Discrete Mathematics

Sumangal Bhattacharya
Department of Mathematics
Shiv Nadar University Chennai
[email protected]
+91 7384846857

November 12, 2024

Contents

1 Unit-I: Logic and Proofs

2 Unit-3: Lattices and Boolean Algebra

3 Unit-2: Combinatorics

4 Unit-4: Graphs

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Syllabus: Mid Term Exam

1 UNIT-I: LOGIC AND PROOFS

Propositional Logic - Propositional equivalences - Principal
Normal forms - Rules of inference - Proof Techniques - Proof
methods and strategy.

2 UNIT-III: LATTICES AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Partial ordering - Posets - Lattices as Posets - Properties of
lattices - Lattices as algebraic systems - Sub lattices - Some
special lattices - Boolean algebra - Stone’s representation
Theorem.

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Syllabus: End Semester Exam

1 UNIT-II: COMBINATORICS
Mathematical induction - The Pigeonhole principle - Principal
of Inclusion and Exclusion - Recurrence relations - Solution of
linear recurrence relations - Generating functions.

2 UNIT-IV: GRAPHS
Graph terminology - special types of graphs - Subgraphs -
Operations on graphs - Connectivity - Cut points - Bridges -
Blocks - Eulerian and Hamilton graphs.

3 UNIT-V: GRAPH ALGORITHMS

Matrix representation of graphs - graph isomorphism - Trees -
Spanning trees - Dijkstra’s algorithm for shortest path -
Kruskal’s and Prims’s algorithm for minimum spanning tree.

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.

Unit-4: Graphs

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Application of Graph Theory

Graph theory is a branch of Mathematics that studies the

properties of graphs, which are structures made up of
vertices (or nodes) connected by edges (or lines). It has a
wide range of applications across various fields.
• Computer Science: Graphs are fundamental in data
structures and algorithms, used in representing
networks, trees, and paths. Algorithms such as Dijkstra’s
and Kruskal’s are employed for shortest-path and
minimum-spanning tree problems.
• Networking: Graph theory is used to model computer
networks, optimize routes for data transformation, and
design robust network structures.
• Social Networks: Analyzing social networks to
determine influential individuals, community detection,
and the speed of information.

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Konigsberg Brifge Bright Problem

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Graph: Basic Definition

Definition
• A graph 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) consists of 𝑉, a non-empty set of
vertices (or nodes), and 𝐸, a set of edges, where each
edge has either one or two vertices associated with it,
called endpoints. An edge is used to connect its
endpoints.
• The pair of nodes that are connected by an edge are
called adjacent nodes.
• A node of a graph that is not adjacent to any other node
is called an isolated node.
• A graph containing only isolated nodes (i.e., no edges) is
called a null graph.
• If 𝑉 is infinite, or 𝐸 is infinite, then 𝐺 is called an infinite
graph. Otherwise, it is a finite graph.

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Graph: Basic Definition

Definition
• If in a graph 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸), each edge 𝑒 ∈ 𝐸 is associated with
an ordered pair of vertices, i.e., 𝑒 = (𝑢, 𝑣), and it represents
a directed line from the initial point 𝑢 to the terminal
point 𝑣, then 𝐺 is called a directed graph or digraph.
Otherwise, it is called an undirected graph.
• An edge of a graph that joins a vertex to itself is called a
loop.
• In a graph, certain pairs of vertices are joined by more
than one edge, such edges are called parallel edges.

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Basic Definition

Definition
• Adjacent Vertices: Vertices 𝑢 and 𝑣 are said to be
adjacent if there is an edge 𝑒 = (𝑢, 𝑣).
• Incident: Edge 𝑒 is said to be incident on each of its
endpoints 𝑢 and 𝑣.
• Adjacent Edges: Two edges are said to be adjacent if
they are incident on a common vertex.
• Degree of a Vertex: The number of edges incident to
the vertex. A loop at the vertex contributes twice to the
degree. Vertex with degree 0 is isolated vertex, and degree 1 is
called pendant vertex.
• Neighborhood: The neighborhood of a vertex 𝑣 in a graph 𝐺 is
the set of all vertices adjacent to 𝑣, denoted by 𝑁 (𝑣).
• Weighted Graph: a graph where each edge is assigned a
numerical label or weight
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Example

Example
Let 𝑣 = {𝑣 1 , 𝑣 2 , 𝑣 3 , 𝑣 4 , 𝑣 5 }, 𝐸 = {𝑒 1 , 𝑒 2 , 𝑒 3 , 𝑒 4 , 𝑒 5 , 𝑒 6 }

