12.

Electromagnetic Induction

Can you recall?

1. What is the force experienced by a moving

charge in a magnetic field?
2. What is the torque experienced by a
current carrying loop kept in a magnetic
field?
3. What is the magnetic dipole moment of a
Fig. 12.1: A bar magnet approaching a closed
current carrying coil?
circuit consisting of a coil and galvanometer (G).
4. What is the flux of a vector field through
ii) When the magnet is taken away from the
a given area?
closed circuit a current is again produced
12.1 Introduction: but in the opposite direction with respect
So far, we have focussed our attention to that in experiment (i).
on the generation of electric fields by iii) If instead of the magnet, the coil is moved
stationary charges and magnetic fields by towards the magnet or away from it, an
moving charges. During the early decades of induced current is produced in the coil
nineteenth century, Oersted, Ampere and a
(i.e., in the closed circuit).
few others established the fact that electricity
iv) If the polarity of approaching or receding
and magnetism are inter-related. A question
magnet is changed the direction of induced
was then naturally raised whether the converse
current in the coil is also changed.
effect of – the moving electric charges produce
v) The magnitude of induced current
magnetic fields – was possible? That is, can we
depends on the relative speed of the coil
produce electric current by moving magnets?
with respect to magnet. It also depends
In 1831, Faraday in England performed
a series of experiments in connection with upon the number of turns in the coil.
the generation of electric current by means vi) The induced current exists so long as there
of magnetic flux. In the same year Joseph is a relative motion between the coil and
Henry (1799-1878) demonstrated that electric magnet.
currents were indeed produced in closed
circuits or coils when subjected to time-
varying magnetic fields. The outcome of these
experiments led to a very basic and important
law of electromagnetism known as Faraday's
law of induction. An electromotive force (emf)
and, therefore, a current can be induced in
various processes that involve a change in Fig. 12.2: Two coils with their planes
facing each other.
magnetic flux. The experimental observations
vii) Instead of a magnet and a closed circuit,
of Faraday are summarized as given below:
two coils with their planes facing each
i) When a magnet approaches a closed
other (Fig. 12.2) also produce similar
circuit consisting of a coil (Fig. 12.1), it
produces a current in it. This current is effects as mentioned above in experiments
known as induced current. from (i) to (vi). One coil is connected
265
 in series with a battery, rheostat and This law is a qualitative law as it only
key while the ends of the other coil are indicates the characteristics of induced emf.
connected to a galvanometer (G). The Second law: The magnitude of induced emf
coil which consists of a source of emf (a produced in the circuit is directly proportional
battery) is termed as primary coil while to the rate of change of magnetic flux
the other as secondary coil. With these linked with the circuit. This law is known as
two coils, following observations are quantitative law as it gives the magnitude of
made: induced emf.
(i) When the circuit in the primary coil is If f is the magnetic flux linked with the
closed or broken, a momentary deflection coil at any instant t, then the induced emf.
is produced in the galvanometer at d --- (12.1)
e
the time of make or break. When the dt
circuit is closed or broken the directions d
eK , K is constant of proportionality.
of deflection in the galvanometer are dt
If e, f , and t are measured in the same
opposite to each other.
system of units, K = 1.
(ii) When there is a relative motion between d
the two coils (with their circuits closed), e  --- (12.2)
dt
an induced current is produced in the If we combine this expression with the
secondary coil but it exists so long as there Lenz's law (next article) , we get
is a relative motion between the coils. d
e --- (12.3)
(iii) Whenever the current in the primary coil dt
If f ' is the flux associated with single
is changed (either increased or decreased)
by sliding the rheostat-jockey, a deflection turn, then the total magnetic flux f for a coil
is produced in the galvanometer. This consisting of n turns, is
indicates the presence of induced current. f =n f'
d 
The induced current exists so long as there  e  n --- (12.4)
dt
is a change of current in the primary coil. This is also known as 'flux rule' according
The above observations indicate that so to which the emf is equal to the rate at which
long as there is a change of magnetic flux the magnetic flux through a conducting circuit
(produced either by means of a magnet or is changing.
by a current carrying coil) inside a coil, df
In SI units e is measured in volt and
an induced emf is produced. The direction is measured in weber/s. dt
of induced emf reverses if instead of We have already learnt while studying the
increasing the flux, the flux is decreased magnetic effect of current that the charges in
or vice versa. motion (or current) can exert force/torque on a
12.2 Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic stationary magnet (compass meedle). Now we
Induction: On the basis of experimental have observed in Faraday's experiments that
evidences, Faraday enunciated following laws a bar magnet in motion (or a time- varying
concerning electromagnetic induction. magnetic field) can exert a force on the
First law: Whenever there is a change of stationary charges inside the conductor and
magnetic flux in a closed circuit, an induced causes an induced emf across the ends of the
emf is produced in the circuit. Also, if a conductor (open circuit)/or generates induced
conductor cuts the lines of magnetic field, an current in a closed circuit.
e.mf. is induced between its ends.
266
12.3 Lenz's Law: clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 12.3.
H.F.E. Lenz (1804-1864) without If the magnet is pulled away from the
knowledge of the work of Michael Faraday loop, a current will again be induced in the
and Joseph Henry duplicated many of their loop in such a way that the loop will have a
discoveries independently almost at the same south pole facing the retreating north pole and
time. will oppose the retreat by attracting it. The
For determining the direction of an induced current in the loop will now flow in
induced current in a loop, Lenz devised a clockwise direction.
rule, which goes by his name as Lenz's Law.
Jumping Ring Experiment: A coil is
According to this rule, the direction of induced
wound around an iron core which is held
current in a circuit is such that the magnetic vertically upright. A metallic ring is placed
field produced by the induced current opposes on top of the iron core. A current is then
the change in the magnetic flux that induces switched on to pass through the coil. This
the current. The direction of induced emf is will make the ring jump several meters in
same as that of induced current. In short, the air.
induced emf tends to set up a current the action Explanation: Before the current in the coil
of which opposes the change that causes it. is turned on, the magnetic flux through the
Applications of Lenz's law: ring is zero. Afterwards, the flux appears in
12.3.1 Motion of a Magnet Toward a Loop: the coil in upward direction. This change
In order to get a feel for Lenz's law, let in flux causes an induced emf and induced
us consider a north pole of a magnet moving current as well in the ring. The direction of
toward a conducting loop as shown in the Fig. induced current in the ring will be opposite
to the direction of current in the coil, as
12.3.
dictated by Lenz’s law. As the opposite
currents repel, the ring flies off in air.
12.3.2 Energy Conservation in Lenz's Law:
We have learnt that the cause of the
induced current may be either (i) the motion
of a conductor (wire) in a magnetic field or
(ii) the change of magnetic flux through a
stationary circuit.
Fig. 12.3: Magnet's motion creates a magnetic In the first case, the direction of induced
dipole in the coil. current in the moving conductor (wire) is
As the magnet is moved toward the loop, such that the direction of the thrust exerted on
a current is induced in the loop. The induced the conductor (wire) by the magnetic field is
current in the loop produces a magnetic dipole. opposite to the direction of its motion and thus
The dipole is oriented in such a way that it opposes the motion of the conductor.
opposes the motion of the magnet. Thus the In the second case, the current sets up a
loop's north pole must face the approaching magnetic field of its own which within the area
north pole of the magnet so as to repel it. bounded by the circuit is
The curled right-hand (RH) rule for magnetic (a) opposite to the original magnetic field if
dipole or magnetic field will provide the this field is increasing; but
direction of induced current in the loop. The (b) in the same direction as the original field,
induced current in the loop will be in counter if the field is decreasing.
267
 Thus it is the 'change in flux' through the The screw driver rule fixes the positive
circuit (not the flux itself), which is opposed by sense of circulation around the loop as the
the induced current. clockwise direction.
Lenz's law follows directly from the As the sense of the induced current in the
conservation of energy. If an induced current loop is counter clockwise (negative), the sense
flows in a circuit in such a direction that it of induced emf also is negative (-ve). That
helps the cause that produces it, then we will is, the LHS of Eq. (12.5) is indeed a negative
soon find that the induced current and the (-ve) quantity in order to be equal to the RHS.
magnetic flux penetrating the loop would lead Thus the negative (-ve) sign in the
to an infinite growth. The induced current d
once started flowing in the loop would keep equation e   incorporates Lenz's law
dt
increasing indefinitely producing joule heating into Faraday's law.
at no extra cost and thus be self-sustaining 12.4 Flux of the Field:
(perpetual motion machine). This will violate The concept of flux of the magnetic field
the law of conservation of energy. We thus see is vital to our understanding of Faraday's law.
that Lenz's law is a necessary consequence of As shown in Fig. 12.4
the law of conservation of energy.  (a), consider a
small element of area da . A direction is
The opposing sense of the induced current
assigned to this element of area such that if
is one manifestation of a general statement of
the curve bounding the area is traversed in the
Lenz's law: "Every effect of induction acts in
direction of the arrow then the normal comes
opposition to the cause that produces it"
In order to have an induced current, we out of the plane of paper towards the reader.
must have a closed circuit. If a conductor is not In other words it is the direction in which right
forming a closed circuit we mentally construct handed screw will move if rotated in the sense
a circuit between the two ends of the conductor/ of the arrow on the curve.
wire and use Lenz's law to determine the
direction of induced current. Then the polarity
of the ends of the open-circuited conductor can
be found easily.
12.3.3 Lenz's Law and Faraday's Law:
Consider Faraday's law with special (a) (b)
attention to the negative (-ve) sign. 
d . Fig. 12.4: (a) Small element of area da bounded
e
dt  by a curve considered in anticlockwise direction.
Consider that area vector A of the loop (Right-handed screw Rule), (b) Finite surface

