Chapter 1: Cell Structure and Organization

1. Cell Theory:
o All living organisms are made of cells.
o Cells are the basic unit of life.
o New cells arise from existing cells.
2. Cell Types:
o Prokaryotic cells: No nucleus, e.g., bacteria.
o Eukaryotic cells: Contain nucleus and organelles, e.g., animal and plant cells.
3. Detailed Structure of Cells:
o Nucleus: Contains chromatin (DNA + protein) and nucleolus (site of ribosome
production).
o Cytoplasm: Gel-like substance containing organelles.
o Cell membrane: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
o Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, site of aerobic respiration.
o Ribosomes: Site of protein synthesis (free-floating or on the rough ER).
o Endoplasmic reticulum:
 Rough ER: Has ribosomes, involved in protein synthesis.
 Smooth ER: Lipid synthesis, detoxification.
o Golgi apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins.
o Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes, break down waste.
o Chloroplasts (in plant cells): Contain chlorophyll, site of photosynthesis.
o Vacuoles:
 Large in plant cells (stores water, maintains turgor pressure).
 Small in animal cells (storage).
o Cell wall (plants): Provides rigidity, made of cellulose.
4. Cell Specialization:
o Red blood cells: Biconcave shape, no nucleus, contains hemoglobin for oxygen
transport.
o Root hair cells: Elongated shape, large surface area for water and mineral
absorption.
o Ciliated cells: Found in respiratory tract, move mucus.
o Nerve cells: Long and branched, transmit electrical impulses.

Chapter 2: Movement in and out of Cells

1. Diffusion:
o Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration until equilibrium is reached.
o Factors affecting diffusion:
 Temperature, concentration gradient, surface area, and distance.
o Examples:
 Gas exchange in alveoli.
 Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide in leaves.
 2. Osmosis:
o The movement of water molecules across a partially permeable membrane from
an area of higher water potential to an area of lower water potential.
o Effect of osmosis on cells:
 Animal cells: May burst (lysis) in hypotonic solutions, shrink (crenation)
in hypertonic solutions.
 Plant cells: Turgid in hypotonic solutions, flaccid, or plasmolyzed in
hypertonic solutions.
o Examples:
 Water uptake in plant roots.
 Osmosis in kidney tubules during filtration.
3. Active Transport:
o Movement of molecules against a concentration gradient using energy from ATP.
o Examples:
 Absorption of glucose and amino acids in the small intestine.
 Mineral uptake in plant roots (e.g., nitrate ions).
4. Endocytosis and Exocytosis:
o Endocytosis: Process of taking in materials by engulfing them in the cell
membrane.
o Exocytosis: Releasing substances outside the cell by vesicles fusing with the
membrane.

Chapter 3: Enzymes

1. Enzymes as Biological Catalysts:

o Lower the activation energy for biochemical reactions.
o Remain unchanged after the reaction.
2. Structure of Enzymes:
o Protein structure with a specific active site where the substrate binds.
o Substrate: The molecule on which an enzyme acts.
o Enzyme-substrate complex: Temporary complex formed when an enzyme binds
to its substrate.
3. Mechanism of Action:
o Lock-and-key hypothesis: Enzyme's active site has a specific shape that fits the
substrate.
o Induced fit model: Active site molds itself around the substrate for a tighter fit.
4. Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity:
o Temperature:
 Enzymes have an optimal temperature (usually 37°C in humans).
 Too high temperatures lead to denaturation (loss of shape and function).
o pH:
 Each enzyme has an optimal pH (e.g., pepsin works best in acidic
conditions, amylase in neutral conditions).
o Substrate concentration:
  As substrate concentration increases, the reaction rate increases until
saturation is reached.
o Enzyme inhibitors:
 Competitive inhibitors: Compete with substrate for active site.
 Non-competitive inhibitors: Bind elsewhere on the enzyme and change
its shape.
5. Applications of Enzymes:
o Biological washing powders (contain proteases and lipases).
o Food industry (e.g., pectinase for fruit juice extraction).

Chapter 4: Biological Molecules

1. Carbohydrates:
o Monosaccharides: Single sugar units (e.g., glucose).
o Disaccharides: Two sugar units (e.g., sucrose).
o Polysaccharides:
 Starch: Energy storage in plants.
 Glycogen: Energy storage in animals.
 Cellulose: Structural component of plant cell walls.
o Test for starch: Iodine solution turns blue-black.
2. Proteins:
o Structure: Made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
o Functions: Enzymes, antibodies, transport (hemoglobin), structural components
(keratin).
o Test for proteins: Biuret test turns purple.
3. Lipids:
o Structure: Glycerol and fatty acids.
o Functions: Long-term energy storage, insulation, protection of organs.
o Test for fats: Emulsion test turns milky.
4. Water:
o Essential for life: Solvent, medium for reactions, temperature regulation.

Chapter 5: Plant Nutrition

1. Photosynthesis:
o Equation: 6CO2+6H2O+light→C6H12O6+6O26CO_2 + 6H_2O + light \
rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_26CO2+6H2O+light→C6H12O6+6O2.
o Occurs in chloroplasts (chlorophyll absorbs light).
o Stages:
 Light-dependent reactions (splitting of water to release oxygen).
 Light-independent reactions (carbon fixation to produce glucose).
2. Limiting Factors:
 o Light intensity: More light increases rate up to a point.
o Carbon dioxide concentration: Higher concentrations increase photosynthesis.
o Temperature: Optimum temperature for enzyme activity.
3. Leaf Structure:
o Cuticle: Reduces water loss.
o Upper epidermis: Transparent to let light through.
o Palisade mesophyll: Contains most chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
o Spongy mesophyll: Gas exchange.
o Stomata: Allow CO₂ entry and O₂ exit.
4. Mineral Requirements:
o Nitrate ions: Needed for protein synthesis.
o Magnesium ions: Required for chlorophyll production.

Chapter 6: Animal Nutrition

1. Components of a Balanced Diet:

o Carbohydrates: Energy source.
o Proteins: Growth and repair.
o Fats: Energy storage, insulation.
o Vitamins and minerals: Various functions (e.g., Vitamin C for immunity).
o Water: Hydration.
o Fiber: Aids digestion.
2. Human Digestive System:
o Mouth: Mechanical digestion (chewing) and chemical digestion (amylase).
o Esophagus: Peristalsis moves food to stomach.
o Stomach: Protease (pepsin) breaks down proteins, hydrochloric acid kills
bacteria.
o Small intestine:
 Duodenum: Pancreatic enzymes break down carbohydrates, proteins, and
fats.
 Ileum: Absorption of nutrients via villi.
o Large intestine: Absorbs water, forms feces.
3. Digestive Enzymes:
o Amylase: Starch to maltose.
o Protease: Proteins to amino acids.
o Lipase: Fats to fatty acids and glycerol.
4. Absorption in the Small Intestine:
o Villi and microvilli increase surface area for absorption.
o Glucose and amino acids absorbed into blood capillaries.
o Fats absorbed into lacteals.