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Types of Graph

• Simple Graph: a graph in which each edge connects two

different vertices and where no two edges connect the
same pair of vertices is called simple graph.
• MultiGraph: Graphs that may have multiple edges
connecting the same pair of vertices are called
multigraphs.
• PseudoGraph: Graphs that may include loops and
possibly multiple edges connecting the same pair of
vertices or a vertex to itself are sometimes called
pseudographs.
• Directed Graphs: A directed graph (or digraph) (𝑉, 𝐸)
consists of a nonempty set of vertices 𝑉 and a set of
directed edges 𝐸 .
• MixedGraph: A graph with both directed and undirected
edges is called a mixed graph.
Note: The graph represents an undirected graph; if it is a directed graph, it
will be specified as such.
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Summary: Types of Graph

Multiple
Graph Type Edge Category Loops
Edges
Simple Graph Undirected No No
Multigraph Undirected Yes No
Pseudograph Undirected Yes Yes
Simple Directed
Directed No No
Graph
Directed Multi-
Directed Yes No
graph
Both Directed
Mixed Graph Yes Yes
and Undirected

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Examples:

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In-degree and Out-degree
In a directed graph, the in-degree of a vertex 𝑣, denoted by
𝑑𝑒𝑔 − (𝑣), is the number of edges with 𝑣 as a terminal vertex.
The out-degree of 𝑣, denoted by 𝑑𝑒𝑔 + (𝑣), is the number of
edges with 𝑣 as their initial vertex.
Theorem
Let 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) be a directed graph. Then,
Õ Õ
𝑑𝑒𝑔 − (𝑣) = 𝑑𝑒𝑔 + (𝑣) = |𝐸 |
𝑣 ∈𝑉 𝑣 ∈𝑉

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The Handshaking Theorem

Theorem
Let 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) be an undirected graph with 𝑚 edges. Then
Õ
deg(𝑣) = 2𝑚
𝑣 ∈𝑉

Theorem
Prove that the maximum number of edges in a simple
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
graph with 𝑛 vertices is 𝑛 𝐶2 =
2

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Problems

Problem 1: We have a graph that has 21 edges, 3 vertices of

degree 4, and all other vertices of degree 2. Find the total
number of vertices in the graph.
Problem 2: Is it possible to have a 2021 vertex graph in which
every vertex has degree 3?
Problem 3: An undirected graph has an even number of
vertices of odd degree.
Problem 4: Verify the Handshaking Theorem for the
following graphs:

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Some special types of Graphs

• Regular Graph

• Complete Graph (𝐾𝑛 )

• Walk

• Trail

• Circuit

• Path (𝑃𝑛 )

• Cycle (𝐶𝑛 )

• Wheel (𝑊𝑛 )

• Bipartite Graph

• Complete bipartite graph (𝐾𝑚,𝑛 )

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Regular and Complete Graph

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Walk

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Trail

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Circuit

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Path (𝑃𝑛 ), Cycle (𝐶𝑛 ) and Wheel (𝑊𝑛 )

Path (𝑃𝑛 ): A path graph consists of 𝑛 vertices that can be

arranged in a line so that vertices 𝑖 and 𝑖 + 1 are connected by
an edge for 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3 . . . , 𝑛 − 1.
Note: No vertex appears more than once in the path. The total
number of edges in the path is called the length of a path.
Cycle (𝐶𝑛 ): The cycle 𝐶𝑛 , 𝑛 ≥ 3 consists of 𝑛 vertices 1, 2, 3, . . . , 𝑛 and
edges 𝑒 1 = (1, 2), 𝑒 2 = (2, 3), . . . , 𝑒 𝑛−1 = (𝑛 − 1, 𝑛), 𝑒 𝑛 = (𝑛, 1).
Note: A closed path is cycle.
Wheel (𝑊𝑛 ): The wheel 𝑊𝑛 is obtained by adding an additional
vertex to the cycle 𝐶𝑛 , 𝑛 ≥ 3; and connect this new vertex 𝑥 to each
of the 𝑛-vertices in 𝐶𝑛 by new edges.

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Bipartite and Com. Bipartite Graph

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Problems: Bipartite Graph

(4)
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Problems:

1 Prove that an undirected graph is bipartite if and only if

it contains no odd cycle.
2 Show that the complete graph 𝐾3 is not bipartite.
3 Show that the cyclic graph 𝐶6 is bipartite.
4 A complete graph with 𝑛 vertices is (𝑛 − 1) regular graph.
5 For a 𝑘 regular graph, if 𝑘 is odd, then the number of
vertices of the graph must be even.
6 Cycle 𝐶𝑛 is always a 2-regular graph.
7 Number of edges of a 𝑘 regular graph with 𝑛 vertices is
𝑛𝑘
.
2
8 For any simple bipartite graph 𝐺 with 𝑒 edges and 𝑣
𝑣2
vertices, prove that 𝑒 ≤ .
4
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Subgraphs

