CE-414L Hydrology and Water Management

Lab Manual

________________ ________________
Prepared by: Checked by:
Engr. Liaqat Ali Shah Dr. Ateeq Ur Rauf
Lab Engineer, DCE Asst: Professor, DCE
UET Bannu Campus UET Bannu Campus

Department of Civil Engineering

University of Engineering & Technology Peshawar, Bannu
Campus
 Hydrology and Water Management Lab

TABLE OF CONTENTS:
TABLE OF CONTENTS: ...................................................................................................... i
OBJECTIVES: ..................................................................................................................... iv
LAB SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS ......................................................................................... v
LIST OF EQUIPMENT’S ................................................................................................... vi
LAYOUT OF LABORATORY ..........................................................................................vii
Experiment No. 01 Study of Hydraulic Jump Formation in Open Channel ......................... 1
Apparatus: ......................................................................................................................... 1
Theory: .............................................................................................................................. 1
Procedure........................................................................................................................... 2
Observations: .................................................................................................................... 3
Experiment No: 02 Experimental Analysis of Different Modes of Sediment Transport ...... 4
Apparatus: ......................................................................................................................... 4
Theory: .............................................................................................................................. 4
Procedure........................................................................................................................... 5
Triangular Notch Calculation............................................................................................ 5
Experiment no: 03 Study of scouring at a. Bridge pier b. Abutment c. Contraction scour d.
General scour ........................................................................................................................ 6
Purpose: ............................................................................................................................. 6
Apparatus: ......................................................................................................................... 6
Theory: .............................................................................................................................. 6
Procedure........................................................................................................................... 6
Observations: .................................................................................................................... 7
Experiment no: 04 Stream Flow Measurement by a. Using current meter b. Float method c.
Slope area method ................................................................................................................. 8
Apparatus: ......................................................................................................................... 8
Theory: .............................................................................................................................. 8
Float .................................................................................................................................. 8
Current Meters .................................................................................................................. 8
Slope area method: ............................................................................................................ 9
Procedure........................................................................................................................... 9
Observations: .................................................................................................................... 9
Experiment No: 05 Study of Different Types of Flows in an Open Channel (Uniform Non-
Uniform, Steady Unsteady, Critical and Supercritical) ...................................................... 11
Apparatus: ....................................................................................................................... 11

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Theory: ............................................................................................................................ 11
Procedure: ....................................................................................................................... 11
Observations: .................................................................................................................. 12
Experiment No: 06a To Determine the Discharge and Co-Efficient of Discharge over a
Rectangular Notch ............................................................................................................... 14
Apparatus: ....................................................................................................................... 14
Theory: ............................................................................................................................ 14
Procedure: ....................................................................................................................... 15
Precautions: ..................................................................................................................... 16
Rectangular Notch Calculations...................................................................................... 16
Experiment No: 06b To Determine the Discharge and Co-efficient of Discharge over a
Triangular Notch ................................................................................................................. 17
Apparatus: ....................................................................................................................... 17
Theory: ............................................................................................................................ 17
Procedure: ....................................................................................................................... 18
Precautions: ..................................................................................................................... 19
Triangular Notch Calculation.......................................................................................... 19
Experiment No: 07 Development of Stage Discharge Relationship for an Open Channel and
its Extension ........................................................................................................................ 20
Theory: ............................................................................................................................ 20
Apparatus: ....................................................................................................................... 20
Procedure......................................................................................................................... 21
Observations .................................................................................................................... 21
Experiment No: 08 Draw the Hydraulic Grade Lines, Energy Grade Line and its
Applications ........................................................................................................................ 22
Apparatus: ....................................................................................................................... 22
Theory: ............................................................................................................................ 22
Procedure: ....................................................................................................................... 22
Bernoulli’s Theorem Verification Calculations .............................................................. 23
Experiment No: 09 Measurements of Precipitation using Rain Gauge .............................. 24
Theory: ............................................................................................................................ 24
Apparatus: ....................................................................................................................... 24
Procedure: ....................................................................................................................... 24
Observations: .................................................................................................................. 25
Experiment No: 10 Measurement of Infiltration through Double Ring Infiltro-Meter ...... 26
Theory: ............................................................................................................................ 26
Procedure: ....................................................................................................................... 26

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Experiment No: 11 Development of Runoff Hydrograph from a Catchment Area ........... 28

Objective: ........................................................................................................................ 28
Apparatus: ....................................................................................................................... 28
Procedure: ....................................................................................................................... 28
Observation: .................................................................................................................... 28
Experiment No: 12 Drawing Specific Energy Curve for a Trapezoidal Channel ............... 30
Specific Energy: .............................................................................................................. 30
Specific Energy Curve: ................................................................................................... 30
Minimum Specific Energy: ............................................................................................. 31
Critical depth: .................................................................................................................. 31
Sub-critical Flow: ............................................................................................................ 31
Critical flow: ................................................................................................................... 31
Super-critical flow:.......................................................................................................... 31
Critical velocity: .............................................................................................................. 32
Assumptions: ................................................................................................................... 32
Data and calculations: ..................................................................................................... 32
Results: ............................................................................................................................ 34
Theoretical calculations: ................................................................................................. 34
Conclusion: ..................................................................................................................... 35
Experiment No: 13 Experimental Study of Water Surface Profile in Open Channel ........ 36
Theory: ............................................................................................................................ 36
Classification of Flow Profiles (water surface profiles) ................................................. 37
Water Profile Computations (Gradually Varied Flow) ................................................... 40
Direct Step Method ......................................................................................................... 40
For prismatic channels: ................................................................................................... 40

