where transportation costs will be use of SP in the FAC based concrete mixes significantly increases
avoided, then the cost of FAC-based concrete mixes is reduced even their compressive strength. All of the concrete mixes studied here
further. As a result, in the current sensitivity analysis, the what-if sce with and without SP meet the structural lightweight concrete’s
nario input for FAC is zero transportation cost. As a result, Fig. 22 shows minimum strength criterion [6]. However, four concrete mixes
the percentage cost benefit of FAC-based concrete mixes in the what-if among the ten FAC based concrete mixes without/with super
scenario over the current scenario. As shown in Fig. 22, using zero plasticiser, i.e., C80, C100, CS80 and CS100, can be considered for
transportation costs for FAC as a what-if scenario input, the maximum the structural lightweight concrete nearly satisfying its maximum
reduction in the cost of the concrete mix is 2.8% with respect to the density criterion [6].
Table 6
Cost of concrete mixes.
Cost/kg (INR) OPC NFA FAC NCA SP Total
6.64 0.59 0.67 0.95 38.00
Cost of concrete mixes/cubic meter (INR) C0 2722.40 383.72 0 1108.55 0 4214.67

C20 2722.40 307.10 22.04 1108.55 0 4160.09
C40 2722.40 230.47 44.01 1108.55 0 4105.43
C60 2722.40 153.85 66.06 1108.55 0 4050.86
C80 2722.40 77.22 88.10 1108.55 0 3996.27
C100 2722.40 0 110.08 1108.55 0 3941.03
CS20 2722.40 307.10 22.04 1108.55 7.79 4167.88
CS40 2722.40 230.47 44.01 1108.55 15.58 4121.01
CS60 2722.40 153.85 66.06 1108.55 62.32 4113.18
CS80 2722.40 77.22 88.10 1108.55 116.85 4113.12
CS100 2722.40 0 110.08 1108.55 202.54 4143.57
16
• The behaviour of the bond strength of the concrete mixes containing Data availability
FAC without/with superplasticiser is similar to that of the
compressive strength as normally expected. All the FAC based Data will be made available on request.
structural LWC mixes without/with SP satisfy the requirement of
bond strength of M25 Grade concrete as recommended by IS:456 Acknowledgements
[45] and therefore, these LWC mixes can be used suitably for con
struction of RC structures from the bond strength point of view. The financial grant of the Science and Engineering Research Board
• There is significant loss in both mass and strength of FAC based (SERB), Government of India, New Delhi vide No. SB/S3/CEE/0065/
concrete mixes due to sulphate/acid attack in long term (90 days in 2013 for this research is duly acknowledged.
this case). However, the losses in mass and strength of concrete are
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Construction and Building Materials 397 (2023) 132429

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

Performance evaluation on bond, durability, micro-structure, cost

1. Introduction Based on the ingredients of LWC, it can be classified into various

microstructural properties of FAC based structural LWC before its final

2. Materials and experimental methods

In this research work, the binder used in LWC is 43 Grade ordinary

Properties Cement Limit as per IS 269 [34]

Specific gravity 3.15

C0 0 – 410 1162 646 – 205 9 214 0.50

compressive strengths were recorded. These recorded data were

electrons which results from an inelastic collision of a primary beam

3. Results and discussion

Land Water Toxic

C0 1.808 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.233 0.0

be the effect of the reduction in w/c of concrete due to the addition of SP

3.4.2. Resistance to acid attack

concrete. Moreover, at the advanced stage, the sulphuric acid dissolute

3.5.2. Study of SEM images

compared to that of the control mix (C0) as indicated in Table 4. It’s

OPC Kurda 9.27 × 9.47 × 7.52 × 2.55 × 3.50 ×

Cost of concrete mixes/cubic meter (INR) C0 2722.40 383.72 0 1108.55 0 4214.67

interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence

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