Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics

Editorial Board
S. Axler
F. W. Gehring
K.A. Ribet

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics

Anglin: Mathematics: A Concise History Devlin: The Joy of Sets: Fundamentals

and Philosophy. of Contemporary Set Theory.
Readings in Mathematics. Second edition.
AnglinILambek: The Heritage of Dixmier: General Topology.
Thales. Driver: Why Math?
Readings in Mathematics. EbbinghausIFlumlfhomas:
Apostol: Introduction to Analytic Mathematical Logic. Second edition.
Number Theory. Second edition. Edgar: Measure, Topology, and Fractal
Armstrong: Basic Topology. Geometry.
Armstrong: Groups and Symmetry. Elaydi: Introduction to Difference
Axler: Linear Algebra Done Right. Equations.
Beardon: Limits: A New Approach to Exner: An Accompaniment to Higher
Real Analysis. Mathematics.
BakINewman: Complex Analysis. FineJRosenberger: The Fundamental
Second edition. Theory of Algebra.
BanchoffIWermer: Linear Algebra Fischer: Intermediate Real Analysis.
Through Geometry. Second edition. Flanigan/Kazdan: Calculus Two: Linear
Berberian: A First Course in Real and Nonlinear Functions. Second
Analysis. edition.
Bremaud: An Introduction to Fleming: Functions of Several Variables.
Probabilistic Modeling. Second edition.
Bressoud: Factorization and Primality Foulds: Combinatorial Optimization for
Testing. Undergraduates.
Bressoud: Second Year Calculus. Foulds: Optimization Techniques: An
Readings in Mathematics. Introduction.
Brickman: Mathematical Introduction Franklin: Methods of Mathematical
to Linear Programming and Game Economics.
Theory. Gordon: Discrete Probability.
Browder: Mathematical Analysis: HairerIWanner: Analysis by Its History.
An Introduction. Readings in Mathematics.
Buskeslvan Rooij: Topological Spaces: Halmos: Finite-Dimensional Vector
From Distance to Neighborhood. Spaces. Second edition.
Cederberg: A Course in Modem Halmos: Naive Set Theory.
Geometries. HiimmerlinIHoffmann: Numerical
Childs: A Concrete Introduction to Mathematics.
Higher Algebra. Second edition. Readings in Mathematics.
Chung: Elementary Probability Theory Hijab: Introduction to Calculus and
with Stochastic Processes. Third Classical Analysis.
edition. HiltonIHoltonlPedersen: Mathematical
CoxILittle/O'Shea: Ideals. Varieties, Reflections: In a Room with Many
and Algorithms. Second edition. Mirrors.
Croom: Basic Concepts of Algebraic IoosslJoseph: Elementary Stability and
Topology. Bifurcation Theory. Second edition.
Curtis: Linear Algebra: An Introductory Isaac: The Pleasures of Probability.
Approach. Fourth edition. Readings in Mathematics.

(continued after index)

George E. Martin

GeoIlletric
Constructions

With 112 figures

Springer
George E. Martin
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
State University of New York at Albany
Albany, NY 12222
USA

Editorial Board
S. Axler F.W. Gehring K.A. Ribet
Mathematics Department Department of Department of
San Francisco State Mathematics Mathematics
University University of Michigan University of California
San Francisco, CA 94132 Ann Arbor, MI 48104 at Berkeley
USA USA Berkeley, CA 94720
USA

Mathematics Subject Classification (1991): 51-01

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Martin, George E., 1932-
Geometric constructions / George E. Martin.
p. cm. - (Undergraduate texts in mathematics)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4612-6845-1 ISBN 978-1-4612-0629-3 (eBook)
DOI l0.1007/978-1-4612-0629-3
1. Geometrical constructions. 1. Title. II. Series.
QA464.M285 1997
516--dc21 97-22885
CIP

Printed on acid-free paper.

© 1998 Springer Science+Business Media New York

Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in 1998
Softcover reprint of the hardcover Ist edition 1998
All rlghts reserved. This work may not be translated or copled tn whole or tn part wlthout the
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The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc., tn thIs publicatlon, even tf
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Production managed by Victoria Evarretta; manufacturing supervised by Joe Quatela.

Photocomposed pages prepared from author's LaTex files.

