Climate Guide

Soil Health and Organic Farming
Organic Practices for Climate Mitigation,

Adaptation, and Carbon Sequestration
By Mark Schonbeck,
Diana Jerkins, Lauren Snyder
SOIL HEALTH AND ORGANIC FARMING
ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION,

ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION
An Analysis of USDA Organic Research and

Extension Initiative (OREI) and Organic
Transitions (ORG) Funded Research from 2002-2016
Thank you to
for supporting this project.
© 2018 Organic Farming Research Foundation • Santa Cruz, CA

Table of Contents
Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 1
CONCEPT #1: Estimating the Climate Mitigation Potential of

Organic Farming................................................................................................... 10-11
Challenges in Carbon Sequestration and Greenhouse Gas Mitigation in

Organic Farming Systems.............................................................................................. 12
CONCEPT #2: Closing the Organic Versus

Conventional Yield Gap................................................................................... 22-23
Best Management Practices and Information Resources for Carbon

Sequestration and Net Greenhouse Gas Mitigation in Organic Farming........ 24
CONCEPT #3: Organic is More than Renouncing Synthetics

and GMOs............................................................................................................. 27-28
Resources............................................................................................................................ 37
Organic Farming, Soil Health, Carbon Sequestration, and Greenhouse

Gas Emissions: A Summary of Recent Research Findings............................... 42
Questions for Further Research: Organic Farming Soil Carbon, Soil

Health, and Climate......................................................................................................... 52
References........................................................................................................................... 61
Introduction:
Climate change threatens agriculture and food secu-
rity across the U.S. and around the world. Rising global
mean temperatures have already intensified droughts,
heat waves, and storms, and altered life cycles and geo-
graphical ranges of pests, weeds, and pathogens, making
crop and livestock production more difficult. Intense
rainstorms aggravate soil erosion and complicate water
management, and higher temperatures accelerate oxida-
tion of soil organic matter. Warming climates modify
crop development regulated by growing degree-days or “chill hours,” and threaten production of perennial
fruit and nut crops that have strict chilling requirements to initiate growth and fruit set. Thus, agricultural
producers have a major stake in efforts to curb further climate change, as well as improving the resilience of
their farming and ranching systems to the impacts of climate disruption.
Today’s climate changes are driven largely by three greenhouse gases (GHG): carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous
oxide (N2O), and methane (CH4). Prior to the industrial era, the world’s vegetation, soil life, and fauna medi-
ated a vitally important balance between emissions and uptake of atmospheric CO2, CH4, and N2O. Modern
industrial civilization has upset this balance, resulting in a sharp rise in atmospheric concentrations of all
three GHG since 1850, leading to the onset of global climate change in the late 20th century. Agricultural ac-
tivities affect climate through direct GHG emissions and impacts on the soil and plant biomass components
of the global carbon (C) cycle (Cogger et al., 2014; Harden et al., 2018).
The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) defines soil health as “the continued capacity of
soil to function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals, and humans.” Healthy soils host a
diversity of beneficial organisms, grow vigorous crops, enhance agricultural resilience (crop and livestock
ability to tolerate and recover from drought, temperature extremes, pests, and other stresses), and help
regulate the global climate by converting organic residues into stable soil organic matter (SOM) and retain-
ing nutrients, especially nitrogen (N) (ITPS, 2015; Moebius-Clune et al., 2016). Thus, building soil health
through sustainable organic management practices can mitigate GHG emissions and lessen the
impacts of climate change on production.
ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION 1