perpendicular to the plane of the loop is fixed area S . 
 oriented parallel ( θ= 0) to magnetic field
and Suppose the element
 of area da is situated
B . The magnetic field B increases with time. in a magnetic field
 B.Then the scalar quantity
  
Using the definition of flux, the Faraday' d φ = B . da = | B |. | da
 | cos θ --- (12.6)

law can be written as is called the flux of B through the area da

   d B where θ is the angle between the direction of
d --- (12.5)
e   ( B  A)   | A | magneticfield

B and the direction assigned to
dt dt 
∴ RHS = -ve quantity as | A | is positive the area da .
dB This can be generalised
 to define the flux
and is positive (+ve) as B is increasing over a finite area S . It should
dt  be remembered
with time. that the magnetic field B will not be the
268
same at different points within the finite resistance in the wire so that the induced
area. Therefore the  area is divided into small currents are very small producing negligible
sections of area da so as to calculate the flux magnetic field.
over each section and then to integrate over the As the flux f through the frame ABCD
entire area (Fig. 12.3 (b)) is Blx, magnitude of the induced emf can be
Thus, theflux written as
 passing through S is
   B  da --- (12.7)
S 
We can not take  B out of the integral in
 (12.6) unless B is the same everywhere in
Eq.
S.
If the magnetic field at every point
changes with time as well, then the flux f will
also change withtime.
   ( t )   B ( t )  da --- (12.8)
S Fig. 12.5:
 A frame of wire ABCD in magnetic
Faraday's discovery was that the rate of field B . Wire BC is moving with velocity v
along x- axis.
change of flux  d  is related to the work
 dt 
  d d dx
done to take a unit positive charge around | e |  ( Blx )  Bl  Blv ,--- (12.10)
the contour C [Fig. 12.4 (b)] in the 'reverse' dt dt dt
direction. This work done is just the emf. where v is the velocity of wire BC
Accordingly, Faraday's law states that the increasing the length x of wires AB and CD.
induced emf can be written as Now we can understand the above result
d d  
--- (12.9) from the magnetic forces on the charges in the
e    B ( t )  da
dt dt S moving wire BC.
In S.I. units the emf, e will be in volt, the A charge q which is carried along by the
flux f in weber and time t in second. moving
  wire
 BC, experiences Lorentz force
 From Eq. (12.9) we can see that even if F  q( v  B ) ; which is perpendicular to both
 
B does not change with time, flux may still B and hence is parallel to wire BC. The
v and 
vary if the area S changes with time. force F is constant along the length l of the
12.5 Motional Electromotive Force: wire BC (as v and B are constant) and zero
a) Translational motion of a conductor: elsewhere (... v = 0 for stationary part CDAB
As shown in Fig. 12.5, a C shaped frame of wire frame). When the charge q moves a
of wires ABCD of area  (l x) is situated in a distance l along the wire, the work done by the
constant magnetic field ( B ) BC is conducting Lorentz force is W = F.l=
wire that slides on the frame parallel to AD.  qvBsinθ .l, where
θ is the angle between B and v . The emf
As the wire
 BC of length l is moved out with generated is work/ charge i.e.,
velocity v to increase x the area of  the loop W
ABCD increases. Thus the flux of B through e  vB sin   l --- (12.11)
q
the loop increases with time. According to the For maximum induced emf, sin θ = 1
'Flux Rule' the induced emf will be equal to
emax = Blv --- (12.12)
the rate at which the magnetic flux through a
which is the same result as obtained in
conducting circuit is changing as stated in Eq.
Eq. (12.10) derived from the rate of change of
(12.9). The induced emf will cause a current
in the loop. It is assumed that there is enough flux.

