Review

Current Status and Perspectives on Wire and Arc

Additive Manufacturing (WAAM)
Tiago A. Rodrigues *, V. Duarte, R.M. Miranda, Telmo G. Santos and J.P. Oliveira *
UNIDEMI, Departamento de Engenharia Mecânica e Industrial, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia,
Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2825-149 Caparica, Portugal; [email protected] (V.D.);
[email protected] (R.M.M.); [email protected] (T.G.S.)
* Correspondence: [email protected] (T.A.R.); [email protected] (J.P.O.)
Received: 8 March 2019; Accepted: 1 April 2019; Published: 4 April 2019

Abstract: Additive manufacturing has revolutionized the manufacturing paradigm in recent years
due to the possibility of creating complex shaped three-dimensional parts which can be difficult or
impossible to obtain by conventional manufacturing processes. Among the different additive
manufacturing techniques, wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is suitable to produce
large metallic parts owing to the high deposition rates achieved, which are significantly larger than
powder-bed techniques, for example. The interest in WAAM is steadily increasing, and
consequently, significant research efforts are underway. This review paper aims to provide an
overview of the most significant achievements in WAAM, highlighting process developments and
variants to control the microstructure, mechanical properties, and defect generation in the as-built
parts; the most relevant engineering materials used; the main deposition strategies adopted to
minimize residual stresses and the effect of post-processing heat treatments to improve the
mechanical properties of the parts. An important aspect that still hinders this technology is
certification and nondestructive testing of the parts, and this is discussed. Finally, a general
perspective of future advancements is presented.

Keywords: wire and arc additive manufacturing; additive manufacturing; microstructure;

mechanical properties; applications

1. Introduction
Additive manufacturing is nowadays one of the hot topics in the manufacturing and engineering
worlds. The ability to create three-dimensional, complex, and near-net shape parts in a layer by layer
deposition process is currently a major driving force for major breakthroughs. These breakthroughs
are observed either in the process itself, by developing process variants with dedicated purposes to
increase capabilities, but also on the materials used, since the non-equilibrium solidification
conditions which occur during fusion-based additive manufacturing can lead to microstructural
features not often found in conventional materials manufacturing processes.
Currently, additive manufacturing processes based on fusion are mostly focused on powder-
bed systems using laser and/or electron beams as heat sources. Despite very high precision
dimensional tolerances achieved with these techniques, the deposition rate is low, increasing lead
times. Additionally, using powder as the feedstock materials makes the process more prone to the
formation of defects such as pores, which can hamper the structural integrity of the parts, especially
during dynamic solicitation conditions. Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) uses an
electric arc as the heat source and a solid wire as the feedstock material. Though the precision of the
as-built parts may be lower than those obtained using powder-bed systems, the depositions rates are
significantly higher, allowing to manufacture large metallic structural parts in short times. WAAM is
currently being embraced by both academia and industry owing to the advantages of the technique.

Materials 2019, 12, 1121; doi:10.3390/ma12071121 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2019, 12, 1121 2 of 42

Therefore, several research papers have been dealing with fundamental aspects associated with the
process and its effects on the material’s microstructure and mechanical properties. Additionally,
some applications are already making use of parts built by WAAM, showing the viability of this
process. This review paper intends to provide an overview of the major developments in WAAM,
covering important topics, such as process variants, materials for WAAM, development of residual
stresses, and post-processing heat treatment, as well as non-destructive testing. This review finalizes
with current applications based on WAAM parts and a summary of areas where additional research
efforts need to focus.

2. Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) Process and Variants

WAAM is classified in the category of direct energy deposition according to ASTM F2792-12a
[1], and is defined as the combination of an electric arc used as a heat source, and a wire employed
as a feedstock material. The process is schematically represented in Figure 1. WAAM relies on the
fundamental concepts of automatized welding processes, such as: gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
[2], plasma arc welding (PAW) [3], and gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) [4].
In the past years, WAAM has had different designations, such as rapid prototyping (RP), shape
welding (SW), shape melting (SM), solid freeform fabrication (SFF), shape metal deposition (SMD),
and even 3D welding [5].

Figure 1. Schematic representation of the wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) process
(adapted from [6]).

From the existing arc welding processes, GMAW, also known as metal inert gas (MIG)/metal
active gas (MAG), is the most used process in WAAM. GMAW is a fusion-based arc welding process
where the arc is established between the tip of a consumable wire and the workpiece under the
protection of an inert or active shielding gas that also protects the weld pool and adjacent material.
Deposition rates range from 15 to 160 g/min using GMAW in additive manufacturing, depending on
the deposited material and process parameters, making it ideal for the production of large-scale parts
in short time spans [7–9].
The other two arc welding processes are GTAW and PAW. These have some similarities, since
they both use a non-consumable tungsten electrode to establish an electric arc with the workpiece
under an inert shielding gas without filler material. GTAW was one of the first arc welding processes
that became widespread due to its high precision with almost no defects, since the electric arc is very
stable [10]. However, for WAAM it needs external filler material. PAW is a high energy-density
process, where the arc is forced to pass through an orifice placed between the cathode and anode that
constrains the arc, resulting in an increased arc stability. Through the use of a mostly inert,
plasmogenic arc, a highly localized ionized plasma forms with very high temperatures and energy.
Thus, it is considered a high-density energy process with energy densities lower than those obtained
by high power beams as a laser [11], but higher than other electric arc processes. The heat affected
zone (HAZ) of PAW beads is narrow and thin, allowing for better control of weld bead geometry due
to the increased flexibility for independently controlling the most important process parameters:
current and wire feed speed [12]. By varying the plasma gas flow rate, torch orifice diameter, and
current intensity, it is possible to achieve different operating modes in PAW namely microplasma,
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 3 of 42

medium current, and keyhole plasma. Microplasma is characterized by requiring low welding
currents, between 0.1 and 15 A. This welding technique, when applied to additive manufacturing,
presents major advantages regarding the total wall width (TWW) by allowing the production of thin
parts with TWW values as low as 2 mm. Though deposition rates are low, about 1.0 g/min [13], when
compared to other arc based processes, the low heat input allows for good surface finish. The most
commonly used operation mode in PAW is medium current, with the current typically ranging from
15 to 200 A. This operation mode has very similar characteristics to GTAW, but the plasma
confinement makes the arc stiffer and less sensitive to torch stand-off variations. Wall width varies
from 4 to 15 mm and the deposition rate can be as high as 30 g/min [3,7,14]. Keyhole mode is
characterized by high penetration, making it unsuitable for additive manufacturing, since it fully
melts the previously deposited layers compromising the wall stability and geometric accuracy.
Electric arc-based welding, in general, can be complex since several process parameters must be
controlled to have a good quality of the final parts. Process parameters include: current intensity,
voltage, shielding gas type and flow rate, contact-tip-to-work distance, wire feed speed, travel speed,
and torch angle. Thus, for each equipment and materials involved, these have to be optimized. The
right selection of parameters affects the transfer mode, which is very important to determine bead
width, penetration and size, deposition rate, and surface roughness.
In the pursuit for a better and more stable process to control molten metal deposition with
reduced heat input, a variant of GMAW, known as cold metal transfer (CMT), has been adapted to
additive manufacturing. It is an advanced material transfer process in which an incorporated control
system detects when the electrode wire tip contacts with the molten pool, and by activation of a
servomotor, retracts the wire in a push and pull electromechanical process, to control droplet transfer.
Variants of cold metal transfer include CMT pulse (CMT-P), CMT advanced (CMT-ADV), and CMT
pulse advanced (CMT-PADV), which have been developed by Fronius [15]. When optimized, cold
metal transfer is suitable for application in Ti-based alloys [16].
Another variant is tandem GMAW, in which two wires are fed into the melt pool in order to
achieve high deposition rates (160 g/min) [9,17]. Nevertheless, this method requires a high amount
of energy to maintain the arc, so some improvements that enhance heat dissipation are required to
control the molten pool shape.
Arc welding-based technologies have been successfully used for additive manufacturing
applications, especially because there is considerable knowledge accumulated on process, welding
metallurgy, and mechanical performance of welded parts. However, in WAAM there are issues
which still need research, such as determination of optimum torch path planning to obtain fully dense
parts with minimized residual stresses, control of microstructural evolution during multiple layer
deposition, and effect of temperature between layers, among others. Some research groups have
developed new process variants to mitigate some of the above-mentioned issues, namely by applying
mechanical deformation between layers or active heating and cooling, for example.

2.1. WAAM Process Variants

2.1.1. Cold-Work Based Techniques

High pressure inter-layer rolling is a cold-work process variant developed at Cranfield
University [18]. It consists of imposing a load of up to 100 kN onto a roller traveling over the already
existent deposited layers, to promote plastic deformation of the surface and thus recrystallize the
grain in the following deposition. The process is schematically depicted in Figure 2.
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 4 of 42

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of cold rolling WAAM process (adapted from [18]).

Martina et al. [18] showed that inter-layer rolling in WAAM of Ti-6Al-4V induced prior β grain
refinement, thickness reduction of the α-phase lamellae, and an overall modification of the
microstructure from columnar to equiaxed. After these promising results, several studies have been
conducted to extract other benefits from the high pressure inter-layer rolling, particularly to control
residual stress and distortion in aluminum [19,20] and titanium [21,22] alloys. In order to strengthen
the as-deposited WAAM material, Gu et al. [14,23] combined inter-layer rolling with a post-WAAM
heat treatment, achieving higher mechanical properties (ultimate tensile strength and elongation)
with the increase of the applied load.
Porosity is a recurrent problem in WAAM, particularly in aluminum alloys, due to its low
hydrogen solubility in the solid-sate having a preferential location at the layer boundaries, which
causes a decrease of mechanical properties when stressed in the perpendicular direction. Inter-layer
rolling decreases porosity size and quantity with increasing rolling load, which has been claimed as
the reason for the ductility increase of WAAM-rolled aluminum alloys [24]. Roller design plays an
important role in this methodology and its geometry must be adapted according to the produced part
features (i.e., thickness) in order to achieve homogeneous grain refinement [6]. In addition, cold
rolling has also been used to control the parts width, and consequently, improve the surface finish of
the final part geometry [25]. An example of a cold rolling variant, side rolling, is depicted in Figure
3, in which the material is strained in both longitudinal and normal directions.

Figure 3. Schematic representation of side rolling of WAAM part to enhance surface finish (adapted
from [19]).

