X-Rays:

X-radiation (composed of X-rays) is a form of electromagnetic radiation. X-rays have a

wavelength in the range of 10 to 0.01 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30
petahertz to 30 exahertz (30×1015Hz to 30×1018Hz) and energies in the range 120 eV to 120 keV.
They are longer than gamma rays but shorter than UV rays. In many languages, X-radiation is
called Röntgen radiation after one of its first investigators, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen.

Characteristics of X-Rays

X-rays are invisible.

X-rays are electrically neutral. They have neither a positive nor a negative charge. They cannot be
accelerated or made to change direction by a magnet or electrical field.
X-rays have no mass.
X-rays travel at the speed of light in a vacuum.
X-rays cannot be optically focused.
X-rays form a polyenergetic or heterogeneous beam. The x-ray beam used in diagnostic
radiography comprises many photons that have many different energies.
X-rays travel in straight lines.
X-rays can cause some substances to fluoresce.
X-rays cause chemical changes to occur in radiographic and photographic film.
X-rays can be absorbed or scattered by tissues in the human body.
X-rays can produce secondary radiation.
X-rays can cause chemical and biologic damage to living tissue.

Production of X-rays:

Bremsstrahlung Spectrum:

X-rays are created from the conversion of kinetic energy of electrons into electromagnetic
radiation when they are decelerated by interaction with a target material. A simplified diagram of
an x-ray tube (Fig. 1) illustrates these components. For diagnostic radiology, a large electric
potential difference (the SI unit of potential difference is the volt, V) of 20,000 to 150,000 V (20
to 150 kV) is applied between two electrodes (the cathode and the anode) in the vacuum. The
cathode is the source of electrons, and the anode, with a positive potential with respect to the
cathode, is the target of electrons. As electrons from the cathode travel to the anode, they are
accelerated by the voltage between the electrodes and attain kinetic energies equal to the product
of the electrical charge and potential difference. A common unit of energy is the electron volt (eV),
equal to the energy attained by an electron accelerated across a potential difference of 1 V. Thus,
the kinetic energy of an electron accelerated by a potential difference of 50 kV is 50 keV.
On impact with the target, the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted to other forms of energy.
The vast majority of interactions are collisional, whereby energy exchanges with electrons in the
target give rise to heat. A small fraction of the accelerated electrons comes within the proximity
of an atomic nucleus and is influenced by its positive electric field. Electrical (Coulombic) forces
attract and decelerate an electron and change its direction, causing a loss of kinetic energy, which
is emitted as an x-ray photon of equal energy (i.e., bremsstrahlung radiation).

Fig. 1

The amount of energy lost by the electron and thus the energy of the resulting x-ray are determined
by the distance between the incident electron and the target nucleus, since the Coulombic force is
proportional to the inverse of the square of the distance. At relatively large distances from the
nucleus, the Coulombic attraction is weak; these encounters produce low x-ray energies (Fig. 2,
electron no. 3). At closer interaction distances, the force acting on the electron increases, causing
a greater deceleration; these encounters produce higher x-ray energies (Fig. 2, electron no. 2). A
nearly direct impact of an electron with the target nucleus results in loss of nearly all of the
electron’s kinetic energy (Fig. 2, electron no. 1). In this rare situation, the highest x-ray energies
are produced.

Fig.2
Characteristic X-ray Spectrum

In addition to the continuous bremsstrahlung x-ray spectrum, discrete x-ray energy peaks called
“characteristic radiation” can be present, depending on the elemental composition of the target
electrode and the applied x-ray tube voltage. Electrons in an atom are distributed in shells, each of
which has an electron binding energy. The innermost shell is designated the K shell and has the
highest electron binding energy, followed by the L, M, and N shells, with progressively less
binding energy. Table 6-1 lists the common anode target materials and the corresponding binding
energies of their K, L, and M electron shells. The electron binding energies are “characteristic” of
the elements. When the energy of an incident electron, determined by the voltage applied to the x-
ray tube, exceeds the binding energy of an electron shell in a target atom, a collisional interaction
can eject an electron from its shell, creating a vacancy. An outer shell electron with less binding
energy immediately transitions to fill the vacancy, and a characteristic x-ray is emitted with an
energy equal to the difference in the electron binding energies of the two shells (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3