Although CO2 accounts for Direct Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Agriculture
the largest percentage of
In addition to fossil-fuel-related CO2 emissions from field operations
GHG emissions, N2O and
and embodied in fertilizers and other inputs, agricultural operations
CH4 are much more potent
emit N2O and CH4, whose 100-year global warming potentials (GWP)
greenhouse gases. Methane
has roughly 20 times the are about 310 and 21 times that of CO2, respectively (IPCC, 2015)*.
global warming potential Most agricultural N2O is emitted during denitrification and other
(GWP) of CO2, and N2O has
microbial transformations of soluble N in cropland and grassland soils
about 310 times the GWP of
that have been fertilized with synthetic N and/or manure (Burger et
CO2. The GWP of a given
al., 2005; Charles et al., 2017; Cogger et al., 2014). Major sources of
gas is a function of how long
CH4 emissions include “enteric CH4” released by ruminant livestock,
it remains in the atmosphere
and its ability to absorb and anaerobic microbial metabolism in flooded paddy rice soils (IPCC,
energy. Therefore, while 2014). Manure storage facilities (especially liquid manure systems such
cutting carbon emissions as lagoons) and inadequately aerated composting operations can emit
is an important part of both CH4 and N2O (Richard and Camargo, 2011).
combatting climate change,
The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimated that
we also need to develop
direct agricultural GHG emissions accounted for 12% of total global
organic practices that reduce
N2O and CH4 emissions. anthropogenic (human caused) GHG emissions (IPCC, 2014). These
emissions were attributed to livestock enteric CH4 (~35% of agricultur-
Nitrous Oxide Fluorinated
Gases al CO2-Ceq), N2O from fertilized or manured soils (~35% of agricultural
Methane 6% 3%
CO2-Ceq), CH4 from rice cultivation (~10%) and manure storage (~8%),
10%
and CO2 from biomass burning, cultivation of peat soils, and other
sources (12%) (Tubiello et al., 2013; IPCC, 2014).
Carbon Dioxide * Throughout this Guide, figures for GHG emissions and their impacts
81%
are discussed in terms of their carbon dioxide carbon equivalents (CO2-
Ceq), based on IPCC estimates of 100-year GWP, Thus, 1 lb N emitted
as N2O = 133 lb C emitted as CO2 (or CO2-Ceq), and 1 lb C emitted as
U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
in 2016 (EPA 2016) CH4 = 7.6 lb CO2-Ceq.
2 ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION

In the U.S., the Environmental Protection Agency estimated that, in 2016, direct agricultural GHG emissions
account for 8.6% of the nation’s total anthropogenic GHG (EPA, 2018). Soil N2O emissions accounted for
50.4% of agricultural GHG (reflecting heavier use of N fertilizers in the US, livestock enteric CH4 for 30.2%,
manure management facilities 15.2%, rice cultivation 2.4% (relatively low rice acreage in US), and CO2
from field burning and from lime and urea applications 1.7%. Total direct agricultural GHG emissions have
increased 17% since 1990, driven largely by increased use of liquid manure management systems, resulting
in a 68% increase in manure facility GHG emissions (EPA, 2018).
The global IPCC report and U.S.-focused EPA analysis do not include CO2 emissions from farm machinery
and embodied energy in fertilizers and other inputs; these were subsumed under the categories of energy for
transportation, machinery, and industrial processes. In a Washington State University analysis that catego-
rized these CO2 emissions as agricultural, N2O (from all sources) accounted for 57% of direct U.S.agricultural
GHG, CH4 for 26%, and CO2 for just 17% (Carpenter-Boggs et al., 2016). In conventional agriculture, N fertilizer
accounts for a substantial part of the CO2 emissions, since industrial N fixation releases about 4 lb CO2 per lb
fertilizer N (Khan et al., 2007).
Soil, Agriculture, and the Global Carbon Cycle

Plant photosynthesis, the foundation of all life on Earth, converts atmospheric CO2 into organic (carbon-
based) compounds, which are retained in plant biomass and delivered to the soil in plant residues and root
exudates. As the soil life digests plant residues, about 15-35% of the annual plant carbon input remains in
the soil beyond the current season as soil organic carbon (SOC), the “backbone” (58% by weight) of soil or-
ganic matter (SOM) (Brady and Weil, 2008). Thus, in all natural and agricultural ecosystems, the living plant
is the primary source of SOC, and the soil life mediates soil C sequestration.
The SOC is comprised of several components, including microbial biomass carbon (MBC), active or labile SOC
(readily decomposed by soil life, with a residence time in the soil of a few weeks to a few years) and stable
SOC (resistant to or protected from decomposition, residence time of decades to millennia). Soil micro- and
macro-organisms (collectively known as the soil food web or soil biota) play a central role in two vital process-
es in the soil C cycle: mineralization, in which active SOC is decomposed to release CO2 and plant nutrients,
and stabilization, in which active SOC is converted to stable forms that are protected within soil aggregates,