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OBJECTIVES:
The basic purpose of offering this course to the Civil Engineering students is to introduce
them the primary principles, methods and techniques involved in Hydrology and Water
Management. The primary emphasis of the course is on fundamental understanding the
underlying principles of the topics that have been discussed in the lectures using various
experimental techniques, instruments and apparatus designed specifically for the practical
understanding of the subject and its implementation in the field. This laboratory course
involves the study of instrumentation and measurements techniques, as well as the
philosophical content that should help serves as a foundation for the future professional
career of Civil engineers. In general, there might not be a single unique answer to the
laboratory problems. Then, the student may determine the best 'answer' possible within the
framework of the equipment available, the estimated errors, etc. The teaching staff have all
solved similar problems before and can assist with the procedures and techniques required
for the successful completion of the experiment. Hence, success in the course will depend
upon the student's own initiative and ideas toward the problem solving in each experiment.
This laboratory manual available to all students at the beginning of the semester contains
the detailed information about the experiment objectives with each having a brief
introduction, a short description of the facility, suggestions for summary and a few
references. Students must prepare themselves for the next scheduled experiment following
the appropriate hand-out.

Teaching Assistants conduct brief quizzes before students are allowed access to the
experimental set-up to make sure students are ready. Students will not be allowed to perform
the experiment without satisfactory knowledge of the expected work in the laboratory.

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LAB SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS

❖ All lab experiments require a closed toe shoe.
❖ Maintain clean and orderly laboratories and work area. Discard immediately unwanted
items. Leave coats, books and notebooks in the lecture room. Make sure all spilled
liquids are wiped up immediately.
❖ Students are responsible for maintaining work area in a safe and reasonable condition.
❖ Be aware of the various experiment controls (start button, stop button, speed control) for
each lab.
❖ Wear safety eyewear when needed.
❖ Do not leave experiments running unattended.
❖ Any injuries should be reported immediately for proper care.
❖ Work with a dry hand
❖ Do not open the casing of the equipment.
❖ Do not unplug any electrical connection.
❖ Do not eat at your workstation.
❖ Do not create noise or disturbance in lab.
❖ Return equipment to their designated storage place after use.
❖ Keep your personnel belongings with you in safe custody while working in lab. The lab
staff will not be held responsible for any loss or damage.

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LIST OF EQUIPMENT’S
Working
S. No Equipment Name Quantity Name of Experiment
Condition
1 Hydraulic bench 3 Calibration of Sharp Crested Weirs Working
Impact of Jet To determine impact of jet using jet
2 2 Working
Apparatus impact apparatus
Fluid Friction Determination of pipe friction
3 2 Not Working
Apparatus factor
To study the variation of friction
Energy Losses in
4 1 factor f for turbulent flow in rough Working
Bends & Fittings
and smooth commercial pipes
Orifice and Jet
5 1 Flow through small orifice Working
Apparatus
6 Pelton Wheel 1 Performance of Pelton wheel Working
7 Pump 1 Helping Apparatus Working
Experimental study of laminar,
Osborne Reynold’s
8 1 turbulent and transitional Working
Apparatus
flows.(visual analysis)
To Study the Flow Characteristics
Tilting Flume
9 1 of Hydraulic Jump Developed in Working
Apparatus
Laboratory Flume
Flow Visualization Experimental study of laminar,
10 1 Working
Apparatus turbulent and transitional flows.
Bernoulli's Theorem Verification of Bernoulli’s
11 2 Working
Apparatus theorem
Visualization of the flow patterns
12 Laminar Table 1 created using water as the working Not Working
fluid
To determine the minor head loss
Pipe Friction
13 1 coefficient for different pipe Working
Apparatus
fittings
Metacentric Height To determine Metacentric height
14 3 Working
Apparatus of a floating body
To determine hydrostatic pressure
Hydrostatic Pressure
15 2 and center of pressure of partially Working
Apparatus
submerged plane area / surface
Calibration of pressure gauge
Dead Weight
16 1 using dead weight pressure gauge Working
Calibrator
calibration
17 Taechometer 2 Helping Apparatus Working
18 Stopwatch 1 Helping Apparatus Working

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LAYOUT OF LABORATORY
Bernoulli Theorem Pelton Wheel Francis Turbine
Orifice Apparatus Flow Visualization Apparatus
Energy Losses in Bends

Metacentric
Height
Apparatus Osborn Reynold
Flow Apparatus
Hydrostatic Channel
Pressure Centrifugal
Apparatus Pumps
Apparatus
Bourdon
Pressure Osborne Reynold
Gauge Water Apparatus
Tank
Pitot Tube

Cupboard

D
O
O
R

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Experiment No. 01
Study of Hydraulic Jump Formation in Open Channel
Apparatus:
➢ Tilting Flume
➢ Barrier (Weir/Spillway/Gate etc.)
Theory:
Hydraulics Jump or Standing wave

1. Hydraulics jump is local non-uniform flow phenomenon resulting from the change in
flow from super critical to sub critical.

2. In such a case, the water level passes through the critical depth and according to the
theory dy/dx=infinity or water surface profile should be vertical.

3. This off course physically cannot happen, and the result is discontinuity in the surface
characterized by a steep upward slope of the profile accompanied by lot of turbulence
and eddies.