For tungsten, an L-shell (binding energy = 10.2 keV) electron transition to fill a K-shell (binding
energy = 69.5 keV) vacancy produces a characteristic x-ray with a discrete energy of
EbK − EbL = 69.5 keV − 10.2 keV = 59.3 keV
Electron transitions occur from adjacent and nonadjacent electron shells in the atom, giving rise to
several discrete characteristic energy peaks superimposed on the bremsstrahlung spectrum.
Characteristic x-rays are designated by the shell in which the electron vacancy is filled, and a
subscript of α or β indicates whether the electron transition is from an adjacent shell (α) or
nonadjacent shell (β). For example, Kα refers to an electron transition from the L to the K shell,
and Kβ refers to an electron transition from the M, N, or O shell to the K shell. A Kβ x-ray is more
energetic than a Kα x-ray.

Why do we need electrons to produce X-rays?

X-rays are generated when free electrons give up some of their energy when they interact with the
orbital electrons or nucleus of an atom. The energy given up by the electron during this interaction
appears as electromagnetic energy known as X-radiation.

Minimum wavelength of X-rays:

The x-rays produced at a given accelerating potential V vary in wavelength, but none has a
wavelength shorter than a certain critical value λ min. Increasing V decreases λmin. At a particular
V, λmin is the same for both the tungsten and molybdenum targets. Duane and Hunt found
experimentally that λmin is inversely proportional to V; their precise relationship
1.24×10−6
λmin = V.m
V

The corresponding minimum energy for this frequency

E=hν = 6.63×10-34×1.21×1019 = ??

Moseley’s law:

Moseley plotted the square root of the frequencies ( √𝜐 ) of a given line (say Ka) against atomic
numbers (Z) of the elements emitting that line. Moseley obtained a straight line as shown in Fig.
4. The same linear relation was found to hold good for any line in any series. He concluded
therefore, that atomic number (and not atomic weight) is the fundamental property of elements.

Statement: The frequency of a spectral line in X-ray spectrum, varies as the square of the atomic
number of the element emitting it, or   Z 2 . Moseley’s law may be written as
 = a ( Z − b)
. Here, Z is the atomic number of the element and a and b are constants depending upon the
particular line.

Fig. 4

Importance of Moseley’s law:

(1)
According to this law, it is the atomic number and not atomic weight of an element which
determines its characteristic properties, both physical and chemical. Therefore, the atoms must
be arranged in the periodic table according to the atomic numbers and not the atomic weight.
This would remove some discrepencies in the order of certain elements from the point of view
of their atomic weights. For example, argon 18Ar40 comes before potassium ( 19K39),
cobalt(27Co58.9) comes before nickel (28Ni58.7) etc. So the arrangement is correct in the order of
atomic number.
(2) Moseley’s work has also helped to perfect the periodic table by (i) the discovery of new
elements, e.g., hafnium (72), lithium (61), masurium (43), rhenium (75), ete., and (ii) the
determination of the atomic numbers of rare-earths and fixing their positions in the periodic
table.
Problem: The wavelength of the Lα X-rays line of platinum (atomic number 78) is 1.321 Å . An
unknown substance emits Lα X-rays of wavelength 4.174 Å. Calculate the atomic number of the
unknown substance. Given b= 7.4 for Lα lines
Solution: Moseley’s law is  = a( Z − b)
Let ν1 and ν2 be the frequencies of the La line of platinum and the unknown substance respectively.
Let their atomic number be Z1 and Z2 respectively. Then  1 = a(Z1 − b) and
 2 = a ( Z 2 − b) .
  1 Z1 − b 2
 = or Z 2 − b = ( Z 1 − b)
 2 Z2 − b 1
 2 1
Since c = vλ wehave =
 1 2
1 1
Z 2 − b = ( Z 1 − b) or, Z 2 = b + ( Z 1 − b)
2 2
o o
here, b = 7.4; Z1 = 78; 1 = 1.321 A; 2 = 4.174 A
 Z 2 = 7.4 + (78 − 7.4) 1.321 = 47.12
4.174
The atomic number of the unknown substance is 47.12.