269
 In general, it can be proved that for any By imagining all such segments as a
circuit whose parts move in a fixed magnetic source of emf, we can find that all these
field, the induced emf is the time derivative of segments are in series and, therefore, the emfs
flux ( φ ) regardless of the shape of the circuit. of individual segments will be added.
The flux rule is also applicable in case Now we know that the induced emf de in
of a wire loop that is kept stationary and the small segment dr of the rotating conductor.
the magnetic field is changed. The Lorentz de = B v dr
force
 onthe electrical
 charges is given by Total induced emf in rotating rod
F = q ( E  v  B ) . There are no new special e   de   Bvdr
forces due to changing magnetic fields.
l
Any force on charges at  rest in a stationary
e   B rdr  B  rdr
wire comes from the E -term. Faraday's 0
observations led to the discovery that electric 2
l
and magnetic fields are related by a new law:  B
2
In a region where magnetic field is changing
1
with time, electric fields are generated. It is e B l 2 --- (12.13)
2
this electric field which drives the electrons Compare the above result with the induced
around the conductor circuit and as such is emf in sliding bar, e = Blv.
responsible for the induced emf in a stationary
12.6 Induced emf in a Stationary Coil in a
circuit whenever there is a changing magnetic
Changing Magnetic Field:
flux.
As shown in Fig. 12.7 (a) in a magnet-coil
The flux rule holds good so long as the
change in the magnetic flux is due to the system, a permanent bar magnet is mounted
changes in magnetic field or due to the motion on an arc of a semicircle of radius 50 cm. The
of the circuit or both. arc is a part of a rigid frame of aluminium and
b) Motional emf in a rotating bar: is suspended at the centre of arc so that whole
A rotating bar is different in nature from system can oscillate freely in its plane. A coil
the sliding bar. As shown in Fig. 12.6, consider of about 10,000 turns of copper wire loop the
a small segment dr of the bar at a distance r arc so that the bar magnet can pass through the
from the pivot. It is a short length dr of the  coil freely.
conductor which is moving with velocity v When the magnet moves through the coil,
in magnetic field B and has an induced emf the magnetic flux through the coil changes.
generated in it like a sliding bar. In order to measure the induced emf, a
capacitor (C) and diode (D) are connected
across the coil (Fig. 12.7 (b)) The induced
emf produced in the coil is used for charging
a capacitor through a diode. Then the voltage
developed across the capacitor is measured.
The capacitor may not get charged upto the
peak value in a single swing as the time-
constant (RC) may be larger than the time
during which the emf in the coil is generated.
Fig. 12.6: A conducting bar rotating around This may take about a few oscillations to
a pivot at one end in a uniform magnetic field
charge the capacitor to the peak value and is
that is perpendicular to the plane of rotation. A
rotational emf is induced between the ends of indicated by the ammeter (mA) which will tell
the bar. us when the charging current ceases to flow.
270
 As the magnet, kept in the middle of the The centre of the hump 'bcde' refers to the
arc (Fig. 12.7 (a)), starts far away from the coil time when the magnet is inside the coil. The
moves through it and recedes, the magnetic flat portion (cd) at the top corresponds to the
field /flux through the coil changes from a finite length of the magnet. The magnetic flux
small value, increases to its maximum and ( φ ) is related to magnetic field (B) through a
becomes small again thus inducing an emf. constant (effective area = No. of turns × area
Actually, there is substantial magnetic field at of coil).
the coil only when it is very near the magnet. Now, the induced emf is proportional to
The speed of the magnet is largest when d φ /dt, that is to the slope of the curve in Fig.
it approaches the coil (placed at the mean 12.7 (c). As the slope of the curve is largest at
position of the oscillation). Thus the magnetic times t1 and t2, the magnitude of induced emf
field changes quite slowly with time when will be largest at these times. But Lenz's law
the magnet is far away and changes rapidly gives minus sign (-) in Eq. 12.3
when it approaches
 the coil. The variation of  d 
magnetic field B (at the coil in mean position)  e   dt  , which means that emf (e)
 
with time is shown in Fig. 12.7 (c). is 'negative' when φ is increasing at t1 and
'positive' when φ is decreasing at time t2. This
is shown in Fig. 12.7 (d) relating induced emf
(e) with time (t).
Remember the sequence of two pulses;
one 'negative' and one 'positive' occurs during
just half a cycle of motion of the magnet. On
the return swing of the magnet, they will be
Fig. 12.7 (a): Magnet-coil system. repeated (which one will be repeated first, the
'negative' or 'positive' pulse?).
Now we consider the effect of these pulses
on the charging circuit (Fig. 12.7 (b)) The diode
will conduct only during the 'positive' pulse. At
the first half swing, the capacitor will charge
up to a potential, say e1. During the next half
swing, the diode will be cut off until 'positive'
pulse is produced and then the capacitor will
Fig. 12.7 (b): Measurement of induced emf.
charge upto a slightly higher potential, say e2.
(c) This will continue for a few oscillations till the
capacitor charges upto its peak value eo by the
voltage/ emf pulse. At this stage ammeter will
show no kick (further increase) in the current
of the circuit.
(d) In order to have an estimate of eo, the
equation for induced emf can be written as
d d d
e    --- (12.14)
dt d dt
The first term depends on the geometry of
 the magnet and the coil. At θ = 0, the mean
Fig. 12.7: (c) Variation of B with time t, (d) position, we have maximum φ . But we are
variation of e with time t.
271
  d 
interested in  d  ,
which is actually zero at ∴e= N⋅ d(BA)/dt
 
θ = 0. The second term dθ can be deduced =N⋅A⋅(dB/dt) (as A is constant and B is
dt
from the oscillation equation. changing with time)
θ = θ 0 sin 2πvt, θ 0 being the amplitude of =N⋅A⋅(∆B / ∆t) = N⋅A⋅ (Bfinal−Binitial / ∆t)
oscillating magnet. Inserting the given values of N=400, A =
1
frequency  v   (20 cm)2 = (0.2 m)2, Bfinal = 0.5 T, Binitial = 0,
time period (T ) ∆t = 0.8 s
θ = θ 0 sin 2π t we find the induced emf
T
d 2  2  e= 400⋅(0.20 m)2 (0.5 T)/0.8 s
   0 cos t
dt T  T  = 10 Volt
d 2 0 2 t Example 12.2 : A long solenoid S, as
 cos --- (12.15) shown in the figure has 200 turns/cm and
dt T T
The peak voltage (emf) e0 in the induced carries a current i of 1.4 A. The diameter D
 d  of the solenoid is 3 cm. A coil C, having 100
emf pulse corresponds to   . turns and diameter d of 2 cm is kept coaxial
 dt  max
We can see from Fig. 12.7 (c) that to the solenoid. The current in the solenoid
 d   is decreased steadily to zero in 20 ms.
 d  occurs at positions near the mean Calculate the magnitude of emf induced in
  max
position. In Eq. 12.15, the cosine term does not the coil C when the current in the solenoid is
changing.
differ much from unity for very small angles
(close to zero).
Hence we conclude that
 d   d   2 0 
e0       
 dt  max  d  max  T  --- (12.16)
For given magnet-coil system, the peak induced
emf e0 is directly proportional to angular
amplitude ( θ 0 ) and inversely proportional to
time period (T).
Example 12.1: A coil consists of 400
turns of wire. Each turn is a square of side Solution: Part of magnetic flux (per turn) of
d = 20 cm. A uniform magnetic field directed the solenoid S that links with the coil C is
perpendicular to the plane of the coil is π d2c
φc= µ0 nsi
turned on. If the field changes linearly from 4
This flux reduces to zero in dt =20ms. Thus,
0 to 0.50 T in 0.8 s, what is the magnitude
the emf induced in coil C of Nc turns is
of induced emf in the coil while the field is
changing? dφc -(0-φc) µ0Ncnsiπ d2c
es = -Nc = =
dt dt 4dt
Solution: The magnitude of induced emf in
the coil is written as 4π×10-7×100×2×104 ×1.4 ×3.14×10-4
= 4×20×10-3
e= d(N φ )/ dt = N (d φ /dt)
∵ φ = B⋅ A = 55.24 mV

272
12.7 Generators: the lines of force and the induced emf/ current
In Chapter 10 you have learnt the principle is directed opposite to that in case of (i). The
of electric motors. The basic construction of graph, plotted between the current flowing in
an electric generator is the same as that of the lamp as a function of the time (t) shows a
a motor. In this case the armature is turned sinusoidally varying current as is shown in (iv)
by some external agency/torque as shown in of Fig. 12.8 (b).
Fig.12.8 (a). As the conductor wires cut across When a coil is rotating with a constant
the magnetic lines of force, an induced emf angular velocity ω , the angle between
 
(e = Blv) is produced across the terminals of magnetic field B and the area vector A of the
the commutator. The induced e.m.f is found to coil at any instant t is θ = ωt (assuming θ = 0 at
be proportional to the speed of rotation (ω) of t = 0). As the effective area of the coil is
the armature. changing due to rotation in the magnetic field
Let us focus our attention on one conductor B, the flux φB at any time can be written as
of the armature as shown in Fig. 12.8 (b). In φB = B.A cos θ = B.A cos ωt.
position (i), the conductor is moving upward From Faraday's law, the induced emf e,
across the lines of force inducing maximum generated by a rotating coil of N turns
emf. When the armature reaches in position
(ii) the conductor is moving parallel to the field
and there is no induced emf (e = 0). At position
(iii), the same conductor moves down across

Fig. 12.8 (a): Schematic of a Generator. Fig. 12.8 (b): Wave form generation.