An equally significant improvement of mechanical properties has also been made through the
use of machine hammer peening [26,27] and laser shock peening [28]. Laser shock peening was
performed laterally on 2319 post-machined aluminum parts and resulted in a decrease of average
grain size by 22%, and in an increase of hardness [28]. This method, however, only had noticeable
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 5 of 42

effects within the first millimeter of the wall and the induced plastic deformation was not enough to
refine the complete wall thickness.
In summary, cold-work based techniques can significantly reduce residual stresses and
distortion, improve microstructural homogeneity and mechanical properties, reduce porosity,
minimize waviness, and increase final part geometry accuracy. However, most studies have been
carried out on simple geometry parts and the use of this methodology may be therefore limited to
specific designs. Heavy equipment is required when cold-working is to be applied, and its usage can
cause an increase in lead times devaluing the main characteristic of WAAM: its high deposition rate.

2.1.2. Active Inter-Layer Cooling and/or Heating

The high heat inputs and consequent low cooling rates typically result in coarse columnar grains
and anisotropy. Moreover, in WAAM, by definition, the inter-layer temperature is the temperature
of the previous deposited layer just before a new one is deposited, and is of major importance on the
part’s final properties [29]. It determines the conditions of heat dissipation by conduction through
the part, directly affecting the cooling rate and consequently, the microstructure and mechanical
properties. Due to the difficulty in reducing heat accumulation, it becomes difficult to keep a low
inter-layer temperature. This type of control is not suitable since a high inter-layer temperature may
only be achieved with the use of double torch system. On the other hand, the time needed to cool
down the part to a suitable temperature may lead to a total production time impracticable with
extended idle times. Even though a high inter-layer temperature improves the wettability of the
molten metal [30], when working with high temperatures the deposition becomes unstable and may
even lead to the collapse of the wall. In a first approach, the inter-layer temperature can be controlled
by imposing an interlayer idle time which can be optimized with the simulation of thermal behavior
during part production using finite element models [29].
The utilization of process add-ons to control thermal cycles has already been tested, using
compressed CO2 gas to impose a forced cooling. This promising development in WAAM of Ti-6Al-
4V presents benefits including: better surface finishing with less oxidation, refined microstructure,
improved mechanical properties, and enhanced manufacturing efficiency [31].
Another alternative to control the thermal cycles in WAAM, is using thermoelectric cooling.
Figure 4 depicts this approach. Heat sinks by conduction to the side walls, enabling similar heat
dissipation conditions throughout the full deposition. Additionally, this technique allows the control
of the bead geometry, decreasing the surface waviness by about 60% and the total fabrication time
can decrease by nearly 60% as well [32], since a continuous heat dissipation condition is achieved
without adjusting process parameters.

Figure 4. Representation of thermoelectric cooling setup (adapted from [32]).

Materials 2019, 12, 1121 6 of 42

While the previous technique envisaged to cool down the temperature interlayers, for some
materials and applications it may be of interest to have a quasi-isotropic material with minimum
residual stresses without post processing heat treatment. In this case, an innovative method was
developed to mitigate residual stresses consisting of an inductor with two symmetrical coils mounted
on both sides of the as-built part, as schematically depicted in Figure 5 [33]. The inductor can perform
both pre-heating and post-heating, depending on its positioning relative to the arc. In general, this
technique reduces the residual stresses and distortion of as-built parts. Moreover, this system has the
potential to overcome the inter-layer temperature issue, opening the possibility of maintaining a
constant inter-layer temperature throughout the full deposition.

Figure 5. Schematic representation of the inductor heating system (adapted from [33]).

Another process variant named hot-wire arc additive manufacturing (HWAAM) was developed
and constitutes an efficient alternative to refine the typical columnar grains in Ti-based alloys
processed by WAAM [34]. This variant consists on the use of another power source, which assists in
melting the filler material, and reducing the amount of arc heat input in a GTAW-like application.
The secondary power source has the positive pole connected to the filler wire while the negative one
is connected to the substrate. Figure 6a,b depicts a comparison between samples built with and
without this process variant. Besides a visible change in the wall geometry, due to different heat
inputs, the size of columnar β-grains decreased in the sample built by HWAAM, resulting in a
mixture of short columnar grains and equiaxed ones. This mixture promoted elongations of 12.6%
and 12.8% in the longitudinal and transversal directions, respectively, in opposition to the 23% and
9.17% obtained with conventional WAAM, thus, confirming the appropriateness of this method to
produce isotropic parts.

Figure 6. Macrostructure of samples produced: (a) with secondary heat source and (b) without
(adapted from [34]).
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 7 of 42

Localized heating/cooling mechanisms have shown promising results to reduce the interpass
temperature that can cause parts to collapse and induce a heat treatment on previously deposited
layers. Moreover, with only a constant interpass temperature it is possible to achieve more
homogenous properties. However, this is a field where more research is necessary to manufacture
parts with accurate pre-designed microstructures.

2.1.3. Pre-Heating of the Substrate

Pre-heating the substrate is one of the most efficient methods to mitigate residual stresses and
cracking, since it reduces thermal gradients and homogenizes temperature distribution. Alberti et al.
[35] compared depositions performed with and without pre-heating at a temperature of 300 °C in a
PAW additive manufacturing process, and observed that pre-heating increased the wettability of
each layer and enhanced the regularity of wall thickness, decreasing surface waviness.
It is known that in WAAM, the width in the first layers is significantly less thick than the
remaining layers due to a rapid cooling rate, which is caused by the large area of the substrate and
its initial temperature. With pre-heating of the substrate, heat conduction decreases and heat losses
are minimized, resulting in smaller temperature gradients.
Figure 7 presents the temperature gradients with the increase of layer height. The benefits of
pre-heating the substrate on the first layers with a heat input of 570 J/mm is visible. The maximum
temperature gradient in the first layer without pre-heating is 3.82 × 105 °C/m and reduces to 3.63 ×
105, 3.40 × 105, and 3.12 × 105 °C/m with a pre-heating of 200, 400 and 600 °C, respectively. In addition,
the temperature gradient decreases with the increase of deposited layers. Besides reducing the
temperature gradients and achieving a smoother thermal cycle on the firsts layers, other benefits
include reduced thermal stresses and cracking susceptibility [36].

Figure 7. Temperature gradients variation from the first to the tenth layer (adapted from [36]).

2.1.4. Substrate Release Mechanisms

Usually, the substrate has a composition similar to that of the material being deposited,
supporting adhesion and stability. Even though novel design approaches consider the substrate as a
part of the final component [37], Haselhuhn et al. [38] tested several ways to easily remove the
produced parts from the substrates, reducing material waste. The authors evaluated the energy
necessary, by the Charpy impact test, to remove aluminum parts by spray-coating aluminum oxide
(18.50 µm thick), boron nitride (5.95 µm thick), and titanium nitride (6.25 µm thick) on an aluminum
substrate. Each one was seen to assist in substrate parts removal, but there was not any statistical
difference between the adhesion strength. Additionally, the effect of deposit on the first layers
without shielding gas and with reduced voltage and current, in order to decrease weld penetration,
was also investigated. The authors concluded that the arc instability caused by the lack of shielding
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 8 of 42

gas reduced weld bead penetration. Finally, the effect of using dissimilar materials to promote the
formation of brittle intermetallics between parts and the substrate was evaluated. According to the
summarized results presented in Figure 8, the authors observed that the formation of intermetallics
and the non-use of shielding gas in the first layers decreased the energy required to remove the parts
produced from the substrate. This can be attributed to the mechanical properties of the intermetallics
and the oxides formed by the inexistence of shielding gas, which tends to require lower amounts of
energy to fracture, hence facilitating detachment between the substrate and the as-build part. In
future works it is necessary to assess whether these mechanisms can be used for large-sized parts.

Figure 8. Impact energy test results of the samples built with different strategies and coatings
(adapted from [38]).

2.1.5. Shielding Mechanism

Shielding gas is one of the most influent parameters, since it affects bead geometry, process
stability, transfer mode, and bead appearance [39]. Besides its right selection, other methods have
been used to improve WAAM parts quality. Xu et al. [40] studied the effect of oxides on the
mechanical properties of maraging steel by varying shielding conditions. Results were obtained by
making one deposition in the open atmosphere with pure argon, and the other in an argon-filled tent
(chamber), in which the oxygen level was controlled below 300 ppm. Extra tent shielding
substantially improved the surface waviness and deposition efficiency by 37% and 9%, respectively.
Gas shielding flow was found to be of remarkable importance regarding wall appearance. In a
preliminary study [39], the effect of gas shielding flow in WAAM was analyzed, since turbulence
flow caused the shielding gases to mix with the surrounding air, resulting in poor shielding
conditions and increased atmosphere contamination that can lead to oxidation. A new device (Figure
9) consisting of three distinct parts was developed to achieve laminar flow of the shielding gas. The
first part is a diffusion chamber that uniformly distributes the inlet gas, the second is a honeycomb
wall that straightens the flow and reduces its lateral velocity, and the last part, at the end of the
chamber, is a layer of metal mesh used to further improve the uniformity of the flow. Overall, this
new device decreased the level of contamination up to three orders of magnitude.
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 9 of 42

Figure 9. (a) Setup of the WAAM trailing shield device; (b) schematic representation of the shielding
device (adapted from [39,41]).

As it can be observed, there are currently several impactful WAAM variants, all aiming to create
parts with better mechanical properties and tolerances, and to reduce the need for post-processing
techniques (machining and/or heat treatments). The abovementioned recent development shows the
great activity and interest that WAAM is attracting, not only from academia, but also from the
industry. Obviously, that focus cannot only be paid to the process variants in WAAM. The materials
to be processed also play a critical role, and due to the vast possibilities of materials that can be used
in WAAM, the same process variant may have different effects on the microstructure and/or
mechanical properties of the parts. The following section is dedicated to the most recent
developments regarding the different materials used in WAAM.