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Different kinds of Subgraphs

0 0
• A graph 𝐻 = (𝑉 , 𝐸 ) is called a sub-graph of 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸), if
0 0
𝑉 ⊆ 𝑉 and 𝐸 ⊆ 𝐸 .
0 0
• A graph 𝐻 = (𝑉 , 𝐸 ) is called a proper sub-graph of
0 0
𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸), if 𝑉 ⊂ 𝑉 and 𝐸 ⊂ 𝐸 . [Proper subsets]
0 0
• A graph 𝐻 = (𝑉 , 𝐸 ) is called a spanning sub-graph of
0
𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸), if 𝑉 = 𝑉. A spanning subgraph of 𝐺 need not
contain all its edges.
• If we delete a subset 𝑈 of 𝑉 and all the edges incident on
the elements of 𝑈 from a graph 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸), then the
subgraph 𝐺 − 𝑈 is called a vertex deleted subgraph of 𝐺.
• If we delete a subset 𝐹 of 𝐸 from a graph 𝐺 (𝑉, 𝐸), then the
subgraph 𝐺 − 𝐹 is called an edge deleted subgraph of 𝐺.
0 0 0 0
• A subgraph 𝐻 = (𝑉 , 𝐸 ) of 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸), where 𝑉 ⊆ 𝑉 and 𝐸
consists of only those edges that are incident on the
0
elements of 𝑉 , is called an induced subgraph of 𝐺.

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Examples

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Figure: Caption Shiv Nadar University Chennai
Sumangal Bhattacharya
Properties of Subgraphs

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Problem: Subgraphs

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Operations on graphs

The operation on a graph means modifying the given graph

to get a new graph by adding or deleting vertices or edges
or by combining multiple graphs using Boolean operations.
Some of the graph operations are

1 Deletion of edges

2 Deletion of vertices

3 Addition of edges

4 Graph complement

5 Union of graphs

6 Intersection of graphs

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Deletion of Edges

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Deletion of Vertices

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Addition of Edges

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Graph Complement

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Union of Graph

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Union of Graph: Example

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Intersection of Graphs

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Intersection of Graphs: Example 1

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Intersection of Graphs: Example 2

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.

Connectivity, Cut, Bridges, Blocks

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Connectivity

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Cut Points

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Cut Points: Example

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Cut Points: Example

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Bridge

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Bridge: Example

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Bridge: Example

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Bridge: Problem

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Cut Set

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Vertex and Edge Connectivity

• Vertex Connectivity: The connectivity (or vertex

connectivity) of vertices whose removal makes 𝐺
disconnected or reduces to a trivial graph. It is denoted
by 𝐾 (𝐺).
• 𝐾 (𝐺) = 0, if the graph is disconnected.
• 𝐾 (𝐺) = 1, if 𝐺 has a cut vertex.
• 𝐾 (𝐾 𝑝 ) = 𝑝 − 1, for the complete graph 𝐾 𝑝 with 𝑝 vertices.
Any complete graph can never be disconnected by the
removal of vertices. But it results in a trivial graph (a graph
that has only one vertex and no edges) by removing ( 𝑝 − 1)
vertices.
• Edge Connectivity: The edge connectivity of a
connected graph 𝐺 is the minimum number of edges
whose removal makes 𝐺 a disconnected or trivial graph.
It is denoted by 𝜆(𝐺).
• In other words, the number of edges in the smallest cut
set of 𝐺 is called the edge connectivity of 𝐺.
• If 𝐺 has a cut edge, then 𝜆(𝐺) is 1. (edge connectivity of 𝐺.)
• 𝜆(𝐾1 ) = 0, as 𝐾1 is trivial graph.
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Blocks

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Blocks: Example

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Blocks: Problem

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.

Eulerian Graphs and Hamiltonian graphs

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Euler Graph

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Euler Graph

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Example: Euler Graph

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Example: Euler Path

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Euler Graph

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Example: Euler Circuit

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Euler’s Theorem

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Euler’s Graph

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The Konigsberg Bridge Problem

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Example: Euler’s Graph

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Problems: Euler’s Graph

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Solutions: Euler’s Graph

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Hamiltonian Graphs

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Hamiltonian Path

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Hamiltonian Graphs

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Hamiltonian Circuit

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Example: Hamiltonian Graphs

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Example: Hamiltonian Graphs

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Problem: Hamiltonian Graphs

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Solution: Hamiltonian Graphs

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Dirac’s Theorems

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Hamiltonian Vs. Eulerian

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Problem: Path

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Problem: Eulerian Path

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Problem: Eulerian Path

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Problem: Hamiltonian Path

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