4. The eddies cause energy loss and depth after the jump is slightly less than the
corresponding alternate depth.

5. The depth before and after the hydraulic jump is known as conjugate depths or sequent
depths.

Classification of Hydraulic Jump

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Fr < 1.0: Jump impossible, violates second law of thermodynamics [Entropy]

Fr=1.0 to 1.7: Standing-wave, or undular, jump about 4y2 long; low energy dissipation,
less than 5%.
Fr= 1.7 to 2.5: Smooth surface rise with small rollers, known as a Weak jump; Energy
dissipation 5 to 15 %.
Fr = 2.5 to 4.5: Unstable, oscillating jump; each irregular pulsation creates a large wave
which can travel downstream for miles, damaging earth banks and other structures. Not
recommended for design conditions. Energy dissipation 15 to 45 %.
F r= 4.5 to 9.0: Stable, well balanced, steady jump; best performance and action, insensitive
to downstream conditions. Best design range. Energy dissipation 45 to 70 %.
Fr > 9.0: Rough, somewhat intermittent strong jump, but good performance. Energy
dissipation 70 to 85%.
Head Loss in a hydraulic jump (HL):
Due to the turbulent flow in hydraulic jump, a dissipation (loss) of energy occurs:
HL = DE = E1 - E2

Height of hydraulic jump (hj):

The difference of depths before and after the jump is known as the height of the jump

h j = y2-y1
Length of hydraulic jump (Lj):
The distance between the front face of the jump to a point on the downstream where the
rollers (eddies) terminate and the flow becomes uniform is known as the length of the
hydraulic jump. The length of the jump varies from 5 to 7 times its height. An average
value is usually taken:

L j =6 h j
Procedure

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1. Connect the water pump with the external water supply on one end and with the
hydraulic flume by another end properly.
2. After setting up, start the water pump and allow the water to flow into the hydraulic
flume.
3. Keep sure that initially the sluice gate level is above the level of water means that the
sluice gate should not touch the water in order to achieve the normal level of water up
to some depth.
4. When the water level becomes normal, slowly allow the sluice gate to break the normal
flow of water.
5. Down the sluice gate level until to achieve a proper hydraulic jump in the flume.
6. Now with the help of point gauges/measuring scales note the depth of water before and
after the jump and call it y1 & y2 respectively.
7. Now calculate the discharge of water by measuring the volume of water tank upto
specific level and record the time for achieving that specific water level and use the
formula volume by time for calculation of discharge, note that the discharge will be
constant at any point in the flume.
8. Now as the width of flume is constant ie 1ft so to find the area of water flow use water
depth y1, so area will be equal to width into depth.
9. Now use the above-mentioned formulas to determine the Height of hydraulic jump,
Length of hydraulic jump, Head/Energy loss in hydraulic jump and type of flow of water
due to hydraulic jump respectively.

Observations:

Y1 Y2
Y
Velocity Before (After the HL hj Lj Type of
S/no Y2-Y1 Fr
(cm/sec) the jump jump) (cm) (cm) (cm) jump
(cm)
(cm) (cm)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

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Experiment No: 02
Experimental Analysis of Different Modes of Sediment
Transport
Apparatus:
• Tilting Flume
• Sediments (d50)
Theory:
The most common modes of sediment transport in rivers are bedload and suspended
load. As bedload, sediment particles saltate, roll, and slide, but always staying close to
the bed. As suspend load, sediment is carried by the fluid turbulence up in
the water column. An opening provided in the tank/vessel in which the top edge of the
opening lies below the water surface.

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Procedure
1. Connect the water pump with the external water supply on one end and with the
hydraulic flume by another end properly.
2. Place 5 kg sediments with known d50 in test section after mechanical analysis
3. Add sediments at the upstream side of the test section continuously.
4. Note the velocity of the flowing water.
5. Repeat the procedure for different velocities.

Triangular Notch Calculation

Depth Slope
U*
S/no D S Nr Ґc qb
(ft/sec)
(ft) (ft/ft)

1.

2.

3.

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Experiment no: 03
Study of scouring at a. Bridge pier b. Abutment c. Contraction
scour d. General scour
Purpose:
The objective of this experiment is to determine the scouring depth and contour maps of
local scour.
Apparatus:
• Tilting flume
• Sediments
• Point gauge
• Pile/weir
Theory:
Scour can be defined as the removal of material from the bed and banks of streams due to
action of flowing water.
Sedimentation and Scouring can be found on U/S and D/S sides of the models respectively
at constant discharge
The x, y and z coordinates of the surface used to be calculated at the start and end of every
trial
Total four trials is on each model for 15, 30, 60 and 120 minutes
In order to compare the sedimentation and Scouring, data collected from experiments, will
be plotted in surfer software for contours.
Similarly, the longitudinal profile along the channel for deposition and scouring will also
be plotted using Excel

Upstream Downstream

Procedure
1) First of all perform Sieve Analysis on the sample of sediments for which we have to
determine the scouring and find amount of sediments of your interest ie D10, D50, D90
etc.
2) Place the model structure in the rectangular Hydraulic flume at the specific location from
the upstream of water.
3) Now connect the water pump with the external water supply on one end and with the
hydraulic flume by another end properly.
4) After setting up, start the water pump and allow the water to flow into the hydraulic
flume.

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5) With the flow of water some of the sediments will move from one place to another due
to velocity of water and scouring will be found on both the up streams as well as down
stream of the model structure respectively.
6) Calculate the Length (x), Width (y) and depth (z) of the surface used to be calculated at
the start and end of every trial.
7) Total four trials will be conducted on each model for 15, 30, 60 and 120 minutes.
8) In order to compare the sedimentation and scouring, data collected from experiments will
be plotted in surfer software for contours.
9) Similarly, the longitudinal profile along the channel for deposition and scouring will also
be plotted using Excel.
Observations:

Discharge Maximum
S/No Value of ’x’ Value of ’y’ Value of ’z’
(cusecs) scour depth

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Experiment no: 04
Stream Flow Measurement by a. Using current meter b. Float
method c. Slope area method
Apparatus:
o Tilting flume
o Current meter
o Floating material
o Stope watch
Theory:
Float
Time float over a known distance; convert surface velocity to average velocity; simple but
very approximate.
Current Meters
Current meters are the most commonly used instruments for measurement of flow
velocities of stream water.
The instrument consists of a rotating element which when hit by the stream current
revolves with an angular velocity proportional to the stream velocity.
The formula for calculating the velocity by a current meter is
V = a Ns + b
Where
V = stream velocity (m/s)
Ns = number of revolution per second of the current meter
a, b = are constant for meter

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• Current meters are the most commonly used instruments for measurements of flow
velocities of stream water.