3. Materials
During parts fabrication, the deposited material undergoes various heating and cooling cycles
that may result in different grain structures along their height. Grain structure control is of major
importance since it determines the material mechanical properties. Typically, WAAM parts comprise
large columnar grains, formed by epitaxial growth from the substrate aligned along the buildup
direction normal to the solid/liquid interface, which has the maximum temperature gradient, thus
eliminating the need for nucleation sites [42]. This type of growth results in anisotropic properties,
which can be detrimental for multi-axial loading conditions. Equiaxed grains are desirable since they
can reduce crack susceptibility while improving ductility, resulting in components with (near)
isotropic properties. Thus, the use of add-ons that can perform in-process heat treatments, as well as
post-WAAM heat treatments, is essential. Another practice to control the microstructure is the use of
inoculants to refine the grain structure. A deep understanding of the mechanisms of nucleation with
inoculants and grain growth, as well as the challenges for its use in additive manufacturing, is well
described in [43].
Generally, any material available in the form of welding wire can be used for WAAM. The most
used ones are steel, aluminum, titanium, and nickel-based alloys. Ti-based and Ni-based alloys are
increasingly being studied due to their welcomed adoption by the aerospace industry. Thus, the
desire to mature this process for its adoption into mass production of aerospace components comes
from the ability to produce large parts with a low buy-to-fly (BTF) ratio. Other characteristics include,
high specific strength, thermal and electrochemical compatibility with advanced composite
materials, and the cost associated with applying subtractive methods onto these materials.
One of WAAM advantages is the possibility to process a vast range of materials, therefore the
present section reviews recent results, challenges, applications, and key details of the most commonly
used metallic alloys for WAAM.

3.1. Titanium-Based Alloys

Materials 2019, 12, 1121 10 of 42

Titanium-based alloys are increasingly being study in WAAM, allowing for a reduction in the
high costs associated with processing these materials. Ti-based alloys have high strength, toughness,
good corrosion resistance, and can tolerate extreme temperatures without significant loss of
mechanical properties, making them suitable for aerospace and biomedical applications [44]. Ti alloys
represent around 15% of the total weight of the Boeing 787 [45], owing to its electrochemical
compatibility with carbon fiber polymer composites.
Amongst the different additive manufacturing processes, WAAM allows for a better control of
the microstructure of these polymorph alloys, since these materials are highly sensitive to the thermal
history. Ti-6Al-4V is the most used Ti alloy and consequently the most studied in WAAM. Typically,
it is constituted by two phases, a hexagonal close-packed structure (hcp), α, and a body-centered
cubic (bcc), β. The different temperatures and cooling rates result in microstructure variations
through the parts height. The most common microstructure comprises fine acicular or
Widmanstätten colony and basket weave lamella-α morphologies [46]. Columnar β-grains from prior
layers with grain boundary-α [47] are also prominent undesired features, causing premature failure
in transverse loading solicitations [46,48]. This columnar structure is difficult to avoid since in low
concentrations, aluminum and vanadium have a high solubility in titanium and do not partition
ahead of the solidification front, becoming irrelevant as grain refiners [49]. Although the β grains
transform to fine α during cooling below the β-transus temperature, primary β grains can still have
a detrimental impact on mechanical properties [50].
Wang et al. [12] manipulated process variables to refine the poor primary β grains of Ti-6Al-4V
in pulsed-GTAW, concluding that the peak/base current ratio and pulse frequency had no significant
effect. However, equiaxed grains were achieved with a higher wire feed speed, since more nucleation
sites were provided, blocking the columnar growth.
From the previously described process variants, interpass rolling [51] showed to be a suitable
process to mitigate the typical anisotropy of additive manufacturing parts including Ti-6Al-4V parts.
Figure 10 depicts different electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) orientation maps of both the α-
phase and reconstructed β grain structures prior to transformation in an unrolled sample, rolled
sample with 50 kN, and rolled sample with 75 kN. The β grains are represented by the color red.
Reconstruction of prior β structures is often used to index this phase, due to its small scale and low
volume fraction. The unrolled sample exhibited a β-phase with a strong preferential <001>
crystallographic direction, and with columnar grains visible in both maps. When rolling was applied,
new β orientations, associated with the deformation of α laths, were created and a strong columnar
texture was mitigated. In a recent study, these new β orientations were found to arise from twinning
with the residual β [52]. Another key effect observed was the refinement effect induced by the
interpass rolling applied to the WAAM deposits: by increasing the applied load the grains become
more refined, resulting in an improvement of the material microstructure.
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 11 of 42

Figure 10. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) maps of the α-phase (a–c) and reconstructed β-
parent phase (d–f) of samples produced without rolling and with rolling loads of 50 kN and 75 kN
(adapted from [51]).

The common anisotropy of additive manufacturing parts and potential presence of undesired
phases can significantly reduce mechanical properties in both build up and transversal directions,
urging the need to control the microstructure during fabrication. Potentially nucleant particles are
being used in WAAM to refine the microstructure and enhance mechanical properties of Ti-based
alloys.
By adding boron traces (up to 0.13 wt.%), Bermingham et al. [53] demonstrated the effectiveness
of inoculants in eliminating the anisotropic microstructures of Ti-6Al-4V. Boron had a significant
impact on β-grain morphology and TiB needles were formed. These particles were found dispersed
in the microstructure, allowed to nucleate α-grains, and produced isotropic α-microstructures. The
boron modified alloy exhibited an increase of 40% in the failure strain, with the average failure stress
maintaining around 850 MPa.
Mereddy et al. [54] added up to 0.41 wt.% of carbon in Ti-6Al-4V parts. The β-grain density
increased while the α-lath length decreased. Carbon is an effective refiner in Ti alloys with
hypereutectic compositions since it nucleates TiC particles. However, for hypoeutectic compositions,
refinement is a result of the segregation of carbon solute, decreasing solidification temperature, and
generating constitutional supercooling and growth restriction. The mechanical properties of as-built
samples with and without carbon additions, with a small amount of carbon (0.03 wt.%), medium
amount (0.1 wt.%), and excessive amount (0.41 wt.%), are illustrated in Figure 11. Sample built with
0.41 wt.% of carbon formed large carbides which significantly deteriorated the mechanical properties,
while the part built with a medium amount of carbon had an increased strength and ductility of 9%
and 30%, respectively.
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 12 of 42

Figure 11. Effect of carbon additions on Ti-6Al-4V mechanical properties (adapted from [54]).

Similarly, the same authors added silicon to a commercially pure titanium wire, promoting
refinement of the grain size, particularly on the prior β grains [55]. Silicon, however, did not fully
eliminate columnar grains. Instead they became narrower with a similar length to those of silicon-
free samples. Overall, silicon promoted supercooling and growth restriction, but further refinement
might only be possible with additional powerful refiners.

3.2. Nickel-Based Alloys

Nickel-based alloys are a class of materials mostly used in the aerospace and nuclear industries,
for instance in transition ducts and gas turbines. These alloys are characterized by high strength at
elevated temperatures, low thermal expansion, and excellent corrosion resistance. Their common
austenitic matrix makes them suitable to operate within a wide range of temperatures. High costs,
ability to adhere to cutting edges, and the presence of abrasive carbide particles makes Ni-based
alloys difficult to machine, so WAAM becomes a viable technique to eliminate the material waste and
consequently the overall costs associated with processing of this alloy. Upon solidification, Ni-based
alloys may exhibit the following: solidification cracking [56], liquation cracking [57], ductility-dip
cracking [58], and strain-age cracking [59]. Hence, special care must be taken during WAAM of these
materials.
Typically, Ni-based alloys, such as Inconel 625 and Inconel 718, have high concentrations of
alloying elements that can segregate during solidification in the interdendritic spaces. Moreover,
their mechanical properties are highly governed by the Laves phase, and its morphology is
dependent on thermal history which consequently affects the parts final properties. Inconel is a solid-
solution-strengthened nickel-based superalloy, that with the addition of substitutional alloying
elements, such as Cr and Mo, provides nucleation sites and the preservation of austenite once cooled.
Other phases commonly found in Inconel that are used for strengthening effects, include γ’ phase
[Ni3(Al, Ti, Nb)], γ" (Ni3Nb, ordered bct D022 structure), and blocky MC carbides. Nevertheless, the
mechanical properties of Inconel alloys can decrease with the formation of undesirable phases, such
as the δ-phase (Ni3Nb, orthorhombic) [60].
Inconel 625 parts manufactured by WAAM consist of vertically columnar dendrites in an
austenitic phase (γ) matrix [61]. Solidification started with the L to γ reaction, and Nb and Mo
precipitated in the interdendritic and grain boundaries where Laves phase will precipitate. With the
increase of height during build up, the primary arm spacing varied from 13 µm, 23 µm, and 35 µm,
from near the substrate, in the middle section, and in the top region, respectively. It obtained an
average ultimate tensile strength of 722 ± 17 MPa and 684 ± 23 MPa in the travel and build directions,
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 13 of 42

respectively. As for the elongation, 42.27 ± 2.4% and 40.13 ± 3.7%, respectively, were obtained.
Fracture analysis revealed a ductile morphology with dimples. The shielding gas also played an
important role on the final mechanical and geometrical properties of Inconel 625 parts. The ultimate
tensile strength increased by 50 MPa when 97.5% Ar and 2.5% CO2 as shielding gas was used [62].
Plasma arc-based WAAM was used to investigate the properties and microstructure of Inconel
718 superalloy in three conditions: as-built, with interpass rolling, and rolled with heat treatment in
agreement with AMS-5662M [63]. The as-built samples exhibited the typical dendritic structure with
Laves phase aligned with the build direction. The rolled samples showed refined grains near the
boundaries of the produced walls with a recrystallized core in the central region. When solution plus
aging heat treatments were applied, some of the Laves were dissolved and allowed to homogenize
the distribution of the secondary phase particles. By X-ray diffraction, the δ phase was noticed after
solution plus aging treatment of the rolled sample. However, its presence was not found in the
wrought alloy. Laves phase, residual Laves phase, and δ phase precipitates of a rolled sample are
depicted in Figure 12. Even tough rolling induced recrystallization, and columnar grains were still
observed in some regions of the as-built samples, falling short to the wrought alloy. Consequently,
the hardness was not homogenous along the wall thickness. Moreover, with the solution treatment,
Nb did not completely diffuse and consequently Laves did not fully dissolve, suggesting the need for
higher temperatures and/or longer periods for the heat treatment to be effective.

Figure 12. Precipitates found under SEM of the rolled with heat treatment sample (green: residual
Laves phase, yellow: δ phase, purple: nanoscale precipitates along grain boundaries) (adapted from
[63]).