273
 NdB
e Do you know?
dt
d If a wire without any current is kept in a
  N   BA cos  t 
dt magnetic field, then it experiences no force
 NBA sin  t as shown in figure (a). But when the wire is
carrying a current into the plane of the paper
For sin  t  1
in the magnetic field, a force will be exerted
e   NBA   e0 on the wire towards the left as shown in the
 e  e0 sin  t figure (b). The field will be strengthened
e  e0 sin 2 ft, --- (12.17) on the right side of the wire where the lines
where f is the frequency of revolution of of force are in the same direction as that of
the coil. the magnetic field and weakened on the left
Since the value of sin ωt varies between side where the field lines are in opposite
direction to that of the applied magnetic
+1 and -1, the polarity of the emf changes
field. For a wire carrying a current out of
with time. The emf has its extremum value at
the plane of the paper, the force will act to
θ = 90° and 270° as the change in flux is
the right as shown in figure (c).
greatest at these points. As the direction of
induced current changes periodically it is called
as alternating current (AC) (Fig. 12.8 (c)).
The frequency of AC is equal to the number
of times per second, the current changes from
positive (+ve) to negative (-ve) and back
(a) (b) (c)
again. The domestic electrical current varies
at a frequency of 50 cycles/second. 12.8 Back emf and back torque:
For the purpose of charging a storage We know that emf can be generated in
a circuit in different ways. In a battery it is
the chemical force, which gives rise to emf.
In piezoelectric crystals mechanical pressure
generates the emf. In a thermocouple it is the
temperature gradient which is responsible
for producing emf in a circuit containing the
junctions of two metallic wires. In a photo
electric cell, the incident light above a certain
Fig. 12.8: (c) Alternating current, frequency is responsible for producing the emf.
(d) Pulsating direct current. In a Van de Graaff Generator the electrons
battery it is necessary to generate a steady are literally loaded into a conveyor belt and
or direct current (DC). The reversing action swept along to create a potential difference.
of commutator can be used to generate A generator utilises the movement of wire
pulsating DC as depicted in Fig. 12.8 (d). The through a magnetic field to produce motional
commutator acts like a rapid switch which emf/current through a circuit. We have
reverses the connections to the armature at just seen that the physical construction of a DC
the right times to match with the reversals in generator and motor is practically the same.
current. Modern AC motors are more compact If a DC generator is connected to a battery,
and rugged than the DC motors. it will run as a motor. If a motor is turned
274
by any external means, it will behave as a
The magnetic field is directed vertically
generator. So whenever a motor is running,
upward from North to South pole. As the
its generator action can not be turned off. By
wire AB is cutting the magnetic lines of
Lenz's law the induced emf will tend to oppose
force perpendicularly, the induced emf is,
the change which causes it. In the present case,
therefore, maximum.
the 'cause' is the current through the armature. ... e = Blv sinθ with θ = 90°,
Therefore, the induced emf will tend to reduce
Then, e = emax = Blv
the armature current. The induced emf which
= (0.5 N/A.m) (10/100)m. (6.28m/s)
is unavoidable due to generator action in a
0.5
motor is called back emf. Initially, when a   6.28
motor is just starting up, its armature is not 10
turning and hence it is not producing any back  0.314 V
emf. As the motor starts speeding up the back or emax ≈ 314.2 mV.
emf increases and armature current decreases. The emf induced in the wires BC and DA
This explains the reason as to why the current is zero because the magnetic Lorentz
  force

through a motor is larger in the beginning than 
on free electrons in these wire  F  q( v  B ) 
when the motor is running at full speed. has no component parallel to the wires.
Also there is no e.m.f. in the lead in wires,
Example 12.3: A rotating armature of a which are stationary and are not in motion

simple generator consists of rectangular ( v = 0). Therefore the total emf between the
section DABC of a conducting wire as terminals P and Q is due the movement of
shown in the figure, to which connections segment AB. i.e., e = 314 mV. The direction
are made through of induced emf is given by Lenz's law.
sliding contacts. The Example 12.4: A conducting loop of area
armature is rotated 1 m2 is placed normal to uniform magnetic
at 1500 rpm in the field 3Wb/m2. If the magnetic field is
magnetic field ( B ) of uniformly reduced to 1 Wb/m2 in a time of
0.5 N/ A.m. Determine 0.5 s, calculate the induced emf produced in
the loop.
the induced emf between the terminals P and
Solution: Given,
Q of the generator at the instant shown in the
Area of the loop, A = 1 m2
adjoining figure.
(B)intial = 3Wb/m2
Solution: The wire AB (l = 10 cm) is moving (B)final = 1Wb/m2
to the right
 with the tangential velocity v. duration of time, ∆t = 0.5 s
v  r ∴ Induced emf,
v = ω r where ω is angular velocity and r is d  
the radius. | e |  final initial
dt Time interval
2  2 
v
T
.r   
T  
 Bfinal  Binitial  A

t
 2 r
 (1  3) 
 1500   4   r  AD     1 volt
 2    m   ( 4 / 100 ) m   0.5 
 60 s   100   
2
 2 m / s   1 volt
0.5
 6.284 m / s
| e | 4 volt
275
12.9 Induction and Energy Transfer: magnetic flux induces current in the loop as
Consider a loop ABCD taken out with dictated by Lenz's law. The induced current in
constant velocity v through a uniform the loop gives rise to a force that opposes the
→
magnetic field B as shown in Fig. 12.9 (a). pulling of the loop out of the magnetic field.
A current i is induced in the loop in clockwise We know that magnitude of magnetic
direction and the loop segments, being still flux through the loop is
in magnetic field, experience forces, F1, F2 φB = B.A = B.L.x --- (12.19)
and F3. The dashed lines show the limits of  As x decreases, the flux decreases.
magnetic field. To maintain the velocity v According to Faraday's law, the magnitude of
constant, it is required to apply an external induced emf,

force F on the loop so as to overcome the d d
e   ( BLx )
magnetic force of equal magnitude but acting dt dt
in opposite direction. dx
 BL   BLv --- (12.20)
dt
The induced emf e is represented on the
left and the collective resistance R of the loop
on the right in the Fig. 12.9 (b). The direction
F of induced current i is obtained by Right-Hand
(RH) Rule.
The magnitude of induced current i can be
written using Eq. (12.20) as
| e | BLv
= i = --- (12.21)
R R
Fig. 12.9 (a): A loop is moving out of magnetic
The three segments of the current carrying
 
field with velocity v.
loop experience the deflectingforces F 1 , F 2
and F 3 in  the magnetic
  field B in accordance
with Eq. ( F = i L× B ). From the symmetry,
the forces F 2 and F 3 being equal and opposite,