• There are two types of current meters.

• Price current meter

• Propeller current meter

PRICE CURRENT METER:

It consists of 6 conical cups rotating about a vertical axis who has electric contacts, driven
by the cups along with the recorder.
The circuit is closed through a battery and the wire of a supporting cable to cause a click
for each revolution or each 5th revolution.
The clicks are recorded through headphones worn by the operator or some other electronic
devices can be used.

ROPELLER CURRENT METER:

The contacting mechanism is similar to that of the price meter and similar suspension is
made along with some weight.
The difference is that it uses a propeller turning about a horizontal axis.
Slope area method:
Manning’s equation
Procedure
1. First of all connect the water pump with the external water supply on one end and
with the hydraulic flume by another end properly.
2. After setting up, start the water pump and allow the water to flow into the hydraulic
flume.
3. When the flow of water in the flume reaches a reasonable level and is streamline
select two point (starting & end point) along the length of flume at some reasonable
distance from each other.
4. Now allow the plastic ball or paper to move with the flow of water from starting
point to end point and note the time with the help of stopwatch.
5. Now determine the velocity of flow of water by using formula:
Surface Velocity = Distance/ Time
6. Now convert the surface velocity into average velocity:
Avg Velocity = 0.8 *surface velocity
7. Now to determine the flow area note the depth of water in the hydraulic flume by
using point gauge and the width of flume is constant i.e 1ft or 12inches.
Flow Area = Depth x Width
8. Finally to determine the discharge of water of an open channel or flume, use formula:
Discharge = Area * Avg Velocity.
9. Similarly find the velocity of by using current meter and manning equation
Observations:

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Float method Current meter Slope area method

S/No
Ns Velocity Manning’s Channel Flow Velocity
Revolution ‘m/s’ n value for slope area ‘m/s’
Length per second channel m2
Velocity
of Time
‘m/s’
reach ‘S’
‘m’

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Experiment No: 05
Study of Different Types of Flows in an Open Channel
(Uniform Non-Uniform, Steady Unsteady, Critical and
Supercritical)
Apparatus:
o Tilting flume
Theory:
1. Steady and Unsteady Flow
Steady flow happens if the conditions (flow rate, velocity, depth etc) do not
change with time.
The flow is unsteady if the depth is changes with time
2. Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
If for a given length of channel, the velocity of flow, depth of flow, slope of the
channel and cross section remain constant, the flow is said to be Uniform
The flow is Non-uniform, if velocity, depth, slope and cross section is not constant
3. Sub critical, critical and super critical flow
Subcritical Flow
If the depth of water in the channel is greater than the critical depth, the flow is called
subcritical, tranquil or streaming flow.

Critical Flow
If the depth of water in the channel is critical, the flow is called a critical flow.

Supercritical Flow
If the depth of water in the channel is less than the critical depth, the flow is called
supercritical, rapid, torrential or shooting flow.

Froude Number

Procedure:

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1. Connect the water pump with the external water supply on one end and with the
hydraulic flume by another end properly.
2. After setting up, start the water pump and allow the water to flow into the hydraulic
flume.
3. When the water reaches at some depth keeping the discharge constant, take a marker
and draw line at one point on the flume.
4. Now find the depth of water at that point with the help of point gauge and determine the
velocity as well at time t=0.
5. Now after some time(t=t), again determine the depth and velocity at same point.
6. Now compare both the readings, if the flow parameter change w.r.t then the flow will
be unsteady flow but if remains the same the flow will be steady flow.
7. Now when we have to determined the uniform and no-uniform flow, we will have to
take two points on the flume at some distance from each other and have to draw a line
to make the selected points visible and clear.

8. Now determine the flow parameters (velocity, pressure, cross-sectional area etc) at both
the points/ sections.

9. If the flow parameters at both the sections are same the flow will be called uniform flow,
but if we place a barrier (insert sluice gate upto some depth) to the flow of water between
our selected sections, then we will see that the depth before the barrier is different from
the depth after the barrier, then this type of flow will be called non-uniform flow.

10. Now to determine the critical, super critical and sub critical flows, first we have to
determine the critical depth using formula;
11. Now draw a line along the length of the flume with the help of marker, at a depth equal
to critical depth from bed of the flume.
12. Now insert the sluice gate in the flume at the test section in the flume, such that it act as
a barrier to the flow of water but should not completely stop the flow of water.
13. With the insertion of sluice gate the flow will get disturbed and the depth before the
barrier will be greater than the depth after the barrier.
14. We will see that the depth before the barrier will be greater than critical depth and this
depth will be known as sub critical depth. And the depth after the barrier will be smaller
than the critical depth and will be called as super critical depth.
15. The velocity at super-critical depth will be higher than the velocity at critical depth and
the velocity at critical depth will be higher than sub-critical depth accordingly.
16. The flow at sub-critical depth will be called sub-critical flow and the flow at super-
critical depth will be known as super-critical flow.
Observations:

S/No Steady & Unsteady Uniform & non uniform Critical, Super and sub critical

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Flow Flow
perimeter perimeter
Type V, Q, D V, Q, D Froud
Flow Type Depth
of At one At another number
Time perimeter of Velocity of
flow point point Fr
V, Q, D flow water

T=0
1
min
T= 5
2
min
3

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Experiment No: 06a

To Determine the Discharge and Co-Efficient of Discharge over
a Rectangular Notch
Apparatus:
• Rectangular Notch
• Hook and point gauge
• Hydraulic bench
• Stopwatch
Theory:
Notch:
An opening provided in the tank/vessel in which the top edge of the opening lies below the
water surface.