Table 1 presents the mechanical properties obtained for the as-built and rolled samples with and
without heat treatment. With heat treatment, the average ultimate tensile strength was increased by
around 284 MPa and 232 MPa more than the as-built samples, and by 266 MPa and 284 MPa more
than the as-rolled samples in the longitudinal and transversal direction, respectively. Therefore, it
was concluded that a significant improvement in the mechanical properties of Inconel WAAM parts
can be achieved through proper heat treatment schedules and by paying special attention to the post-
processing of these materials.

Table 1. Mechanical test results of Inconel 718 parts in the longitudinal (Long.) and transversal
(Trans.) directions (adapted from [63]).

YS 0.2% UTS Elongation

Hardness
Process (MPa) (MPa) (%)
(HV)
Long. Trans. Long. Trans. Long. Trans.
33.3 ± 27.9 ±
As-built unrolled 525 ± 7 506 ± 2 818 ± 13 756 ± 7 259 ± 8
2.5 1.3
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 14 of 42

75 kN 1082 ± 26.2 ± 26.6 ±

763 ± 8 687 ± 1 1072 ± 6 330 ± 19
rolled 13 2.2 1.3
1102 ± 14.7 ± 12.8 ±
unrolled 790 ± 9 791 ± 14 988 ± 6 417 ± 16
Solution 78 1.3 1.2
treated 75 kN 1057 ± 1035 ± 1348 ± 1356 ± 15.1 ± 17.4 ±
443 ± 18
rolled 19 20 10 10 3.3 1.1

Xu et al. [64], evaluated the effect of oxides and different types of wires on the final properties
of Inconel 718, since this alloy is known for its oxidation-assisted crack growth mechanism at high
temperatures [65]. An oxide layer of Al2O3 and Cr2O3 with 0.5 μm thickness at the top layer was
noticed, thus confirming that oxides do not accumulate during parts fabrication. By comparing
different wires, differences of up to 50 MPa in the ultimate tensile strength were possible due to
differences in chemical composition and uncertainties in TiN particles, which acted as nucleation
sites.
Improvements in superalloys might only be achieved with thermomechanical processing. Even
though Nb can diffuse, and consequently eliminate, Laves phases at interdendritic areas with heat
treatment, the common large columnar grains will only coarse. Therefore, it is crucial to control Nb
segregation and Laves formation in situ, since it depletes the matrix of useful alloying elements, or
use of cold-work based techniques [66].
Another alloy of interest from the Ni-based group is Monel. These alloys, mainly composed of
nickel and copper, are characterized by their high strength and excellent corrosion resistance at high
temperatures, and are used in a wide range of aerospace applications. The ability to withstand
corrosive environments makes them suitable for marine applications. Monel K500 and FM 60 were
tested by means of cold metal transfer. The secondary dendrite arm spacing was smaller for the
Monel K500 (4–9 μm) than for the FM 60 (6–12 μm), due to a higher precipitation of TiCN in Monel
K500, which delayed dendrite growth. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) results showed
segregation of Cu for both alloys, due to differences in the melting point of Ni and Cu, and the
difficult diffusion of Cu in Ni. Precipitation of Ti-rich particles is essential to achieve superior
mechanical properties and their density can increase with the use of inoculants.

3.3. Steels
Steels are easily acquirable ferrous alloys widely used in automotive, ship, construction, and gas
industries that, in combination with WAAM, can be used to manufacture parts with an overall low
cost. However, some authors [67] claim that the production of these low-cost alloys by WAAM is
only viable for large parts with complex geometries. Among steels, stainless steels have found
applications in chemical plants and nuclear industries, where parts with high heat and corrosion
resistance are required (e.g., pressure vessels). Austenitic stainless steel, such as SS 304 [68], SS 308LSi
[69], and SS 316L [70,71] have been successfully used in WAAM, as well as martensitic stainless steel
420 [72].
Chen et al. [62] reported that 316 parts of stainless steel presented both austenite (γ), delta-ferrite
(δ), and sigma (σ) phases with different morphologies at various positions as a result of the thermal
cycles experienced during build up. After the fourth consecutive layer, the microstructure was
composed of fine vermicular δ and σ phases within the γ matrix. With the increase of the parts’
height, the volume of σ increased, resulting in a decrease in strength and elongation. To avoid this
phase, thermal cycles should be controlled to avoid long residence times between 600 and 900 °C.
The feasibility to produce high nitrogen Cr-Mn stainless steels was shown by Zhang et al. [73],
where parts were mainly composed by dendritic δ-ferrite and columnar austenite, γ, with the
existence of some CrN and Cr2N inclusion islands. The presence of oxygen in the shielding gas
resulted in the formation of Mn-based oxides, which were found to be detrimental to the mechanical
properties. Moreover, during post processing heat treatments the low solubility of nitrogen in δ-
ferrite induced the formation of CrN and Cr2N in the nitrogen supersaturated regions. Due to the
relatively high energy surfaces between the matrix and inclusions, Cr2N nucleated around Mn oxide
inclusions, as observed in Figure 13. In conclusion, this material has shown to be deposited very
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 15 of 42

effectively by WAAM with nearly isotropic characteristics due to a stable austenite matrix, while the
presence of nitrogen had a work hardening effect.

Figure 13. Cr2N precipitations around the inclusion island after heat treated at 1100 °C for 30 min
(adapted from [73]).

The feasibility of WAAM to process steel tool production was demonstrated in H13 steel [74].
The results presented in this investigation suggest that the significant differences in properties along
the part’s height are due to a different thermal history. The hardness varied between 300 and 360 HV
and near-isotropic parts were obtained after annealing at 830 °C for 4 h. Average values of ultimate
tensile strength and elongation were respectively, 1085 MPa and 10% for horizontal specimens, and
871 MPa and 7.8% for vertical ones.
Maraging steels are a class of superior steel with high mechanical strength attributed to the
presence of intermetallic compounds such as Ni3Mo, Ni3Ti, Fe2Mo, and Fe7Mo6. The aging
temperature of maraging steel is relatively low (482 °C) and since this temperature is frequently
exceeded during the process, overaging effects may occur. Using a plasma torch, Xu et al. [75]
deposited maraging steel parts that revealed a martensitic matrix with fine residual austenite. With
further aging, samples experienced an increase in the ultimate tensile strength of horizontal/vertical
samples from 1118/1026 MPa to 1410/1345 MPa, while a decrease in elongation from 11.7/8.0% to
8.5/6.2% was observed. The authors reported the importance of avoiding undesired TiN inclusions
in the feedstock material to obtain superior properties in the WAAM deposited parts.
Steels with a high carbon equivalent are more likely to experience cold cracking, a frequent
problem due to rapid cooling, hydrogen entrapment in the heat affected zone, and residual stresses.
Nevertheless, the procedures recognized to mitigate these problems in welding are intuitively used
in WAAM, including pre- and post-heating, which is settled by re-heating or re-fusion of previously
deposited material, which reduces the cooling rate, and subsequently the formation of brittle
microstructures. Therefore, the intrinsic characteristics of WAAM are beneficial to avoid the
aforementioned problems, though others may occur, such as overaging or precipitation of undesired
phases as a result of the complex thermal cycles experienced during samples build up [76].

3.4. Aluminium Alloys

Welding of aluminum alloys (AA) has always been problematic, due to the formation of an
aluminum oxide layer and solidification behavior. The use of WAAM in aluminum alloys is limited
as porosity is of major concern. Such limitations have led to some investigations on the effect of heat
treatments in WAAM Al parts. However, not every Al alloy is heat treatable. As it occurs in the
welding of aluminum, during building of parts it is also preferred to use an alternate current (AC)
[77] to remove the natural surface oxide film (alumina) which has a higher melting point. If not,
melted remains are trapped inside the molten pool, resulting in pores and internal defects, which
drastically decrease the parts mechanical properties. WAAM of Al alloys is very challenging due to
the turbulent pool dynamics caused by the periodic inversing of polarity, which can result in
decreases of the part accuracy. Other important properties regarding welding of the Al alloys include
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 16 of 42

high thermal conductivity, high coefficient of thermal expansion, high solidification shrinkage, wide
solidification temperature range, and high solubility of hydrogen [78].
Gu et al. [79] studied the influence of wire quality of final parts properties, highlighting that the
pre-existence of undesired contaminants is a major driving force for hydrogen cracking. The main Al
alloys used in the aerospace industry are 2xxx (Al-Cu) and 7xxx (Al-Zn) series alloys. However, they
are highly susceptible to hot cracking if process parameters lead to high levels of thermal stress and
solidification shrinkage. Nevertheless, Fixter et al. [80] successfully fabricated AA2024 parts without
solidification cracking. The importance of these results arise from the fact that AA2024 is an
unweldable alloy, and part production is enabled by the suitable selection of the Mg content in the
feedstock wire.
Cold metal transfer (CMT) is widely accepted as the most reliable variant to process Al alloys.
However, CMT pulse advanced (CMT-PADV), developed by Fronius, was proven to entirely
eliminate gas pores, due to an oxide cleaning effect [15]. Additionally, this variant is characterized by
its low heat input and by the preservation of nucleation particles. Figure 14a,b depicts the
macrostructure of aluminum with conventional cold metal transfer and with CMT-PADV,
respectively, where the non-existence of pores with CMT-PADV is visible.

Figure 14. Porosity presence in samples manufacture with: (a) conventional cold metal transfer; (b)
cold metal transfer-pulse advanced (adapted from [15]).

Zhang et al. [81] studied another similar power source mode named variable polarity cold metal
transfer (VP-CMT). The typical waveform is presented in Figure 15. The pulsed arc mode results in
an oscillation, that in association with alternating arc polarity changes, breaks the dendrite arms,
providing heterogeneous nucleation sites. The typical columnar grains transformed into equiaxed
and a grain refinement effect was observed. Despite isotopic grains confirmed by microscopy
techniques, only a difference of 8% in ultimate tensile strength from horizontal and vertical samples
was possible, due to the existence of interlayer pores.

Figure 15. Current wave form of variable polarity cold metal transfer mode (adapted from [81]).