cancel each other. The remaining force  F 1 is
directed opposite  to the external force F on
the loop. So F = - F 1 . 
Fig. 12.9 (b) : Induced emf e, induced current i The magnitude of | F 1 | can be written as
and collective resistance R of the loop. 
∴ The rate of doing work on the loop is | F 1 | = i LB sin 90 = i LB = | F | --- (12.22)
Work (W ) Force ( F ) × displacement ( d ) From Eq. (12.21) and Eq. (12.22)
P= =  
time ( t ) time ( t ) | F | = | F 1 | = iLB
2 2
P = Force (F) × velocity (v) = BLv  LB  B L v --- (12.23)
  R R
= F . v --- (12.18) From Eq. (12.18) and (12.23), the rate of
We would like to find the expression for P doing mechanical work, that is power:
in terms of B and the characteristics of the loop   B 2 L2 v B 2 L2 v 2 --- (12.24)
i.e., resistance (R), width (L) and Area (A). P  F .v  v 
As the loop is moved to the right, the area R R
If current i is flowing in the closed
lying within the magnetic field decreases,
thus causing a decrease in the magnetic flux circuit with collective resistance R, the rate
linked with the moving loop. The decreasing
276
of production of heat energy in the loop as we mechanical energy left with the pendulum and
pull it along at constant speed v, can be written the converted heat energy is dissipated in the
as solid plate making it warm. Eddy current can
Rate of production of heat energy = be reduced by discontinuity in the structure of
P = i2 R --- (12.25) conductor plate as depicted in Fig. 12.10 (c).
From Eq. (12.21) and Eq. (12.25)
2
 BLv 
P   R
 R 
B 2 L2 v 2
P --- (12.26)
R
Comparing Eq. (12.24) and Eq. (12.26),
we find that the rate of doing mechanical work (a)
is exactly same as the rate of production of
heat energy in the circuit/loop.
Thus the work done in pulling the loop
through the magnetic field appears as heat
energy in the loop.
12.10 Eddy Currents:
Suppose the conducting loop of Fig.
(b) (c)
12.9 (a) is replaced by a solid conducting
plate, the relative motion between conductor
and magnetic field induces a current in the Fig. 12.10: (a) Eddy currents are induced in solid
conductor plate, (b) Conducting plate swings
conductor plate (Fig. 12.10 (a)). In this case like a pendulum, (c) Reduction in eddy currents
again, we encounter an opposing force so we due to discontinuous structure of a plate.
must do work while moving the conductor with 12.11 Self-Inductance:
uniform velocity v. The conduction electrons Consider a circuit (coil) in which the
making up the induced current do not follow current is changing. The changing current will
one path as they do with the loop, but swirl vary the magnitude of magnetic flux linked
about within the plate as if they were caught in with the coil (circuit) itself and consequently
an eddy of water. Such a current is called an an emf will be induced in the circuit.
eddy current. Eddy current can be represented
by a single path as shown in Fig. 12.10 (a). i
The induced current in the conductor plate
is responsible for transfer of the mechanical
energy into heat energy. The dissipation of
energy as heat energy is more apparent in the K
arrangement shown in Fig. 12.10 (a), where a
Fig. 12.11: Changing current in a coil.
conducting plate, free to rotate about a pivot,
The production of induced emf, in the
is allowed to swing down like a pendulum
circuit (coil) itself, on account of a change in
through a magnetic field. In each swing, when
the current in it, is termed as the phenomenon
the plate enters and leaves the field, a portion
of self-inductance.
of its mechanical energy is transformed to heat
Let at any instant, the value of magnetic
energy. After several such swings there is no
flux linked with the circuit itself be φ
277
corresponding to current i in it (Fig. 12.11). It of induced emf (caused by changing current in
is obvious that φ will be proportional to current the circuit) produced around the circuit to the
i. rate of change of current in it.
i.e., f ∝ i In order words, the induced emf produced
or f = Li or L = f /i, --- (12. 27) around the circuit per unit rate of change of
where L is a constant of proportionality and is current in it, is defined as the self-inductance
termed as the self-inductance (or coefficient of of the circuit.
self induction) of the coil. (iii) When a current increases in the circuit, an
For a closely wound coil of N turns, the induced emf acts opposite to it. Consequently,
same magnetic flux will be linked with all the the work will have to be done in order to
turns. When the flux through the coil changes establish the magnetic flux associated with a
each turn of the coil contributes towards the steady current io in the circuit.
induced emf. Therefore a term flux linkage is Work done in time dt is dW = e.i dt
used for a closely wound coil. The flux linkage
for a coil with N turns corresponding to current  di   di 
   L   ( i )  dt  e   L 
i will be written as  dt   dt 
N fB ∝ i di
  Li  dt
N fB = Li dt
L = N fB / i --- (12.28)   Li  di io

The inductance (L) depends only on the ∴ Total work W   dw    Lidi

o
geometry and material properties of the core 2
or, i
of the coil. W  
L 0 --- (12.30)
Unit of Inductance: 2
According to Faraday's law, induced emf 1 2
e is given by = Li0 (magnitude)
2
d Now if i0 = 1,
e
dt 1
Using Eq. (12.27) Then W  L 
d di 2
e   ( Li )   L --- (12.29) or L = + 2W (numerically) --- (12.31)
dt dt
Hence self-inductance of a circuit is
|e|  volt 
Unit of L    Henry numerically equal to twice the work done in
| di / dt |  A / s 
Definition of L: establishing the magnetic flux associated with
unit current in the circuit.
Self inductance L may be defined in the
This work done W, will represent the
following ways:  energy of the circuit.
(i) From Eq. (12.27), f = Li or L  1
i ∴ Energy of the circuit = Li02 --- (12.32)
Hence, the self-inductance of a circuit is 2
the ratio of magnetic flux (produced due to We know that the mechanical energy is
current in the circuit) linked with the circuit expressed in terms of kinetic energy as
to the current flowing in it. The magnetic 1 2
KE = mv --- (12.33)
flux produced per unit current in the circuit is 2
Comparing the Eq. (12.33) and Eq. (12.34),
defined as its self inductance.
 e 
we find that self inductance (L) of an electrical
(ii) Using Eq. (12.29), L   
 di / dt  circuit plays the same role (electrical inertia)
Hence, self-inductance of a circuit is the ratio as played by mass (inertia) in mechanical
278
motion. and r0 is the distance from the toroidal axis.
Inductance of a solenoid: If a current i is If r <<R, we can use r0 ≅ R. Hence,
established in the windings (turns) of a long
0 Ni
solenoid, the current produces a magnetic flux B
fB through the central region. The inductance 2 R
The magnetic flux ( f ) passing through
of the solenoid is given by L = N fB /i, where cavity is
N is the number of turns. N fB is called as  Ni 0 Nir 2
magnetic flux linkage. For a length l near 
   r2 0 
2 R