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

SPIN 10557774
To Margaret
Books by the Author

The Foundations of Geometry

and the Non-Euclidean Plane

Transformation Geometry,
An Introduction to Symmetry

Polyominmoes,
A Guide to Puzzles and Problems in Tiling

Geometric Constructions
Contents

Preface ix
Chapter 1 Euclidean Constructions 1

Chapter 2 The Ruler and Compass 29

Chapter 3 The Compass and the Mohr-Mascheroni Theorem 53

Chapter 4 The Ruler 69

Chapter 5 The Ruler and Dividers 83

Chapter 6 The Poncelet-Steiner Theorem and Double Rulers 97

Chapter 7 The Ruler and Rusty Compass 107

Chapter 8 Sticks 109

Chapter 9 The Marked Ruler 123

Chapter 10 Paperfolding 145

The Back of the Book 161

Suggested Reading and References 189
Index 199
Preface

Books are to be called for and sup-

plied on the assumption that the pro-
cess of reading is not half-sleep, but in
the highest sense an exercise, a gym-
nastic struggle; that the reader is to do
something for himself.
WALT WHITMAN

The old games are the best games. One of the oldest is geometric con-
structions. As specified by Plato, the game is played with a ruler and a
compass, where the ruler can be used only to draw the line through two
given points and the compass can be used only to draw the circle with a
given center and through a given point. Skilled players of the game some-
times give themselves a handicap, such as restricting the compass to a fixed
opening. A more severe restriction is to use only the ruler, after drawing ex-
actly one circle (Chapter 6). On the other hand, a master player of Plato's
game need not use the ruler at all (Chapter 3). Some prefer to play the
game of geometric constructions with other tools, even toothpicks (Chap-
ter 8). The most famous of the other construction tools is the marked ruler,
which is simply a ruler with two marks on its edge (Chapter 9). We can
do more constructions with only the marked ruler than with the ruler and
compass. For example, we will prove that angle trisection is generally im-
possible with only the ruler and compass (Chapter 2), and we will see how
to trisect any given angle with a marked ruler. The first chapter starts from
scratch and reminds us of all the euclidean constructions from high school
x Preface

that we have forgotten or never seen. The last chapter covers geometric
constructions by paperfolding.
Although many of our construction problems are inherited from antiq-
uity, we take advantage of modern algebra and the resultant coordinate
geometry to analyze and classify these problems. We necessarily encounter
algebra in exploring the constructions. Various geometric construction tools
are associated with various algebraic fields of numbers. This book is about
these associations. Some readers will find this theoretical association a fas-
cinating end in itself. Some will be stimulated to seek out elegant means
of accomplishing those constructions that the theory proves exist and will
know to avoid those proposed constructions that the theory proves do not
exist. It is important to know what cannot be done in order to avoid wasting
time in attempting impossible constructions. The reader of this book will
not be among those few persons who turn up every year to proclaim they
have"solved a construction problem that has stumped mathematicians for
over two thousand years." The principal purposes for reading this book arc
to learn a little geometry and a little algebra and to enjoy the exercise.
Very little mathematical background is required of the reader. Abstract
algebra, in general, and galois theory, in particular, are not prerequisite.
Once the ideas introduced in the second chapter become familiar, the rest of
the book follows smoothly. Even though the format is that of a textbook,
there are so many hints and answers to be found in the lengthy section
called The Back of the Book that the individual studying alone should
have no problem testing comprehension against some of the exercises. A
lozenge 0 indicates that a given exercise has an entry in The Back of the
Book.
By skipping over the optional Chapter 8 to get to the essential Chapter 9,
an instructor can expect to cover the material in one semester. A new
instructor should be warned that, although students will at first balk at
the schemes that are introduced in the first chapter, the students will very
quickly learn to use them and that the instructor's problem will be turning
the schemes off when they are no longer appropriate.
If the figures in the text have a home-made look, it is partly because
they have been made by an author learning to use The Geometer's Sketch-
pad, Dynamic Geometry for the Macintosh, published by Key Curriculum
Press. The dynamic power of this software helped in making the figures and
suggests a challenging follow-up seminar that attacks the question, What
points can theoretically be constructed with this software? The task would
be to consider the mathematical aspects of formulating a new chapter with
the geometric construction tool motivated by The Geometer's Sketchpad.
The material has been class tested for many semesters with a master's
level class for secondary teachers. The students in these classes have helped
shape this book. The text jelled in the summer of 1984 with the then new
Macintosh. Notes from that time show that we had class elections to de-
termine the official definitions for the semester. The preliminary version of
 Preface xi

the text then carried the dedication FOR GILLYGALOOS EVERYWHERE. A

residue of these classes can be seen in the somewhat unconventional Chap-
ter 7, where there is a possibility of hands-on learning about mathematical
structure.
I would like to thank the editors at Springer-Verlag for accepting Geo-
metric Constructions for this distinguished series. There are three wonder-
ful women at Springer-Verlag New York who have steered the text from
manuscript to bound book. They are Ina Lindemann, Anne Fossella, and
Victoria Evarretta. I also wish to thank Mademoiselle Claude Jacir, Docu-
mentaliste au Musee, l'Ordre de la Legion d'honneur, for providing infor-
mation on Pierre Joseph Glotin. Finally, I am very much indebted to my
friend and colleague Hugh Gordon, who made many helpful suggestions
while teaching from preliminary versions of this book.

George E. Martin
[email protected]