Orifice:
An opening in the tank/vessel in which the top edge lies below the water surface level, both
the orifice and notch are used directly for discharge.

Weir:
A structure, used to dam up a stream or river, over which the water flows, is called a weir.

Difference b/w Notch & Weir:

• Notch is of small size and weir is of a bigger one.
• Notch is usually made in plate, whereas a weir is usually made of masonry or concrete.
Jet:
The water issuing from an orifice is called jet.

Sill or Crest:
The top of the weir or notch over which the water flows, is known as Sill.

Nape or vein:
The sheet of water flowing through a notch/weir is called Nape/ vein.

Rectangular Notch:
Let,

• H = Height of water above sill of notch

• b = Width or length of the notch
• Cd = Coefficient of discharge

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Rectangular Notch

Let us consider a horizontal strip of water of thickness dh at a depth of h from the water
level as shown in figure.

Area of the strip

We know know that the theoretical velocity of water through the strip,

Discharge through the strip,

The total discharge over the whole notch may be found out by integrating the above
equation within the limits 0 and H.

Procedure:
1. I fixed the plate having a rectangular notch in the water passage of hydraulic bench.
2. Then I turned the hydraulic bench “ON” and the water started accumulating in it &
when the water level reached the crest of the notch, stopped the inflow & noted the
height, let it be H1.
3. Then started the inflow, Noted the value and time for its accumulation, this gave the
discharge. Also noted the height of water level for discharge, Let it be H2.
4. Then H2-H1 gives the head over the notch.
5. Also noted the width of notch
6. I took different readings by changing the discharge, head over the notch and
tabulated flow

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Precautions:
1. Care should be taken at once stopped the inflow, when the water level reaches the
crest of the notch.
2. Different readings should be taken for different discharge.
Rectangular Notch Calculations

Q act
S/n Volume Time H1 H2 H Qth Cd
o (lit) (sec) (cm) (cm) (m) =2/3b√2gH3/2 =Qact/Qth
Q(lit/s) Q(m3/s)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

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Experiment No: 06b

To Determine the Discharge and Co-efficient of Discharge over
a Triangular Notch
Apparatus:
• Triangular Notch
• Hook and point gauge
• Hydraulic bench
• Stopwatch
Theory:

Notch:
An opening provided in the tank/vessel in which the top edge of the opening lies below the
water surface.

Orifice:
An opening in the tank/vessel in which the top edge lies below the water surface level,
both the orifice and notch are used directly for discharge.

Weir:
A structure, used to dam up a stream or river, over which the water flows, is called a weir.

Difference b/w Notch & Weir:

• Notch is of small size and weir is of a bigger one.
• Notch is usually made in plate, whereas a weir is usually made of masonry or
concrete.
• Water flows in between the notch while water overflows in weirs
Jet:
The water issuing from an orifice is called jet.

Sill or Crest:
The top of the weir or notch over which the water flows, is known as Sill.

Nape or vein:
The sheet of water flowing through a notch/weir is called Nape/ vein.

Triangular Notch:
Let,

▪ H = Height of the liquid above the apex of the notch

▪ θ = Angle of the notch
▪ Cd = Coefficient of discharge

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Triangular Notch

From the geometry of the figure, we find that the width of the notch at the water surface,

Area of the strip =

We know that the theoretical velocity of water through the strip =
and discharge over the notch,

The total discharge over the whole notch may be found out only by integrating the above
equation within the limits 0 and H.

A triangular notch gives more accurate results for low discharges than rectangular notch
and the same triangular notch can measure a wide range of flows accurately
Procedure:
1. I fixed the plate having a triangular notch in the water passage of hydraulic bench.
2. Then I turned the hydraulic bench “ON” and the water started accumulating in it &
when the water level reached the crest of the notch, stopped the inflow & noted the
height, let it be H1.
3. Then started the inflow, Noted the value and time for its accumulation, this gave the
discharge. Also noted the height of water level for discharge, Let it be H2.
4. Then H2-H1 gives the head over the notch.

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5. Also noted the angle of notch

6. I took different readings by changing the discharge, head over the notch and
tabulated flow
Precautions:
1. The amount of water should be added very carefully.
2. The stopwatch reading must come in zero after each reading.
3. Different readings should be taken for different discharge.
Triangular Notch Calculation

Q act Qth
S/n Volume Time H1 H2 H Cd
=8/15√2g
o (lit) (sec) (cm) (cm) (m) =Qact/Qth
Q(lit/s) Q(m3/s) tan(Ф/2)H5/2

1.
2.
3.

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Experiment No: 07
Development of Stage Discharge Relationship for an Open
Channel and its Extension
Theory:
• It is a graphical relationship of stage with flow rate at that stage.

• The stage-discharge relationship typically takes the form of a power law equation
(Equation 1).

• This stage-discharge relationship depends on the hydraulic characteristics of the

stream channel. Therefore, if the channel geometry changes as a result of erosion or
deposition, the rating curve needs to be updated. Because of this, it is best practice
to take stage measurements at a control structure (i.e. weirs and flumes) or stable
cross section (i.e. at bridges or where bedrock is confining the channel).
Additionally, it is important not to extrapolate the stage-discharge relationship for
data larger or smaller than discharges measured in the field that were used to create
your rating curve. The stage-discharge relationship could break down at these high
flows and lead you to inaccurately predict discharge from stage.