2R
the middle of  the
 solenoid the flux linkage is This is the flux that links each turn. When
N fB = (nl) ( B . A ) = nlBA, (for θ = 0°), where the current i varies with time, the induced
n is the number of turns per unit length, B is emf e across the terminals of toroid is given
the magnetic field inside and A is the cross by Faraday’s law.
sectional area of the solenoid.
Nd d   Nir 2 
We know that the magnetic field inside the e  N  0 
dt dt  2 R 
solenoid is given by Eq. (10.65) as
B = µ0 ni  0 Nr 2  di
e  N  
Hence  2 R  dt
N B ( nl ) BA nl ( 0 ni ) A di
L   Comparing with e   L
i i i We get, dt
 0 n lA
2
0 N 2 r 2 (...r << R)
L
where, Al is the interior volume of solenoid. 2 R
Therefore inductance per unit length near Given,
the middle of a long solenoid is N=1200, r  =2.0 cm, R=15 cm and
L   d2  µ0 = 4π×10-7 T.m/A.
 0 n 2 A  0 n 2   , d being the L= 2.414 × 10-3 H
l  4 
diameter of solenoid. --- (12.34) Example 12.6: Consider a uniformly
wound solenoid having N turns and length
This implies that inductance of a solenoid
l. The core of the solenoid is air. Find the
L ∝ n2, L ∝ d 2. As n is a number per unit
inductance of the solenoid of N =200, l=20
length, inductance can be written as a product cm and cross-sectional area, A= 5 cm2.
of permeability constant µ0 and a quantity Calculate the induced emf eL, if the current
with dimension of length. This implies that µ0 flowing through the solenoid decreases at a
can be expressed in henry/ meter (H/m). rate of 60 A/s.
Solution: The magnetic flux through each
Example 12.5: Derive an expression for the turn of area A in the solenoid is
self-inductance of a toroid of circular cross- fB = B⋅A = ( µ0 ni)⋅A (∵Magnetic field
section of radius r and major radius R. inside a solenoid is B = µ0 ni)
Calculate the self inductance (L) of toroid = µ0 (N/l)⋅i⋅ A(∵n is the number of turns per
for major radius (R) = 15 cm, cross-section unit length=N/l)
of toroid having radius (r) =2.0 cm and the We know that the inductance (L) of the
number of turns (n) =1200. solenoid can be written as
Solution: The magnetic field inside a L= (N fB )/ i
toroid, Substituting the value of fB , we get
 Ni L= (N/i)⋅ { µ0 ⋅(N/l)⋅i⋅ A}
B  0 , where N is the number of turns L= µ0 ⋅(N2/l)⋅A
2 r0
279
 Inserting the given values of N, l and A, we 12.12 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field:
find We have seen that the changing magnetic
L=(4π⋅10-7Tm/A)⋅(200)2(5⋅10-4m2)/(20⋅10-4 m) flux in a coil causes an induced emf. The
or L≈ 0.1257mH induced emf so produced opposes the change
The induced emf in the solenoid and hence the energy has to be spent to
eL= − L (di/dt) overcome it to build up the magnetic field.
eL= − (0.126⋅10−3) (− 60 A/s)=7.543 mV This energy may be recovered as heat in a
resistance of the circuit. This fact gives the
Example 12.7: The self-inductance of a
logical concept of the energy being stored in
closely wound coil of 200 turns is 10 mH.
the magnetic field.
Determine the value of magnetic flux
We have dealt with a similar problem
through the cross-section of the coil when
the current passing through the coil is in electrostatics where the total electrostatic
4 mA. energy UE is stored in the medium between the
plates of a capacitor with capacitance C and
Solution: Given :
charge q held at potential V is
Self-inductance of coil, L = 10 mH, q 2 CV 2
U=E = [ q = CV ]
Number of turns, N = 200, and 2C 2
Now we can estimate the energy spent
Current through the coil, i = 4 mA
to build up a current I in a circuit having an
The total value of magnetic flux φ associated inductance L.
with the coil is,
From Eq. (12.29),
φ =Li di
The induced emf e   L
= (10 × 10-3) H × (4 × 10-3) A dt
The work alone in moving a charge dq against
= 4 × 10-5 Wb this emf is
di
The flux per turn (or flux through the cross- dw  e  dq  L  dq
section of the coil) dt
 di  dq
  L
N dt
 dq 
 4  10 5 Wb   L  i  di  dt  i 
   
 200  Therefore total work
I
1
= 2 × 10-7 Wb W   dw   Lidi  Li 2  U B --- (12.35)
0
2
This is the energy stored (UB) in magnetic field
Inductances in series or parallel: and is analogous to the energy stored (UE) in
If several inductances are connected in the electric field in a capacitor given above.
series or in parallel, then the total inductance It can be shown that this energy stored up in
is determined by using following relations: magnetic field per unit volume (uB) comes out
LTotal  L1  L2  L3  ... (Series Combination) to be (B2/2 µ0 ) Joules, which parallels the
(1/2)ε0 E2, the energy density (uE) in an electric
1 1 1 1
    ... (Parallel Combination) field E, µ0 and ε0 being the permeability and
LTotal L1 L2 L3
permittivity of free space.

280
12.13 Energy Density of a Magnetic Field: interior points is given by Eq. (10.65) as
Consider a long solenoid having length, l B = µ0I.n.

near the middle, cross-sectional area A and Therefore, the expression for energy
carrying a current i through it (Fig. 12.12). density (uB) stored in magnetic field can be
The volume associated with length l will be written as
B 2 --- (12.39)
A.l. The energy, UB stored by the length l of uB 
20
the solenoid must lie entirely within volume This equation gives the density of stored
Al, because the magnetic field outside the energy at any point where magnetic field is
solenoid is almost zero. Moreover, the energy B. This equation holds good for all magnetic
stored will be uniformly distributed
 within the fields, no matter how they are produced.
volume as the magnetic field B is uniform
Example 12.8 : Calculate the self-inductance
everywhere inside the solenoid.
of a coaxial cable of length l and carrying a
current I. The current flows down the inner
cylinder with radius a, and flows out of
the outer cylinder with radius b.
Solution: According to Ampere’s law, the
magnetic field (B) between two cylinders at
Fig 12.12 : A current carrying solenoid produces a distance r from the axis is given by
µ I
uniform magnetic field in the interior region. B 0 .
2 r
Thus, the energy stored, per unit volume, The magnetic field is zero elsewhere.
in the magnetic field is We also know that the magnetic energy
U density,
uB  B --- (12.36)
B2 1  02 I 2  µ0 I 2
Al uB  
1  
From Eq. 12.35, we know that U B = LI 2 2 µ0 2 µ0  4 2 r 2  8 2 r 2
2
2 Energy stored in a cylindrical shell of length
1 2 1  L I --- (12.37)
 uB  LI    l, radius r and thickness dr is given by
2 A  l  l  2 A  µ0 I 2  µ0 I 2 l  dr 
 2 2   2 lrdr  
For a long solenoid, we know that the  8 r  4  r 
inductance (L) per unit length is given by Integrating from a to b, we get
Eq. (12. 34) as µ0 I 2 l  b 
 L W ln  
 l   0 n A ,
2 4 a 
  Magnetic energy confined in an inductor
where L is the inductance of a long solenoid (L) carrying a current (I) can also be written
having length l in the middle, n is the number 1 2
as LI . Comparing the two expressions
of turns per unit length, and A is the cross- 2
we find the inductance of coaxial cable as
sectional area of the solenoid, µ0 is the
µl b
permeability constant for air (4π × 10-7 T.m/A L  0 ln  
2  a 
or 4π × 10-7 H/m) [...1 H (Henry) = 1 T.m2/A]
Substituting the value of (L/l) in Eq. (12.37), 12.14 Mutual Inductance (M):
we get Let us consider a case of two coils placed
I2 side by side as shown in Fig. 12.13. Suppose a
 uB   0 n A 
2

2A fixed current I1 is flowing through coil 1. Due

1 to this current a magnetic field B1 (x,y,z) will
uB   0 n 2 I 2 --- (12.38)
2 be produced in the nearby region surrounding
For a solenoid the magnetic field at
the coil 1. Let φ21 be the magnetic flux liked
281
with the surface area s2 of the coil 2 due to dI 2
magnetic field B1 and can be written as e12   M 12 --- (12.44)
  dt
21   B1   a , ---- (12.40) It may be noted that by symmetry,
s2 M12 = M21 = M.
where s2 represents the effective surface (or Alternative definitions of mutual inductance:
area) enclosed by coil 2. If the positions of the It is evident from the Eq. (12.41) and
coils are fixed in space,
Eq. (12.42) that
Then φ21 ∝ I1 φ21 = MI1 and φ12 = MI2
φ21 = constant. I1
 
or φ21 = M21 I1 --- (12.41) or M  21  12 --- (12.45)
I1 I2
where, M21 is a constant of proportionality and Hence, the mutual inductance of two
is termed as mutual inductance or coefficient circuits is equal to the magnetic flux linked
of mutual induction of coil 2 (or circuit c2) with one circuit per unit current in the other
with respect to coil 1 (or circuit c1). Suppose I1 circuit. The circuit in which current is provided
changes slowly with time then magnetic field by an external source is usually referred to as
B1 in the vicinity of coil 2 is related to current primary circuit while the other as secondary.
I1 in coil 1 in the same way as it would be Therefore, the mutual inductance M of
related for a steady current. The magnetic flux two circuits (or coils) is the magnetic flux
φ21 will change in proportion as I1 changes.
( φs ) linked with the secondary circuit per unit
current (IP) of the primary circuit.