The following Al-alloys deposited by WAAM have been reported in the literature: 5A06 [82,83]
Al5Si [84], AA5183 [85], Al-Mg4.5Mn [20], Al-5Mg [86], Al-6Mg [81], and Al–6.3Cu [23]. In general,
WAAM has its value in the production of Al parts, but the mechanical properties obtained are not
always superior to the ones achieved from machining a billet, and the existence of add-ons, such as
rolling, become important. The pressure applied, besides absorbing a significant amount of atomic
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 17 of 42

hydrogen, also reduces porosity. Such has been experimentally verified for a load of 45 kN, where
pores were eliminated to a level below the resolution of optical microscopy [14].
The effect of inter-layer rolling with different applied loads is clearly depicted in Table 2, which
compiles the results of the number of pores, mean diameter, area percentage, and mean sphericity of
WAAM deposited AA2319 and AA5087 alloys. Pores were completely eliminated when a 45 kN load
was applied in between two consecutive deposited layers.

Table 2. Analysis results of pores for various stated WAAM 2319 and 5087 alloys [23].

15 kN Inter-Layer 30 kN Inter-Layer 45 kN Inter-Layer

Condition As-Built
Rolling Rolling Rolling
Alloy 2319 5087 2319 5087 2319 5087 2319 5087
Number of pores (In a
614 454 192 336 5 11
total area of 120 mm2) Pores were
Mean diameter (µm) 13.5 25.1 12.5 13 8.8 9.6 completely
Area percentage (%) 0.176 0.232 0.029 0.061 0.005 0.007 eliminated
Mean sphericity 0.74 0.74 0.67 0.63 0.37 0.42

It is known that inter-layer rolling can provide nucleation sites that promote grain refinement
and, depending on the inter-layer temperature, strain rate and applied load, different microstructures
and properties can be achieved. The strengthening effects of inter-layer rolling for different WAAM
deposited aluminum alloys are presented in Table 3. A linear improvement of the ultimate tensile
strength and yield stress with an increase of rolling load in both cases, but with a consequential
decrease in the elongation, is visible. Since inter-layer rolling is unable to uniformly deform beads,
differences between longitudinal and transversal still subsist.

Table 3. Mechanical properties of different aluminum alloys with different build conditions in the
longitudinal (Long.) and transversal (Trans.) directions.

YS 0.2% UTS Elongation

Material Variation (MPa) (MPa) (%) Ref.
Long. Trans. Long. Trans. Long. Trans.
As-built 135 130 265 260 18.4 15.7
rolled (15 kN) 146 140 270 265 15 14.8
ER 2319 [23]
rolled (30 kN) 185 170 290 280 13.2 11.8
rolled (45 kN) 250 245 322 310 8.6 7.3
As-built 142 - 291 - 22.4 -
rolled (15 kN) 170 - 301 - 21.6 -
ER5087 [20]
rolled (30 kN) 200 - 320 - 20.9 -
rolled (45 kN) 240 - 344 - 20.1 -

The microstructure and mechanical properties of 5363 (Al-5Mg) Al alloys were enhanced by
adding titanium powder between layers [86]. Since Al3Ti and Al have similar face centered cubic
(FCC) structures, formation of nucleation sites was improved. The addition of Ti resulted in the
formation of fine equiaxed grains at the interlayer interface (Figure 16). The ultimate tensile strength
and elongation respectively increased by 20.25 MPa and 3.13% in the horizontal direction and by
25.89 MPa and 6.97% in the vertical direction. This work highlights the viability to use inoculants to
act as grain refiners during the production of Al WAAM parts in an attempt to obtain more isotropic
and improved mechanical properties.
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 18 of 42

Figure 16. Microstructure of 5363 aluminum alloy: (a) as-built and (b) with Ti additions [86].

Sales et al. [87] aided the deposition of AA 5183 and AA 5356 with scandium which was
responsible for the formation of Al3Sc intermetallic particles that acted as nucleation sites. The effect
of adding zirconium and scandium as grain refiners was the same as using only scandium. The
ultimate tensile strength and yield stress were increased by nearly 60 MPa in both horizontal and
vertical directions.

3.5. Magnesium Alloys

Magnesium alloys are increasingly being used as an alternative to aluminum to reduce the
overall parts weight in the automotive and biomedical industries. Magnesium alloy advances
throughout the years were hampered due to flammability risk, but with the increased interest in Mg-
Al alloys, rare earth elements (zirconium, gadolinium, dysprosium, yttrium, neodymium and
cerium), and other additional trace elements (Ca, Sr, Sb) were added to Mg suppressing ignition
susceptibility. Magnesium is characterized by a hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure and has few
slip systems resulting in poor ductility. Owing to its structure, several defects can occur during
forging or extrusion (i.e., edge cracking), therefore most magnesium products are processed via
casting. Modified AZ31 and AZ61 are the most used Mg-alloys, however, only reports of the former
processed by WAAM exists. As it occurs for aluminum, magnesium alloys also form an oxide
refractory layer, but this can be removed easier than for aluminum. The necessity to refine
magnesium structures was achieved by Guo [88] while presenting the feasibility to manufacture
AZ31 WAAM parts. Such an achievement was obtained with GTAW technology by using six
different pulse frequencies (1, 5, 10, 100, and 500 Hz), with the corresponding microstructures
depicted, in Figure 17. Samples built with 5 and 10 Hz presented higher surface waviness, but the
grain size was smaller and finer, measuring around 21 µm. The weld pool went through resonance
with these frequencies, and as a result, the cooling rates decreased enhancing a finer structure.
Sample built with 5 Hz exhibited an ultimate tensile strength of 258 MPa and an elongation of 25.6%,
while sample built with 10 Hz exhibited an ultimate tensile strength of 263 MPa and an elongation of
23%. Overall, the samples produced indicated good plastic behavior well above the recommended
value (234 MPa) stipulated by ASTM standard B91-12 [89].
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 19 of 42

Figure 17. Microstructure of samples produced with a frequency of (a) 500 Hz, (b) 100 Hz, (c) 10 Hz,
(d) 5 Hz, (e) 2 Hz, and (f) 1 Hz (adapted from [88]).

Another already processed magnesium alloy with WAAM was the AZ91D [90], in which the
authors highlight the remelting of previously deposited layers as the major problem with processing
this materials. Furthermore, parts produced exhibited higher corrosion resistance than a cast
magnesium sample, enhanced by the formation of Al5Mg11Zn4. Therefore, WAAM can be seen as a
potential replacement of conventional casting processed in specific applications.
Rare elements are often added to Mg-based alloys. Since these are used for biomedical
applications and are very susceptible to corrosion, ways to control and improve Mg alloys, rather
than rare elements, is of major importance.

3.6. Functional Graded Materials

Besides producing bulked parts, WAAM is a suitable candidate to manufacture functional
graded materials (FGM), which are an advanced class of heterogeneous materials which exhibit a
controlled spatial variation of its properties (physical, mechanical, biochemical, among other) along
at least one direction. Moreover, the manufacture of materials with site-specific properties is also
possible [91,92]. Among the different additive manufacturing processes available today, production
of FGMs is possible through binder jetting, directed energy deposition, material jetting, powder
deposition, and sheet lamination. Wire and arc techniques offer unique advantages to manufacture
FGM, due to their ability to vary the properties of the deposited material throughout deposition. The
development of FGMs via WAAM can be obtained using the following two approaches: i) by varying
process parameters, such as wire feed speed or current; ii) by feeding multiple wires, as schematically
shown in Figure 18.

Figure 18. Schematic representation of double wire setup (adapted from [93]).
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 20 of 42

Somashekara et al. [94,95] used two separate wires with two independent power sources fitted
into one torch in order to obtain flat pieces with a gradient of properties. Experimental studies
allowed for a regression model to predict hardness as a function of torch speed and current of each
wire with a maximum error of 6.5%.
A high purity annealed iron wire (99.5 at.%) and 1080 aluminum were combined under the
electric arc of a tandem torch [96]. The content of aluminum was varied from 15 to 55 at.% every four
layers by 5% increments. Such variation resulted in a compositional gradient with different
intermetallics being formed in a variation of phases detected by X-ray diffraction. Near the substrate,
specimens showed large columnar Fe3Al grains. With the increase of Al content phase changed to B2
structured FeAl and large columnar grains were eliminated, and when the content reached around
50 at.% FeAl2 was formed. With 36.1 at.% of Al content, an ultimate tensile strength of 315 MPa was
feasible, but the mechanical properties of the specimens started to decrease rapidly for higher Al
amounts. Specimens exhibited low ductility resulting in brittle transgranular lamellar fractures.
FGMs can potentially mitigate the issue of localized stress concentrations, as well as the
manipulation of desirable properties and phases. However, when mixing dissimilar materials, some
elements are likely to have different melting temperatures that when deposited may vaporize [97],
requiring some attention. Additionally, the formation of brittle and/or undesired compounds greatly
increases when fusion-based FGMs are being created. Therefore, it is critical to determine the range
of process parameters that allow the production of complex shaped parts, exhibiting mechanical,
chemical, or other graded property, while at the same time avoiding detrimental phases. To that
sense, the use of a thermodynamic computational approaches [98] may be of great use to achieve the
desired parts.

3.7. Other Materials and Dissimilar Depositions

Apart from the already referred alloys, other metals have been studied, such as copper-
aluminum (Cu-Al8Ni2Fe2) [70], a dissimilar deposition of stainless steel and Ni-based alloy [99], and
lastly, NiAl bronze alloys (NAB) with potential for marine applications [8,100]. Aluminum-copper
(ER2319) and aluminum-magnesium (ER5087) were fed into the same electric arc, and by adjusting
the wire feed speed different chemical combinations were achieved (Al-3.6Cu-2.2Mg, Al-4Cu-1.8Mg,
and Al-4.4Cu-1.5Mg) [93]. The phases in Al-3.6Cu-2.2Mg were mainly α-Al and S phase and with an
increase of Cu and decrease of Mg content, θ phase gradually increased.