Apparatus:
• Tilting flume
• Point gauge

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Procedure
1) First of all connect the water pump with the external water supply on one end and
with the hydraulic flume by another end properly.
2) After setting up, start the water pump and allow the water to flow into the hydraulic
flume.
3) When the water reaches at some reasonable depth, measure the depth with the help
of point gauge and note the discharge from the attached display meter.
4) Now increase the flow of water and again measure the depth with the help of point
gauge and note the discharge as well.
5) Repeat the same process for 6 to 8 trails.

Observations
S# Curve fitting Curve fitting
Discharge Equation of
Depth perimeter perimeter
cusecs straight line
‘a’ ‘b’
1

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Experiment No: 08
Draw the Hydraulic Grade Lines, Energy Grade Line and its
Applications
Apparatus:
• Bernoulli’s theorem apparatus
• Stopwatch
• Hydraulic bench
Theory:
Bernoulli’s theorem states that “the total head of the liquid flowing between two points
remains constant provided there is no loss due to friction and no gain due to an application
of outside work between these two points.”
The total head (H) of a flowing liquid is made up of an elevation head or static head (Z),
pressure head (p/γ) and velocity head (v2/2g), mutually convertible into each other form.
P V2
H= + +Z
 2g
Thus, for section 1 and 2
P1 V12 P2 V2 2
+ + Z1 = + + Z2
 2g  2g
Vn 2 − V12  1
(vol ) 2 1 
= 8* 2 2 4 − 4
2g  gt Dn D1 
P2 P1 (vol ) 2  1 1 
= − 8* 2 2  4 − 4 
   gt  Dn D1 
Procedure:
1. Place the apparatus on the top of the bench and connect the hydraulic bench’s water
outlet to the test apparatus with the apparatus outlet control value open and the
apparatus discharge to the bench measuring tank.
2. Start the pump and slowly open the bench flow control valve to obtain a small flow
such as 5 L/m. Adjust the apparatus outlet control valve and top air chamber (by
means of a hand air pump) such that the water level in all tubes of the manometer
can be observed.
3. Adjust the flow rate to about 5 L/m and record.
4. Flow volume by the bench measuring tank.
5. Time for the flow by stopwatch.
6. Move the total head prob to be in line (vertical plane) with the manometer tapping
point# 01.

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7. Record Manometer readings for tube# 01 and 07(total head)

8. Repeat the procedure for point 02, 03, ……to the last tapping point
9. Repeat the above procedure for other flow rates such as 10, 15 and 20 L/m.

Fig 4: Bernoulli’s theorem apparatus

Bernoulli’s Theorem Verification Calculations

Volume: ……L, Time: ………. S, Flow Rate: ……….. L/s= ………….. L/m
Point no. Measured Static Theoretical diff. Theoretical Difference Actual total Head
head (p/γ)act cm vel. Head Static Head [Δ (p/γ)/( head(Tube Loss ΔHact
(Vn2-V12)/2g) cm (p/γ)thcm p/γ)th] *100 No.7 or next cm
to the last)
Hact cm
1
2
3
4
5
6

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Experiment No: 09
Measurements of Precipitation using Rain Gauge
Theory:
Symons Rain Gauge is most common type of rain gauge used by meteorological department.
It consists of a cylindrical vessel 127mm in diameter with a base enlarged to 210mm
diameter. At its top section, funnel is provided with circular brass rim which is 127mm
exactly so that it can fit into vessel well. This funnel shank is inserted in the neck of a
receiving bottle which is 75 to 100mm high from the base section and thinner than the
cylinder, placed into it to receive rainfall.

Symons Rain gauge with graduated glass of accuracy 0.1mm

A Receiving bottle has capacity of 100mm and during heavy rainfall, amount of rain is
frequently exceeded, so the reading should be measured 3 to 4 times in a day. Water
contained in this receiving bottle is measured by a graduated measuring glass with an
accuracy up to 0. 1mm.

Apparatus:
• Non recording rain gauge
• Stop watch
Procedure:
1. Find a clear plastic or glass container about 20 inches (50 cm) tall
2. Keep the rain gauge upright
3. Mark a scale on your rain gauge.
4. Find a level surface in an open area to place your rain gauge
5. Check your rain gauge every day to see how much rain has fallen in the previous 24
hours
6. Mark the amount of rainfall on a graph or chart.
7. Empty the rain gauge after each recording or remember to subtract the previous day's
reading to ensure accuracy.

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Observations:
Point no. Precipitation
Time Intensity
depth
Sec Depth/time
Mm
1
2
3

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Experiment No: 10
Measurement of Infiltration through Double Ring Infiltro-
Meter
Theory:
The double ring infiltrometer, wooden piece or something similar in order to drive the rings
into the soil, hammer, bucket, measuring jug, scissors, knife, stopwatch, equipment for
writing records, measuring tape, washcloth, and water.
Theory:
The double ring infiltrometer is a widely used method of infiltration test used in many
applications; i.e. design of land drainage pipes, design of sports surfaces, golf courses,
isolation layers of the communal waste, etc.The infiltrometer consists of two concentric
metal rings which are driven into the soil, and of a perforated metal plate.
Water is maintained at the same level in each cylinder, 25 mm above the soil surface, or
more if the water level is likely to be higher during irrigation. The water infiltrating from
the outer ring prevents lateral seepage by the water from the center cylinder. By measuring
the rate at which the water is added to the center cylinder, the infiltration rate can be found.