M  s
Ip
or φs = MIp --- (12.46)
Also from Faraday's law

I1 ds d dI
es     ( MI p )   M p
dt dt dt
es --- (12.47)
or M 
Fig. 12.13: Mutual inductance of two coils. ( dI p / dt )
The induced emf in coil 2 will be written as Hence, mutual inductance is defined
d as the value of induced emf produced in the
e21   21
dt secondary circuit per unit rate of change in
dI current in the primary circuit.
e21   M 21 1
dt
Now we allow current I2 to flow through Use your brain power
coil 2. On account of this current, magnetic flux
φ12 liked with coil 1 is obviously proportional It can be shown that the mutual
to I2. potential energy of two circuits is W = MI1I2.
That is Therefore, the mutual inductance (M) may
φ12 ∝ I2 also be defined as the mutual potential
or φ12 = M12 I2 --- (12.42) energy (W) of two circuits corresponding to
 unit current flowing in each circuit.
or M 12  12 --- (12.43)
I2 W
M12 is known as mutual inductance of coil 1 M=
I1 I 2
with respect to coil 2. The induced emf in coil M=W [I1 = I2 = 1]
1 will be
282
 The unit of mutual inductance is henry (H). of coupling the greater will be the mutual
volt inductance (M).
henry = = ohm ⋅ s Inductance of any circuit is proportional to
As
1 henry = 1 ohm.s the induced voltage it can develop. This is equally
If corresponding to 1 A/s rate of change true for mutual inductance.
of current in the primary circuit, the induced M ∝e21 , where e21 is induced emf developed
emf produced in the secondary circuit is 1 volt, in coil 2 due to the portion of the flux from coil 1
reaching coil 2 (= K f1 ).
then the mutual inductance (M) of the two
But induced emf is also proportional to the
circuits is 1 H.
number of turns in the coil,
Example 12.9 : Mutual inductance of the So, e21  N 2  K 1 
wireless charging system. But 1 N 1
In a wireless battery charger, the base
unit can be imagined as a solenoid (coil ∴ e21 ∝ N 2 ( KN 1 )
B) of length l with NB turns, carrying a Also L ∝ N 2 or N ∝ L
current iB and having a cross-section area ∴ N N ∝ L L = L1L2
A. The handle coil (coil H) has NH turns 1 2 1 2

and surrounds the base solenoid (coil B) Replacing e21 with M, we now have
completely. The base unit is designed to M = K L1 L2 --- (12.48)
hold the handle of the charging unit. The K is usually less than unity. If K =1,
handle has a cylindrical hole so that it fits the two coils will be perfectly coupled, and
loosely over a matching cylinder on the M = L1 L2 .
base unit. When the handle is placed on the (i) If K > 0.5, the two coils are tightly coupled
base, the current flowing in coil B induces (ii) If K<0.5, the coils are loosely coupled.
a current in the coil H. Thus, the induced (iii) If L1 = L2, then a coil with self-inductance
current in the coil H is used to charge the L is coupled to itself with mutual inductance
battery housed in the handle. = M = L1 L2 L2 = L
The magnetic field due to a solenoid coil B, It may not be always desirable to have a
N  large value of mutual inductance (M). A large
Bsolenoid  µ0 n i  µ0   B  i
 l  value of M is desirable for a transformer but
Magnetic flux through coil H caused by the higher M is not desirable for home appliances
magnetic field Bsolenoid due to solenoid coil such as a electric clothes dryer. A dangerous
B, emf can be induced on the metallic case of
f H = Bsolenoid A the dryer if the mutual inductance between its
Flux linkage = NH f H heating coils and the case is large. In order
The mutual inductance (M) of the wireless to minimise M the heating coils are counter
charging system, wound so that their magnetic fields cancel
N B A N  one another and reduces M with the case of
M  H solenoid  µ0   B  A. N H the dryer.
i  l 
Theoretically, the coupling between two
N N  coils is never perfect. If two coils are wound
 µ0   B H A
 l  on a common iron core, the coefficient of
Coefficient of coupling between two circuits: coupling (K) can be considered as unity. For
The coefficient of coupling (K) is a measure two air-core coils or two coils on separate iron
of the portion of flux that reaches coil 2 which is in cores, the coefficient of coupling depends on
the vicinity of coil 1. The greater is the coefficient the distance between two coils and the angle

283
between the axes of the two coils. When the 12.15 Transformer:
coils are parallel (and in line), the coefficient Mutual inductance, is the basis of all types
K is maximum. If the axes of the coils are at of transformers. A transformer is a device used
right angles (and in line), K is minimum. If we for changing the voltage of alternating current
want to prevent interaction between the coils, from low value to high value or vice versa.
the coils should be oriented at right angle to We can see the transformers by road sides in
each other and be kept as far apart as possible. villages and cities.
K-value for radio coils (Radio frequency,
intermediate frequency transformers) lies
between 0.001 to 0.05.

Use your brain power

Prove that the inductance of parallel wires Fig. 12.14: Transformer consisting of primary
of length l in the same circuit is given by and secondary coils wound on a soft iron core.
Whenever the magnetic flux linked
 l
L   0  ln ( d / a ) , where a is the radius with a coil changes, an emf is induced in
   the neighbouring coil. In a transformer there
of wire and d is separation between wire
are two coils, primary (p) and secondary (s)
axes.
insulated from each other and wound on a soft
iron core as shown in Fig. 12.14. Primary and
Example12.10: Two coils having self
secondary coils are called input and output
inductances L1 = 75 mH and L2 = 55 mH
coils respectively.
are coupled with each other. The coefficient
When an AC voltage is applied to the
of coupling (K) is 0.75 calculate the mutual
primary coil, the current through the coil
inductance (M) of the two coils.
changes sinusoidally causing similar changes
Solution : Given : in the magnetic flux through the core. As the
L1 = 75 mH, L2 = 55 mH, K = 0.75. changing magnetic flux is liked with both
We know that, primary and secondary coils, emf is induced
in each coil. The magnetic flux linked with the
M  K L1 L2
coil depends upon the number of turns in the
 0.75 75  55 mH coil.
M  48.18 mH Let f be the magnetic flux linked per
Example 12.11: The mutual inductance turn with both the coils at an instant t. Np and
(M) of the two coils is given as 1.5 H. The Ns be the number of turns in the primary and
self inductances of the coils are : secondary coil respectively.
Then at the instant t, the magnetic flux
L1 = 5 H, L2 = 4 H. Find the coefficient of
linked with primary coil f p = Np f , and with
coupling beween the coils.
secondary coil f s = Ns f .
Solution: The induced emf in primary and secondary
Given L1 = 5 H coil will be
L2 = 4 H d d
M = 1.5 H. ep   p   N p
dt dt
K
M