4. Deposition Strategy
The deposition strategy is critical in additive manufacturing processes based on fusion. In this
section, recent studies and methodologies regarding the building strategy for WAAM parts are
presented.
Currently, there are several optimized softwares that slice 3D models and consequently create a
G-code to be read by fusion deposition modeling printers. However, until now, there has not been a
clarification about all WAAM constraints (e.g., residual stresses), in order to produce parts directly
from CAD models. Kazanas et al. [101] proposed that the deposition of previous layers to occur in
the form of pyramid to avoid the formation of humps in single inclined-walls.
Another recurrent macrostructural problem occurs when every layer has the same start and end
point. The excessive heat sink at the beginning of the deposition decreases weld penetration. In
contrast, at the end of the layer, low heat dissipation due to high temperatures results in layer height
drop. The inconsistent height will accumulate along the deposited layers, precluding the process. To
overcome this issue, the current and travel speed should be higher in the beginning and reduced
gradually at the end of the deposition [102]. Another way to mitigate this problem is through the use
of a zig zag approach by switching in every layer the start and end points [103]. However, this last
method can result in zones that have thermal accumulation promoting higher residual stress at the
walls boundaries. An easy approach might be to consider these zones as sacrificial ones.
Understanding bead geometry and its relationship with process parameters to improve quality
of produced parts is of major importance during WAAM. Optimization of process parameters to
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 21 of 42

obtain better surface quality is a rather a tedious work based on trial and error methods so, Geng et
al. [83] unveiled two types of forming mechanisms named wetting and remelting, that are determined
based on the remelting width in each deposition. Furthermore, the authors developed equations of
beads cross sections based on process parameters, such as, wetting angle and radius of the spherical
cap. The adequate material input and process parameters were calculated, so that the molten metal
could spread vertically tangential to the spherical cap, improving surface waviness
Nevertheless, WAAM parts are not uniquely built by single walls, and once understood bead
geometry behavior, its then necessary to optimize torch tool path considering build orientation
selection, build sequence, design constraints and if it will be necessary to conducted post machining.
Mediocre planning may result in porosity, internal defects, lack of fusion between adjacent beads and
high residual stresses, a topic that will be further described in the next section. A method named
tangent overlapping model was proposed to approximate the bead cross-section by means of
functions (parabola, cosine and arc) [104]. An optimal distance value between adjacent beads of 0.738
times the width of one bead was achieved in order to suppress the valleys beads.
Regarding guidelines for the decomposition of CAD models, Ding et al. [105] presented a tool-
path generation model that decomposed layers in polygons and each area was consequently filled.
This model also automatically generated a final closed-looped tool-path by minimizing start/stops
and crossovers of weld paths (Figure 19). A second approach on path planning modeling for WAAM
was advanced by Ding et al. [106] through the improvement of earlier studies [107,108]. This method,
named medial axis transformation, divides the geometry of a slice by producing a set of bisector
segments. When more than two segments connect, those points become branch points and the paths
will be generated by recursively offsetting contour-clockwise around the segment that connects two
branch points as depicted in Figure 20.

Figure 19. Convex polygonal method [105].

Figure 20. Schematic representation of the adaptive medial axis transformation planning method
(adapted from [109]).

A path strategy regarding the manufacturing of 90° walls is presented in Figure 21 [110]. In order
to assure a constant height for each layer, the strategy consisted in that after every fourth layers made
with the first strategy (Figure 21a), the second deposition strategy (Figure 21b) was employed. Since
one of the applications of WAAM is the fabrication of shell-part types, these successful developments
are important, as they allow the production of smooth fillets of T-type structures.
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 22 of 42

Figure 21. (a) First deposition strategy; (b) second deposition strategy; (c) final part made (adapted
from [110]).

Other studies were performed to improve WAAM walls appearance, create T-type connections,
and construct acute angles by adjusting the vertical distance and angle of the feed wire in a GTAW-
based application. According to [82], an optimized angle of 10° with a distance of the melting wire
tip to the molten pool surface of 3.8 mm guaranteed smooth layers. In a recent development, the
influence of three different deposition building strategies (oscillation, parallel, and weaving) on
surface waviness and porosity of maraging steels was studied [111]. Weaving deposition strategy,
depicted in Figure 22, resulted in lower surface waviness and pores with reduced contact angle. In
addition, Ma et al. [112] used weaving as a replacement for the multi-bead overlapping strategy to
obtain better surface flatness, which required less post-machining, thus decreasing the associated
production costs.

Figure 22. Weaving deposition strategy (adapted from [112]).

In some additive manufacturing processes, there is a need to add material to support overhang
volumes, that is later removed. Some research groups [37,113] studied the possibilities and
advantages, and developed models in which the substrate was mounted on a 5-axis positioning
system, which allowed the build direction selection during fabrication to change, thus eliminating
the need for supporting material. With such a system, the correct selection of the substrate position
becomes essential based on some criteria factors: mass of substrate waste, mass of the deposited
material, the number of build operations, build complexity and symmetry. A detailed analysis of the
correct position of the substrate may allow the BTF ratio to be reduced.
Since most of the software for metal deposition are limited and without public access, Yunyong
et al. [114] took advantage of the free open source CuraEngine to introduce new settings to generate
G-code to print metallic parts. These settings permit the torch to toggle on and off, path optimization
to avoid crossovers in the same layers, the number of start/stops are minimized, and an option to
pause the torch was also added for subtract cooling between layers. It is expected that these open-
source software codes can be embraced by the additive manufacturing community to further expand
its applications.

5. Residual Stresses
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 23 of 42

Residual stress challenges are of extreme importance within the WAAM process and are due to
the complex thermal behavior and thermo-physical properties of the materials to be deposited [7].
Residual stresses are defined as stationary stresses at equilibrium in a portion of material after all
external forces are removed [115]. Residual stresses are determined by their characteristic length: type
I are macro-stresses varying over the dimensions of the component; type II are intergranular stresses;
type III are formed at an atomic scale [116,117]. Despite the residual stresses that can be reduced by
laser shock peening [28], in WAAM they can be as high as the yield strength of the material [118],
negatively affecting the mechanical properties and leading to distortions and decreased tolerances. If
these residual stresses exceed the local yield stress of the material, plastic deformation occurs, but if
it exceeds the ultimate tensile strength then fracture is expected. These stresses are the result of the
repetitive heating and cooling, which induce repetitive expansion and contraction of the material.
For that reason, upon unclamping, the part balancing the internal residual stresses bends, and these
can reach up to 500 MPa [22]. Considerable efforts are being made on strategies to mitigate this
problem so that results can be further incorporated in path planning algorithms. Main findings
include, that when building a layer, a pattern starting from the edges to the center cause less residual
stresses on the substrate [119].
In others studies, several methods are employed in order to minimize the heat accumulation,
and consequently residual stresses, based on the regulation of dwell time [120]; by pre-heating the
substrate [36], since it reduces thermal gradients making the temperature distribution more
homogeneous, it can increase the wettability of the first layers [35]; by mounting the substrate on a 5-
axis system and building parts on both sides so that the residual stresses are balanced [37]. Other
methods include the use of secondary heat sources to induce pre- or post-heating to obtain smoother
temperature gradients [33]. Cold rolling is also used for the control of residual stresses in WAAM
parts [19]. Figures 23 and 24 depict substrate distortions and longitudinal residual stresses,
respectively, with three different rolling loads. As-built samples experienced stresses near the yield
strength in the longitudinal direction. A vertical rolling load of 28 kN was sufficient to mitigate
distortion in the aluminum parts. Rolling allowed for a decrease in longitudinal stresses that become
compressive near the top layers. However, rolling induced stresses in the transversal and normal
directions that did not previously exist, indicating a three-dimensional stress state, which can
significantly alter the mechanical properties of the parts.

Figure 23. Substrate distortion with three different rolling loads (adapted from [19]).
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 24 of 42

Figure 24. Longitudinal residual stresses of aluminum parts after rolling (adapted from [19]).

Ultrasonic impact testing is a cold-work treatment that induces compressive stress on the top or
on the side of the walls within a very limited depth, producing grain refinement. In WAAM it was
seen to be effective in reducing residual stresses by nearly four times, compared to the as-built
samples [121]. The energy of the arc was not seen to be enough to remelt all the recrystallized
equiaxed grains of previous layers, forming a bamboo-like macro-structure.

6. Heat Treatments
During WAAM, excessive heat accumulation can prevent the accurate control of bead geometry
[122], but also might lead to differences in mechanical properties and microstructure with the increase
of samples’ height [123] becoming important to perform heat-treatments in order to achieve isotropic
properties. These treatments might also be used to achieve the required mechanical properties,
phases, relieve residual stresses, and remove internal defects.
In Section 2.1.2 in situ methods of heating and cooling WAAM parts were discussed, which can
provide reliable and adequate heat treatments to achieve the required properties. However, these
methods are still relatively recent and computational simulation developments are still necessary to
predict phases and mechanical properties. Additionally, post-WAAM heat treatments can be used by
means of hot isostatic pressing (HIP), solution treatment, annealing, aging, and other thermal
treatments.
Gu et al. [14] studied the influence of post-deposition heat treatments on the porosity of 2319
and 5087 aluminum alloys, well-known for their porosity-related issues. After deposition, samples
were kept for 90 min at 535 °C, followed by cold water quench. However, a combination of inter-pore
coalescence (by Ostwald ripening) and hydrogen diffusion phenomena originated the growth of
pores. Fully dense parts where only obtainable by combining inter-layer rolling and post-WAAM
heat treatment. Other benefits from post-processing heat treatments were applied to NiAl Bronze
WAAM components [8]. Parts fabrication annealing at 675 °C for six hours was applied, followed by
air cooling, and resulted in the relaxation of the previously induced residual stresses in a fine
homogenized microstructure composed of α phase (Cu) and intermetallics, such as NiAl and Fe3Al,
as identified by X-ray diffraction (Figure 25). These constituents were not found in the base material,
and their presence resulted in a significant increase in hardness from 181 HV for the base material to
210 HV after post-WAAM heat treatments.
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 25 of 42

Figure 25. Phase constituents of as-cast base material (BM), as-deposited WAAM part (WM), heat-
treated base material (BM HT), and heat-treated (WM HT) (adapted from [8]).

Different post-processing heat treatments were used in WAAM parts of Ti-6Al-4V in [124]: stress
relief (480 °C for 2 h); hot isostatic pressing (927 °C for 2 h at 1500 bar with a heating and cooling rate
of 5 °C/min); vacuum annealing (927 °C for 2 h with a heating and cooling rate of 5 °C/min); and
solution treated followed by annealing (967 °C for 1 h, water quenched then aged at 595 °C for 2 h
and air cooled). The variation of mechanical properties was justified by changes in the microstructure,
with the as-deposited sample exhibiting prior-β grains with fine Widmanstätten-α. The mechanical
properties after each heat treatment are presented in Figure 26. The stress relief heat treatment
resulted in a ductility increase of 30% and a microstructure similar to that of the as-deposited Ti-6Al-
4V. Hot isostatic pressing effectively removed pores, and samples had a similar increase of ductility
as vacuum annealed samples (around 40% of the as-built parts), explained by the continuously
coarsening of the α-phase. Solution treated samples mainly comprised of refined α-phase grains,
experienced an increase of 12% in strength, but in contrast the ductility was lowered by 30%.