Bragg’s law:

When monochromatic X-rays impinge upon the atoms in a crystal lattice, each atom acts as a
source of scattering radiation of the same wavelength. The crystal acts as a series of parallel
reflecting planes. The intensity of the reflected beam at certain angle will be maximum when the
path difference between two reflected waves from two different planes is an integral multiple of
λ.
Bragg's Law may also be derived graphically in an easy way...

The hypothesis is to imagine Bragg's diffraction as a reflection of X-rays caused by imaginary

"mirrors" formed by atomic planes in the crystal lattice (shown in fig. 5 as horizontal lines
containing the scattering centers, that is, atoms shown as circles in the image). Due to the repetitive
nature of the crystal, these planes would be separated by constant distances d.

The two X-ray beams of wavelength λ, arrive in phase onto the respective imaginary planes, with
an angle of incidence θ, and form a wave front (OF, OH ete.).

In order to obtain a cooperative effect, after reflection both X-ray beams should still be in phase,
a situation that will only happen if the path difference traveled by the wave fronts OF and OH
(wave fronts before and after reflection) is an integer number of wavelengths.

Fig. 5
This condition is equivalent to saying that the sum of the FG and GH segments corresponds to an
integer (n) times the wavelength (λ):

Therefore, FG + GH = nλ (1)
But FG = GH and sin θ = FG / d
Hence FG = d sin θ and therefore expression (1) becomes:
2 d sin θ = nλ
This is the very well known Bragg's Law.

Problem: The spacing between principal planes of NaCl is 2.82 Å. It is found that first order
bragg reflection occurs at an angle of 10°. What is the wavelength of X-rays?
Solution: 2dsin θ = nλ, Here d=2.82 Å = 2.82× 10-10m, n=1 and  = 10°
2dsin θ
𝜆= 𝑛
= 0.98 × 10-10 m.

Problem: An X-ray tube with Cu target is operated at 28 kV. The smallest glancing angle for NaCl
crystal for the Cu-Kα line is 15.8°. Find the wavelength of this line. Also find the glancing angle
for photons at the short wavelength limit. (d for NaCl = 0.282 nm)

Solution: R. Murugeshan, page-134.

X-rays are more penetrative than visible light. Why?

Ans: Wave length of X-rays is very small compared to the wavelength of visible light i.e.,
energy of X-rays is very high compared to the energy of visible light. Hence X-rays are more
penetrative than visible light.

Applications of X-rays

Most applications of X rays are based on their ability to pass through matter. This ability varies
with different substances; e.g., wood and flesh are easily penetrated, but denser substances such as
lead and bone are more opaque. The penetrating power of X rays also depends on their energy.
The more penetrating X rays, known as hard X rays, are of higher frequency and are thus more
energetic, while the less penetrating X rays, called soft X rays, have lower energies. X rays that
have passed through a body provide a visual image of its interior structure when they strike a
photographic plate or a fluorescent screen; the darkness of the shadows produced on the plate or
screen depends on the relative opacity of different parts of the body.

Photographs made with X rays are known as radiographs or skiagraphs. Radiography has
applications in both medicine and industry, where it is valuable for diagnosis and nondestructive
testing of products for defects. Fluoroscopy is based on the same techniques, with the photographic
plate replaced by a fluorescent screen; its advantages over radiography in time and cost are
balanced by some loss in sharpness of the image. X rays are also used with computers in CAT
(computerized axial tomography) scans to produce cross-sectional images of the inside of the
body.

Another use of radiography is in the examination and analysis of paintings, where studies can
reveal such details as the age of a painting and underlying brushstroke techniques that help to
identify or verify the artist. X rays are used in several techniques that can provide enlarged images
of the structure of opaque objects. These techniques collectively referred to as X-ray microscopy
or microradiography, can also be used in the quantitative analysis of many materials. One of the
dangers in the use of X rays is that they can destroy living tissue and can cause severe skin burns
on human flesh exposed for too long a time. This destructive power is used in X-ray therapy to
destroy diseased cells.