1.5 and d
es   N s
L1 L2 5 4 dt
 0.335  33.55% e N
 s  s
ep N p --- (12.49)
284
 The ratio Ns/Np is called turn ratio
(transformer ratio) of the transformer. Equation Do you know?
(12.49) is known as equation for transformer.
1. The flux rule is the terminology that
For an ideal transformer,
Feynman used to refer to the law relating
input power = Output power
magnetic flux to emf. (RP Feynman,
ep ip = es is
Feynman lectures on Physics, Vol II)
es i p 2. The Faraday’s law relating flux to
= --- (12.50)
e p is emf is referred to by Griffiths as the
Combining Eqs. (12.49) and (12.50) ‘Universal flux rule’. Griffiths used
es N s i p the term ‘Faraday’s law to refer to
= = --- (12.51)
e p N p is what he called- Maxwell-Faraday
Case 1: When Ns > Np equation. (DJ Griffiths, Introduction to
then es > ep (step up transformer) electrodynamics 3rd Ed)
and ip > is. Current in the primary coil is more
than that in the secondary coil. Internet my friend
Case 2: When Ns < Np
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
then es < ep (step down transformer)
Electromagnetic_induction
and ip < is. Current in primary coil is less than
that in secondary coil
Do you know?
Do you know?
Accelerator in India:
Faraday's laws have found innumerable Microtron Accelerator for electrons at
applications in modern world. Some Savitribai Phule Pune University
common examples are: Electric Guitar
hard drives, Smart cards, Microphones, etc.
Hybrid cars: In modern days, the electric
and hybrid vehicles take advantage of
electromagnetic induction. The limitation
of such vehicles is the life- time of a battery
which is not long enough to get similar drive
from a full tank of fuel/ petrol. In order to
increase the amount of charge in the battery,
the car acts as a generator whenever it is 6 MeV Race - Track Microtron Accelerator
1 Electron Gun
applying the brakes. At the time of braking, 2
3
4
Cavity
Pole pieces
Magnetic shield

the frictional force between the tyres and the 5

6
Extractor
Extraction port

ground provides the necessary torque to the

magnets inside the generator. Thus, the car
takes advantage of back emf which helps
in charging the battery and consequently
leads to a longer drive.
Picture credit: Dr. S.D. Dhole
Department of Physics SPPU.

285
 Exercises

1. Choose the correct option. iv) If the copper disc of a pendulum swings
i) A circular coil of 100 turns with a cross- between the poles of a magnet, the
sectional area (A) of 1 m2 is kept with pendulum comes to rest very quickly.
its plane perpendicular to the magnetic Explain the reason. What happens to the
field (B) of 1 T. What is the magnetic mechanical energy of the pendulum?
flux linkage with the coil? v) Explain why the inductance of two coils
(A) 1 Wb (B) 100 Wb connected in parallel is less than the
inductance of either coil.
(C) 50 Wb (D) 200 Wb
3. In a Faraday disc dynamo, a metal disc of
ii) A conductor rod of length (l) is moving
radius R rotates with an angular velocity
with velocity (v) in a direction normal
ω about an axis perpendicular to the
to a uniform magnetic field (B). What
plane of the disc and passing through its
will be the magnitude of induced emf centre. The disc is placed in a magnetic
produced between the ends of the moving field B acting perpendicular to the plane
conductor? of the disc. Determine the induced emf
(A) BLv (B) BLv2 between the rim and the axis of the disc.
1 2Bl [Ans: 1 ( Bω R 2 ) ]
(C)  Blv (D)  2
2 v 4. A horizontal wire 20 m long extending
iii) Two inductor coils with inductance 10 from east to west is falling with a
mH and 20 mH are connected in series. velocity of 10 m/s normal to the Earth’s
What is the resultant inductance of the magnetic field of 0.5×10-4 T. What is the
combination of the two coils? value of induced emf in the wire?
(A) 20 mH (B) 30 mH [Ans: 10 mV]
20
(C) 10 mH (D) mH 5. A metal disc is made to spin at 20
3 revolutions per second about an axis
iv) A current through a coil of self inductance passing through its centre and normal to
10 mH increases from 0 to 1 A in 0.1 s. its plane. The disc has a radius of 30 cm
What is the induced emf in the coil? and spins in a uniform magnetic field of
(A) 0.1 V (B) 1 V 0.20 T, which is parallel to the axis of
(C) 10 V (D) 0.01 V rotation. Calculate
v) What is the energy required to build up a (a) The area swept out per second by the
current of 1 A in an inductor of 20 mH? radius of the disc,
(A) 10 mJ (B) 20 mJ (b) The flux cut per second by a radius of the
(C) 20 J (D) 10 J disc,
2. Answer in brief. (c) The induced emf in the disc.
i) What do you mean by electromagnetic [Ans: (a) 5.656 m2, (b) 1.130 Wb, (c) 1.130V]
induction? State Faraday’s law of 6. A pair of adjacent coils has a mutual
induction. inductance of 1.5 H. If the current in
ii) State and explain Lenz’s law in the light one coil changes from 0 to 10 A in 0.2 s,
of principle of conservation of energy. what is the change of flux linkage with
iii) What are eddy currents? State the other coil?
applications of eddy currents. [Ans: dφ = 15Wb, e = 75 V]
286
7. A long solenoid has 1500 turns/m. A coil the coil changes from 5A to 1A in 0.2 s,
C having cross sectional area 25 cm2 and calculate the value of emf induced in the
150 turns (Nc) is wound tightly around other coil.
the centre of the solenoid. If a current [Ans: e = 2 V]
of 3.0A flows through the solenoid, 13. An emf of 96.0 mV is induced in the
calculate : windings of a coil when the current in
(a) the magnetic flux density at the centre of a nearby coil is increasing at the rate of
the solenoid, 1.20 A/s. What is the mutual inductance
(b) the flux linkage in the coil C, (M) of the two coils?
(c) the average emf induced in coil C if the [Ans: 80 mH]
direction of the current in the solenoid is 14. A long solenoid of length l, cross-
reversed in a time of 0.5 s. sectional area A and having N1 turns
( µ0 = 4π × 10-7 T.m/A) (primary coil), has a small coil of N2
[Ans: (a) 5.66×10-3 T, (b) 2.12×10-3 Wb, turns (secondary coil) wound about its
(c) 8.48×10-3 V] centre. Determine the Mutual inductance
8. A search coil having 2000 turns with (M) of the two coils.
area 1.5 cm2 is placed in a magnetic [Ans: M = µ0 N1 N2A/l]
field of 0.60T. The coil is moved rapidly 15. The primary and secondary coil of a
out of the field in a time of 0.2 second. transformer each have an inductance of
Calculate the induced emf across the 200 ×10-6H. The mutual inductance (M)
search coil. between the windings is 4×10-6 H. What
[Ans: 0.9 V] percentage of the flux from one coil
9. An aircraft of wing span of 50 m flies reaches the other?
horizontally in earth’s magnetic field of [Ans: 2%]
6×10-5 T at a speed of 400 m/s. Calculate 16. A toroidal ring, having 100 turns per
the emf generated between the tips of the cm of a thin wire is wound on a non-
wings of the aircraft. magnetic metal rod of length 1 m and
diameter 1 cm. If the permeability of
[Ans: 1.2 V]
bar is equal to that of free space ( µ0 ),
10. A stiff semi-circular wire of radius R is
calculate the magnetic field inside the
rotated in a uniform magnetic field B
bar (B) when the current (i) circulating
about an axis passing through its ends. If
through the turns is 1 A. Also determine
the frequency of rotation of the wire is f,
the self-inductance (L) of the coil.
calculate the amplitude of the alternating
[Ans: 1.256×10-2T, 9.872 mH]
emf induced in the wire. 17. A uniform magnetic field B(t), pointing
[Ans: e0=π2BR2f ] upward fills a circular region of radius, s
11. Calculate the value of induced emf in horizontal plane. If B is changing with
between the ends of an axle of a railway time, find the induced electric field.
carriage 1.75 m long traveling on level [Ans:  s 2 dB ]
ground with a uniform velocity of 50 dt
[Hint : Part of Maxwell's equation,
km per hour. The vertical component of
applied to a time varying magnetic flux,
Earth’s magnetic field (Bv) is given to be  
  d
leads us to the equation  E dl  m
5×10-5T.  dt
[Ans: 1.215 mV] ,where E is the electric field induced
12. The value of mutual inductance of two when the magnetic flux changes at the
d φm
coils is 10 mH. If the current in one of rate of ]
dt
287