Figure 26. Mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V as-deposited and with post-process heat treatment
(STA: solution treated plus annealing; HIP: hot isostatic pressing; VAC: vacuum annealing) (adapted
from [124]).
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 26 of 42

When mixing dissimilar alloys, it is likely to obtain intermetallic compounds [125–127]. Fe3Al is
being increasingly studied with WAAM due to its unique properties [128]. In order to avoid some of
the intermetallics and to reduce the anisotropy induced by the process, samples underwent
homogenization (1000 °C for 7 h), homogenization plus transformation annealing in the FeAl region
(850 °C for 24 h), and homogenization plus annealing in the FeAl region and a transformation
treatment in the Fe3Al region (500 °C for 120 h), in accordance to the Fe-Al binary phase diagram.
Homogenization on its own eliminated Al-rich precipitates and resulted in excessive grain
coarsening. With further heat treatments in the FeAl-phase region these precipitates started to
randomly appear. Finally, with only a third heat treatment Al-rich precipitates and new grain
boundaries formed in an equiaxed shape with a size of 150 μm. In this study, excessive time of post-
heat treatments was necessary to precipitate an adequate amount of Al-rich constituents that refined
grain. Thus, from a manufacturer point of view, in situ methods to perform heat treatments should
be developed and industrialized to save time and reduce costs.
The effect of heat treatments on Al parts fabricated by WAAM was also studied by Qi et al. [129],
where solution treatments at different temperatures plus natural aging procedures (T4 condition)
were applied to AA2024 parts. The effect of those heat treatments in the mechanical properties of the
parts are evidenced Figure 27. All heat treatment conditions were seen to increase the mechanical
properties compared to the as-deposit samples. From this study is it clear that, depending on which
property (ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, or elongation) is to be maximized, proper selection
of the heat treatment conditions is fundamental.

Figure 27. Tensile properties of 2024 aluminum samples [129].

WAAM mostly uses alloys that can be heat treatable (e.g., high strength steels, titanium alloys,
and nickel superalloys, for example) or non-heat treatable (e.g., austenitic SS and 4XXX aluminum
alloys). To suppress columnar grains of non-heat treatable alloys, the development of cold working
variants is of major importance. Regarding heat treatable alloys, superior properties that are difficult
to obtain in as-build WAAM parts are expected. Further understanding of phase transformation
kinetics that occur during the process is of major importance in order to avoid or reduce the need for
post-process heat treatments. For this reason, the next section will focus on modeling and simulation
applied to WAAM.

7. Modeling and Simulation for WAAM

WAAM parts’ microstructure and properties rely directly on process parameters, such as
material, wire feed speed, heat input, and idle time between layers. The difficulties in optimizing a
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 27 of 42

WAAM deposition and achieving the required characteristics, requires the execution of many
experiments that can be highly costly and time consuming. Therefore, finite element analysis
improvements are one of the primary goals toward a more massive adoption of WAAM. Typically,
the process itself comprises melting of wire, metal transfer mode, mass transfer, gas absorption,
convective flow of liquid metal, arc pressure, and solid-state phase transformations. The difficulty to
model all phenomena comes from the diversity of materials and complex thermal behavior, since a
portion of material is subjected to a vast number of thermal cycles of re-heating and cooling.
Incorporating volumetric changes due to phase transformations can also be important [48].
Nowadays, most of the knowledge comes from trial and error experiments so if the process becomes
fully modeled, accurate predictions of residual stress, distortion, and mechanical properties and
microstructure can be achieved.
Chiumenti et al. [130] provided a detailed description of the formulation behind numerical
simulations of WAAM processes while performing experimental validation. Their finite element
model includes a heat transfer model governed by the laws of thermodynamics, Fourier’s law, Stefan-
Boltzmann law, considered heat dissipation by conduction and convection, phase transformation
phenomena based on Scheil's equations, and the total amount of latent heat released/absorbed during
phase changes. Additionally, a mechanical model which portrays a continuous damage model able
to represent hot cracking singularities and porosities was included. The moving welding heat source
was approximated by a double ellipsoidal power density distribution developed by Goldak et al.
[131]. Montevecchi et al. [132] split the heat source into two power distribution contributions: one
that characterizes the power delivered to the base material adapted from the double ellipsoid Goldak
model and another constant of power distribution that should be developed to describe the energy
transferred to the wire, since only 50% of the total energy was used to melt the wire [133].
These models are described as Equations (1) and (2), respectively:
6√3Q̇ b ff,r x2 y2 x2
q̇ b = exp �−3 � 2 + 2 + 2 �� [1]
π√πa f,r bc a f,r b c
and
Q̇ w
q̇ w = [2]
Vel
Where: Q̇ b and Q̇ w are the analytic power value; coefficients a, b, and c are the semi-axis of
ellipse dimensions, and Vel is the volume of heated elements.
Several finite element works have been conducted recently, such as evaluating the residual stress
generated from clamping the substrate [134], or predicting the required idle time between layers to
obtain a constant inter-layer temperature [29]. Zhao et al. [135] evaluated the stress distribution
between single walls taking in consideration the deposition strategy: One wall was built always in
the same direction, while the other had a deposition direction reverted in each layer. For both
strategies, the stresses reduced with the height increase and it was experimentally concluded that
layers in the same direction resulted in larger stresses than the part fabricated in the reverse direction.
This suggests that deposition strategy is fundamental to mitigate residual stresses in WAAM parts.
Thermal models have been successfully developed to predict temperature gradients and
distribution along WAAM walls, but there is a lack of models that can predict bead geometry. The
difficulty comes with fully portraying heat transfer and fluid flow phenomena inside the molten pool.
More recently, Bai et al. [136] succeeded in accurately predicting bead geometry by simulating heat
transfer and fluid flow. Four different driving forces were considered: surface tension, Marangoni
force, arc pressure, and arc shear stress. It was found out that metal liquid flow was upward inside
and outward on the surface indicating that the Marangoni force dominates the fluid flow direction
inside the molten pool. When depositing a high number of layers where side support is absent, the
rear of the molten pool is driven by gravity and surface tension, which will determine the final bead
geometry.
In another approach, the buoyancy force and frictional dissipation in the mushy zone were
included [137]. The geometry of the deposit material was simulated by means of the surface energy,
potential energy in the gravitational field, arc pressure, and droplet impact force. Results have shown
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 28 of 42

that by mixing hot and cold liquid inside the molten pool (convection inside the molten pool) reliable
predictions of bead cross section were made. Figure 28a,b depicts the experimental results and
numerical estimation of bead geometry for a traveling speed of 5 mm/s and 8.3 mm/s, respectively.

Figure 28. Comparison between predicted and experimental bead cross section for a travel speed of:
(a) 5 mm/s and (b) 8.3 mm/s. (adapted from [137]).

8. Integrated Machine
Even though efforts have been made in optimizing tool path and process parameters, WAAM is
sometimes referred as a near-net shape process due to its relatively poor surface finish. To answer
the demands of short delivering times and complex parts, hybrid equipment which integrate additive
and subtractive manufacturing technologies into one machine, arise as a promising solution to
suppress WAAM’s major weakness: waviness. The typical process waviness can aid crack
propagation, making post machining a necessity, especially in structural applications. A schematic
illustration of this hybrid solution is presented in Figure 29. The present model could be improved
by the existence of online measuring equipment, which can be used to regulate parts dimensions and
amend dimensions with milling [112].

Figure 29. Steps in the hybrid process of metal additive manufacturing combining WAAM and
milling (adapted from [138]).

Chen et al. [139] highlighted the difficulty of machining parts with hollow cavities, pointing out
the importance of sequentially depositing material and machining it, to avoid potential problems
with machining after the entire model is produced. A hybrid manufacturing system was created,
aided by a software developed at IIT Bombay, named arc hybrid layer manufacturing (ArcHLM)
capable of generating paths for a welding torch and a milling tool [140].
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 29 of 42

In a cost modeling and sensitivity study, the economic benefits of WAAM with subsequent
machining were compared to conventional machining from a solid block. The developed model
considered the prices of tools, materials, substrate, machine, software, electricity, and every
consumable for each manufacturing process. Several components were analyzed such as: a wing spar,
an external landing gear assembly in titanium, and a pylon mount. In all studied cases WAAM
represented costs savings compared to conventional machining as shown in Table 4 [141].

Table 4. Costs of different parts per manufacturing process [141].

Designation Process BTF Cost (€ × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏) Cost Reduction

Traditional 6.5 8.11 n/a
Wing spar
WAAM 2.15 5.75 29%
Traditional 12 18.14 n/a
External landing gear
WAAM 2.3 5.6 69%
Traditional 5.1 2.8 n/a
Pylon mount
WAAM 1.5 2.68 7%

Mazak Corporation (Japan) unveiled a machine model VARIAXIS j-600AM featuring a standard
WAAM head mounted on the machine headstock as well as an advanced 5-axis multi-surface
subtractive capability to produce high-precision parts complete in single setups. Another
advancement was made by Mutoh Industries that revealed the model Arc MA500-S1 which uses arc
welding technologies. However, these machines are not versatile for research purposes, since no
additional instrumentation or variation of the welding process is currently possible.

9. Defects and Non-Destructive Testing

As previously described, WAAM combined with a subtractive process is a viable solution to
produce fully dense parts in an efficient way. The several process parameters of this process and
complex material behavior leads to several challenges which can only be suppressed by a multi-
disciplinary approach. Whilst there are no significant improvements on simulation software
optimized for WAAM, integrating non-destructive testing and non-destructive evaluation sensors on
equipment to evaluate parts as they are still being produced is of major importance.