Procedure:
The measurement is taken in the inner cylinder; the outer cylinder is used only as a tool to
ensure that water from the inner cylinder will flow downwards and not laterally. The soil

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surface in the inner cylinder is covered by a perforated metal plate which is used in order
to dissipate the force of the applied water, to distribute water uniformly inside the ring and
to prevent disturbance of the soil surface.
Two nail points of different lengths are fixed to the metal plate. These nail points are used
for observation of decreasing water level during the infiltration. Both (inner and outer)
cylinders are driven into the soil (to a depth of 10-20 cm). It is recommended that the turf
around the rings' periphery is cut with a knife, the soil is then less disturbed by driving the
rings into it. The metal plate is placed on the soil surface in the inner cylinder, and water is
poured into both cylinders (the water level in the inner cylinder should reach the upper nail
point).
At this moment the stopwatch is started, and the time needed for the water level to drop
from the upper nail point to the lower nail point is measured and recorded. After this elapsed
time, a certain amount of water was infiltrated (in this case 500 cm3). When the water level
reaches the lower nail point, the time is recorded, and the same amount of water is poured
back from a prepared graduated bottle (500 cm3) (watch the video to see this procedure).
The water level in the outer cylinder is kept at the same level as the water level in the inner
cylinder.
URL:
http://hydropedologie.agrobiologie.cz/en-dvouvalec.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PYvfTxQhbOQ

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Experiment No: 11
Development of Runoff Hydrograph from a Catchment Area
Objective:
To investigate the effect of slope of the impermeable catchment area on the runoff
hydrographs for long-duration storm
Apparatus:
Basic Hydrology Unit

Procedure:
1. Adjust the catchment slope to about 2%.
2. Cover the catchment surface with a plastic sheet trimmed to fit the catchment area.
The catchment now has an impermeable surface (such as urban area).
3. Start the pump and rain at the same rate as before with the same Tr > Tc for
impermeable catchment.
4. Measure the runoff vs time and plot the hydrograph .
5. The hydrograph obtained is that for long-duration storm Tr > Tc on “impermeable”
catchment.
6. Compare the obtained hydrograph with “impermeable” catchment slope (0.5%)

Observation:

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Discharge Time Peak value

Point no.
Cusecs Sec cumecs

1
2
3

Graph

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Experiment No: 12
Drawing Specific Energy Curve for a Trapezoidal Channel
Specific Energy:
‘The energy per pound of water at any section of a channel measured with respect to the
channel bottom is called specific energy.’
OR
‘Specific energy is the total energy per unit weight of flowing fluid taking channel bottom
as datum.’
Taking datum Z=0 as the bottom of the channel, the specific energy E is the sum of depth
of flow (y) and the velocity head (v2/2g). i.e;
E = y + v2/2g
Since v=Q/A, so;
E = y + Q2/2gA2

Specific Energy Curve:

When the depth of the flow is plotted against specific energy for a given channel, the
curve/graph which is obtained is known as specific energy curve.

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Minimum Specific Energy:

‘The point at which the critical depth coincides with the graph is known as minimum specific
energy.’
Critical depth:
‘The critical depth is mathematically represented by the ratio of the fluid velocity to the
velocity of a small amplitude gravity wave. This ratio is called Froude’s number.’
Fr2 = v2/gy
The critical depth has a Froude’s number equal to 1 and corresponds to the minimum energy
a flow can possess for a given discharge.
When Fr=1 ; Critical depth
When Fr<1 ; Sub- critical depth
When Fr>1 ; super- critical depth

Sub-critical Flow:
If the depth of water in the channel is greater than the critical depth, the flow is called sub
critical or streaming flow.
Sub-critical flow has low potential energy and high kinetic energy.
Critical flow:
If the depth of water in the channel is critical, the flow is called a critical flow.
Super-critical flow:
If the depth of water in the channel is less than the critical depth, the flow is called super
critical, rapid, or shooting flow.
Super-critical flow has high potential energy and low kinetic energy.

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Critical velocity:
The velocity at which the specific energy is minimum and having critical depth is known as
Critical velocity.
Assumptions:
Following assumptions should be kept in mind for the specific energy curve.
1. Flow of water is uniform.
2. Longitudinal slope of channel is small i.e 1/50,000.
3. Velocity distribution is uniform.

Data and calculations:

The various formulas used in calculations are;
1) Velocity= distance/ time
2) Area of the channel= depth of the flow * width of the channel
3) Discharge= Area * velocity
4) Specific Energy= E= y + Q2/2gA2
All units are in SI system.

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S.no Width Depth Area Distance Time Velocity Discharge Specific

w y (m) A(m2) s (m) t V=s/t q=a*v Energy
(m) (sec) (m/sec) (m3/sec) (m)
1 0.3048 0.0127 0.0039 0.889 9.42 0.1 0.00039 0.5
2 0.3048 0.028 0.0085 0.889 2.26 0.4 0.0034 0.4
3 0.3048 0.046 0.0139 0.889 1.83 0.5 0.00695 0.3
4 0.3048 0.066 0.0201 0.889 1.73 0.5 0.01005 0.3
5 0.3048 0.086 0.0263 0.889 1.5 0.6 0.01578 0.2
6 0.3048 0.086 0.0263 0.889 1.47 0.6 0.01578 0.2
7 0.3048 0.086 0.0263 0.889 1.37 0.6 0.01578 0.2
8 0.3048 0.109 0.0332 0.889 1.31 0.7 0.02324 0.3
9 0.3048 0.117 0.0356 0.889 1.12 0.8 0.02848 0.4
10 0.3048 0.129 0.0394 0.889 1.1 0.8 0.03152 0.4
11 0.3048 0.137 0.0418 0.889 1.08 0.8 0.03344 0.5
12 0.3048 0.152 0.0464 0.889 0.9 1 0.0464 0.6
13 0.3048 0.162 0.0495 0.889 0.88 1 0.0495 0.7