9.1. Defects
WAAM process is, fundamentally, very similar to welding so defects such as, hot cracking, cold
cracking, porosity, delamination, and spatter are well documented for different alloys [142–145].
Defects in WAAM can originate by poor path planning, excessive heat input, and consequently
residual stresses, gas contamination, and feedstock quality. Additionally, surface finish was seen to
directly affect hydrogen crack susceptibility [146].
Nevertheless, some predominant macro defects appear once layers start to be built in WAAM.
These include side collapse, mainly caused by the excessive heat sink at the beginning of layers, in
contrast to a low dissipation condition at the end of each layer (Figure 30a), that consequently results
in unflatten top surfaces. Secondly, portions of unmelted wire can appear stuck to final parts, because
of inconsistent wire stick-out on arc ignition. If the stick-out is too long the initial current will detach
the wire without melting it (Figure 30b). Finally, large distortions upon unclamping as a result of the
excessive heat input and consequently heat accumulation, result in a bending distortion of the
component as depicted in Figure 31.
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 30 of 42

Figure 30. Image of WAAM macro defects: (a) side collapse; (b) unmelted wire (adapted from [147]).

Figure 31. Distortion of a WAAM part (adapted from [148]).

The abovementioned defects can be mitigated with a correct choice of process parameters and
process variants. Residual stresses that lead to distortions, and consequently to a loss of tolerance,
can be relieved with post-processing heat treatments, right path planning, in situ cold/heating
mechanisms, or even by the use of cold-work deformation-based techniques. Spatters are directly
related with the selection of process parameters that will determine the transfer mode, which is easily
overcome. Porosity is the most common defect for aluminum alloys and can be process-induced or
due to poor wire batch quality. For Al-based alloys, rolling [23] and the welding mode CMT-pulse
advanced [149] were seen to entirely remove pores. Side collapse and unmelted wire can be avoided
by introducing sensors to assure a constant contact-tip-to-work distance, and a constant inter-layer
temperature. Therefore, the following section describes the current status and difficulties on
inspection and standardization of WAAM parts, covering in-situ monitoring and non-destructive
testing as well as outline standardization and certification challenges.

9.2. In-Situ Monitoring

The main challenge of WAAM nowadays is developing appropriate inspection procedures.
However, the increased capabilities to manufacture complex parts, decreases the ability for parts to
be inspected. Therefore, using sensors to inspect parts as they are still being produced is of major
importance. Everton et al. [150] reviewed in-situ monitoring and closed-loop control techniques for
additive manufacturing, and some of them are yet to be exploited in WAAM.
It is well known that WAAM is very sensitive to variations of process parameters, so the
implementation of an in-process monitoring device in a closed loop control system becomes
important, since it would allow for rectification of parts as they are being still being built. Formation
of internal defects and excessive residual stresses could be mitigated with such an approach.
Traditionally, in fusion welding, monitoring is made through an evaluation of current, voltage,
shielding gas flow rate, travel speed, and wire feed speed. In addition, during WAAM, sensors can
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 31 of 42

be used to monitor the temperature at different regions [151], measure the size and geometry of beads
[152,153], determine the weld pool characteristics, monitor the acoustic signal of deposition [154],
detect electrical conductivity variations [155], and measure oxygen levels [156]. Normally, in fusion-
based welding, the process parameters are held constant, but in WAAM, due to differences of thermal
behavior throughout parts fabrication, geometric variations and mechanical properties are
established and adjustments are necessary. Weld pool images contain abundant information that are
directly related to parts quality. Therefore, the transient section of the weld pool was evaluated and
monitored in [157], since defects such as cracks, delamination, and voids cause changes in heat flow
and change the transient response. Thereby, on-line analysis of the arc spectrum was used to measure
the weld pool characteristics by analyzing the abnormal bands according to the atomic emission
spectrum, which contained necessary information about shielding gas flow rate and impurities that
can influence fluidity of the weld pool and final parts quality. Spectrum analysis in combination with
a CCD camera was able to detect material composition and confirm the presence of rust, oil stain,
and shielding gas flow rate in the weld pool images [158]. An innovative single-neuron self-learning
controller was integrated in WAAM equipment [159]. The developed controlling algorithm
considered travel speed as the input control variable, and the layer width as the output to compensate
layer height deviations. A non-linear Hammerstein model was used to establish a dynamic
relationship between both parameters. The maximum deviations in layer width between the expected
and detected layer width was 0.5 mm.
Xu et al. [148] reviewed process monitoring and control of WAAM parts and proposed a multi-
sensor device to monitor each variant and output, as schematically shown in Figure 32. It considers
an acoustic sensor for measuring arc pulsation and intensity, since when an irregularity occurs it will
be reflected on the acoustic signal and on the signal of the current [154]. Infrared camera,
thermocouples, or pyrometers would be used to monitor the molten pool and thermal cycles. In
addition, it also contemplated a double profilometer and the use of add-ons, for instance, inter-layer
rolling. Moreover, electrical conductivity measurements can be taken during deposition to identify
the different phases that are being developed during solidification. In order to established WAAM
consistency, a prior knowledge of the parts and build process is necessary to create an algorithm that
will facilitate the industrial uptake of this process.

Figure 32. Schematic diagram of a full monitoring system for WAAM (adapted from [148]).

9.3. Non-Destructive Testing

Non-destructive testing (NDT) comprises a set of a high valuable technique to assess parts
integrity, and its development is necessary for the rapid industrialization of WAAM. The are several
techniques (i.e., radiographic testing, tomography, ultrasonic testing, eddy currents, thermography
and liquid penetrants) however, some of them have limited potential to be used in WAAM, mostly
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 32 of 42

due to parts waviness as described by Lopez et al. [155]. These limitations include, for example, the
need to inspect high temperature surfaces, which requires that the lift-off distance between the probe
and the material significantly increases. The authors experimentally tested radiography and
ultrasonic testing (UT) to detect surface defects in Al WAAM parts. Conventional ultrasonic testing
is limited to off-line inspection, since couplants are susceptible to high temperatures, and require
machined surfaces to be applied. Nevertheless, a novel solution was to place the probe on the bottom
of the substrate, yet the signal corresponding to the interface of substrate and the part must be taken
into consideration. Radiography could detect lack of fusions between layers and porosities, but to
fully locate them it is necessary to analyze other sections.
An ultrasonic array post-processing technique named total focusing method was seen to detect
artificial holes with 3 mm, regardless of their location in part. Using conventional imaging techniques,
defects near the side walls and top surface could not be detectable, and provided a non-realistic size
and geometry of defects [160].
Currently, WAAM inline inspection conditions are extremely demanding for current state of the
art NDT probes. The major issues include: high temperature of the last deposited layer; difficult to
introduce a test medium to give a high signal-to-noise ratio; surface waviness and roughness; and
small defects dimension (<1 mm). As such, the development of multiparametric non-destructive
testing systems is mandatory to identify defects formation production and increase reliability in
defect detection.

10. Applications
WAAM particularities makes it suitable for the creation of large-sized parts with medium
complexity components, made with high-value materials. Therefore, this technology is viable to be
used in industries, such as aerospace, automotive, defense, molds and dies, naval, and nuclear energy
[70,161,162]. Topologically optimized structures have been increasingly being used by the aerospace
and automotive industries as they reduce weight while maintaining the functionality of the part
maximizing its performance. WAAM offers the potential to produce topologically optimized
components, since through conventional technologies they become very expensive, with high
material waste, and extensive lead times [163].
Currently, the aerospace industry focuses on the manufacture of complex-shaped components
of titanium and nickel alloys, making WAAM a cost-effective method for their production, due to the
difficulties associated with subtractive methods applied in these materials. Titanium represents 93%
of the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird’s structural weight and during its production approximately 90% of
the forging weight had to be removed by machining [164]. Norsk Titanium delivered the first
titanium additively manufactured component made via WAAM approved by the federal aviation
administration, as it was installed on the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. Norsk Titanium’s technology
allowed waste reduction, less energy consumption, and product costs reduction by up to 30% and
75% time saving, than forging with subsequent machining [165].
Ni-based alloys and stainless steels are widely used in the nuclear industry, where parts with
high heat and corrosion resistance are required. WAAM is an appropriate candidate to replace some
less requested portions of nickel parts to stainless steel, allowing the reduction of cost and weight of
these components [99].
MX3D radically transformed the industry of construction by delivering the first additively
manufactured metal bridge with a total weight of 4500 kg, 12.5 m in length, and 6.3 m wide (Figure
33a). Hirtler et al. [166] exploited one of WAAM’s possible applications, that is, manufacturing from
a previous semi-finished component fabricated by a conventional metal forming process. A rib was
first forged and then finished by increasing its height with WAAM (Figure 33b). Magnesium alloys
have been used in WAAM [167], but its application for biomedical application still does not to meet
the requirements in terms of corrosion-resistance and biocompatibility. Once these are ensured, those
components can be used for human vertebra prototypes, hip stem implants, and treat bone fractures
[168]. Another example included an excavator arm, as depicted in Figure 33c.
Materials 2019, 12, 1121 33 of 42

Figure 33. Various components made with WAAM: (a) MX3D bridge [168], (b) rib [166], and (c)
excavator arm [169].

11. Summary and Future Outlook

The fabrication of complex shaped parts via WAAM is becoming well-established in both
academia and the industry. Several process variants have been developed recently in order to
optimize the microstructure and mechanical properties of the as-built parts. Additionally, most of the
more relevant engineering alloys (titanium, aluminum, and steels, including stainless) are already
used in WAAM with excellent results, proving the viability of this technique to produce custom-
made large metallic parts. One aspect that is not yet well explored concerns the possibility of using
WAAM for repair applications. This could greatly decrease costs associated with the need to
completely renew a given structural part, since with WAAM technology it is possible to perform
localized repairs.
Another key aspect that is not yet established is related to certification of WAAM parts. This step
is crucial to further expand the range of applications of this technology and open the door for more
demanding structural applications, where the advantages associated with WAAM can be of special
interest. Concurrent to the need for certification procedures for WAAM parts, is the need to develop
effective and integrated non-destructive testing systems capable of detecting defect formation during
parts production. The need for the development of these in-situ monitoring methods lies in the fact
that with such an approach any generated defect can be repaired right after its formation and not
only at the end of production. Inspection only at the end of the parts production may lead to
significant material waste and higher production times, since the location where the defect exists may
be difficult to access, thus preventing their overhaul.
Some applications using WAAM-produced parts are already in the market and it is expected
that industry plays a critical role in expanding the applications of WAAM parts. Combined with the
development of certification procedures and effective non-destructive inline methods, it can be
expected that WAAM will become one of the most used additive manufacturing technologies in the
near future.

Funding: The authors acknowledge Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT-MCTES) for its financial
support via the project UID/EMS/00667/2019. VD acknowledges FCT-MCTES for funding the PhD grant
SFRH/BD/139454/2018.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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