Mean Discharge = 0.021593 m3/sec

Now as the specific energy curve is between depth and Energy, so the values of y and E
are;
Energy (E) Depth (m)
0.5 0.0127
0.4 0.028
0.3 0.046
0.3 0.066
0.2 0.086
0.2 0.086
0.2 0.086
0.3 0.109
0.4 0.117
0.4 0.129
0.5 0.137
0.6 0.152
0.7 0.162

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Results:

From the graph, we noted that;

Critical depth (yc) = 0.088 m
Critical velocity (vc) = 0.6 m/s
Minimum Specific Energy (Emin) = 0.2 m

Theoretical calculations:
1. Minimum Specific Energy:
As,
Emin = 3/2 (yc)
= 1.5 (0.088) since, yc = 0.088
= 0.132 m (which is almost near to the actual value i.e 0.2 m)
2. Critical Depth:
As,
yc = (q2/g)1/3
since, q = Q/b
As, mean discharge= 0.021593 m3/sec and b= 0.3048 m so;
q= 0.021593/0.3048
= 0.07084 m2/sec
Now

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yc = (0.070842/9.8)1/3
= 0.08 m (which is almost same as that of actual value i.e, 0.088 m)
Critical Velocity:
As Fr= 1, so;
Vc = [g(yc)]1/2
= [9.8(0.088)]1/2
= 0.9287 m/sec
While that of actual velocity is almost 0.6 m/sec.
The actual value of Vc is less than theoretical value because.
1. In our calculations, we have used floating method for finding critical velocity which is
not so much accurate method. While for theoretical calculations, the apparatus used for
calculations is current meter method which is most accurate method.
2. Another reason for the error is that of not having controlled environment while in
theoretical calculations there is controlled environment.

Conclusion:
1. For any depth more than critical depth (sub-critical depth), the velocity will
decrease.
2. For any depth less than critical depth (super-critical depth), the velocity will
increase.
3. The Specific Energy increases above and below the critical depth.
4. As discharge increases, the Specific Energy curves move to the upper right portion.

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Experiment No: 13
Experimental Study of Water Surface Profile in Open Channel
Theory:
• For a given channel with a known Q = Discharge, n = Manning coefficient, and So =
channel bed slope, yc = critical water depth and yo = uniform flow depth can be
computed.

• There are three possible relations between yo and yc as

1) yo > yc ,
2) yo < yc ,
3) yo = yc .

❑ The slope of the channel bed is very important in determining the

characteristics of the flow.

Let
• S0 : the slope of the channel bed ,
• Sc : the critical slope or the slope of the channel that sustains a given discharge (Q)
as uniform flow at the critical depth (yc).
• yn is the normal depth when the discharge Q flows as uniform flow on slope S0.
The slope of the channel bed can be classified as:

1) Critical Slope C : the bottom slope of the channel is equal to the critical slope.

S0 = Sc or yn = yc

2) Mild Slope M : the bottom slope of the channel is less than the critical slope.

S0 < Sc or yn > yc

3) Steep Slope S : the bottom slope of the channel is greater than the critical slope.

S0 > Sc or yn < yc

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4) Horizontal Slope H : the bottom slope of the channel is equal to zero.

S0 = 0.0

5) Adverse Slope A : the bottom slope of the channel rises in the direction of the flow
(slope is opposite to direction of flow).

S0 = negative

Classification of Flow Profiles (water surface profiles)

• The surface curves of water are called flow profiles (or water surface profiles).

• The shape of water surface profiles is mainly determined by the slope of the channel
bed So.

• For a given discharge, the normal depth yn and the critical depth yc may be calculated.
Then the following steps are followed to classify the flow profiles:

1 A line parallel to the channel bottom with a height of yn is drawn and is designated
as the normal depth line (N.D.L.)
2 A line parallel to the channel bottom with a height of ycis drawn and is designated
as the critical depth line (C.D.L.)
The vertical space in a longitudinal section is divided into 3 zones using the two lines
drawn in steps 1 & 2

4- Depending upon the zone and the slope of the bed, the water profiles are classified into

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12 types as follows:

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Flow Profiles in Mild slope

Flow Profiles in Steep slope

Flow Profiles in Critical slope

Flow Profiles in Horizontal slope

Flow Profiles in Adverse slope

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Water Profile Computations (Gradually Varied Flow)

• Engineers often require to know the distance up to which a surface profile of a gradually
varied flow will extend.
• To accomplish this, we must integrate the dynamic equation of gradually varied flow,
so to obtain the values of y at different locations of x along the channel bed.
• The figure below gives a sketch of calculating the M1 curve over a given weir.

Direct Step Method

• One of the most important method used to compute the water profiles is the direct step
method.
• In this method, the channel is divided into short intervals and the computation of surface
profiles is carried out step by step from one section to another.
For prismatic channels:
Consider a short length of channel, dx, as shown in the figure.

The following steps summarize the direct step method:

1. Calculate the specific energy at section where depth is known.
For example, at section 1-1, find E1, where the depth is known (y1). This section is usually
a control section.
2. Calculate the specific energy (E2) at section 2-2 for the assumed depth (y2).

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3. Calculate the slope of the energy line (Sf) at sections 1-1 and 2-2 using pitot tube
(difference of the velocity head values divided by the length between points)
4. Compute the length of the curve between section 1-1 and 2-2

5. Now, we know the depth at section 2-2, assume the depth at the next section, say 3-3.
Then repeat the procedure to find the length L2,3.
6. Repeating the procedure, the total length of the curve may be obtained.
Thus
L = L1, 2 + L2,3 +....... + Ln-1,n
Where (n-1) is the number of intervals, into which the channel is divided.

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