Mineralization is the adhered to clay and silt particles, or chemically resistant to decomposi-
process by which soil tion. Both processes help regulate climate, as mineralization is vital for
ongoing plant nutrition and growth (formation of new organic C), while
organisms consume active
stabilization directly sequesters SOC.
SOC as their “ food,”
thereby decomposing it into Figure 1. Components of soil organic matter (SOM)
CO2 and plant nutrients. Living

organisms Fresh
residue
Stabilization, also
>5% >10%
mediated by soil life,
converts active SOC to Stabilized
more stable forms that are organic matter
33% - 50%
physically protected within Decomposing organic matter
soil aggregates, strongly (active fraction)
33% - 50%
adhered to soil minerals,
or chemically resistant to
decomposition.
Soil life processes fresh organic residues into SOM, converting 10-40% of
the carbon in the residues into SOC. While active SOC turns over relatively
rapidly, more stable fractions can remain sequestered for decades to
millennia. More than half of the world’s SOC occurs below the plow layer,
where it is less subject to decomposition. Most of this deep SOC is derived
from plant roots; thus, including crops with deep, extensive root systems in the
rotation play an important role in SOC sequestration.
Agriculture exerts multiple impacts on the global C cycle. Harvest

removes a significant portion of crop-fixed C, leaving less for the soil.
Tillage and overgrazing accelerate decomposition of SOM, and ex-
pose the soil to wind and water erosion, which remove SOM-rich soil
particles and cause major SOC losses (Lal, 2003; Olson et al., 2016;
Osmond et al., 2014; Teague et al., 2016).

Clearing land for agriculture is especially destructive to SOC and plant biomass C. Historically, deforesta-
tion and other land use changes accounted for 30% of total anthropogenic GHG emissions between 1750 and
2011. These losses have slowed in recent decades and now represent 8-12% of total emissions (IPCC, 2014;
Tubiello et al., 2013). Converting temperate forest or prairie to cropland can degrade 30-50% of native SOC
over a 50-year period, and clearing tropical forest can destroy 75% within 25 years (Brady and Weil, 2008;
Lal, 2016; Olson et al., 2016, 2017). Since the dawn of agriculture 10,000 years ago, land use conversion has
oxidized some 516 billion tons** of biosphere C (SOC, vegetation, wetlands) to CO2 (Lal, 2016), equivalent to
34 years’ worth of total global GHG at current emissions rates.
The soil plays a central role in the global C cycle, and the capacity to absorb and hold C is a vital function of
healthy soil. Total SOC held in the world’s soils (~ 1,650 billion tons) is nearly 30% greater than the sum of C
in all living organisms plus atmospheric CO2 (Carpenter-Boggs et al., 2016; Lal, 2015). The SOC turns over
(is degraded to CO2) at about 66 billion tons annually (Brady and Weil, 2008). Most of the SOC is replen-
ished through photosynthesis, but net losses have been estimated at about 2 billion tons C per year, half
of which results from soil erosion (Brady and Weil, 2008; Harden et al., 2018; Lal, 2003). When these SOC
losses are added to direct agricultural GHG emissions, agriculture and land use account for about 25% of
global anthropogenic GHG (IPCC, 2014; Teague, 2018).
Improved farming and land management practices can reverse this trend, resulting in carbon sequestration,
a net conversion of CO2-C into SOC. For example, organic cropping systems often accrue more SOC than
conventional systems in long-term trials (Delate et al., 2015b; Cavigelli et al., 2013; Rodale Institute, 2015).
While individual practices such as cover cropping and no-till can sequester some C, integrated systems such
as conservation agriculture, regenerative cropping, agroforestry, and adaptive multipaddock grazing (AMP)
show much greater C sequestration potential (Table 1). Planting depleted or marginal cropland to perennial
sod or trees also stores substantial C in soil and plant biomass (Feliciano et al., 2018; Jones, 2010). Cropland
soils adjacent to tree lines (boundary plantings or alley crops) benefit from leaf litter, which enhances SOC
and fertility up to a distance equal to tree height (Pardon et al., 2017).
**Throughout this Guide, the English system of units is used; literature reports in metric are converted to
English system. One ton (2,000 lb) = 0.908 metric ton (Mg) = 908 kilograms. One acre (43,560 sq ft) = 0.405
hectare.

The potential to design farming practices for C sequestration has drawn public attention to organic and sus-
tainable agriculture as part of the solution to the global climate crisis (Ohlson, 2014). In 2015, the USDA an-
nounced ten Building Blocks for Climate Smart Agriculture and Forestry. The NRCS Conservation Stewardship
Program includes GHG mitigation as a component of the air quality resource concern (USDA, 2016; USDA
NRCS). In December 2015, the Paris Climate Summit (Conference of Parties) launched the “4 per Thousand
Initiative” to absorb 25% of total annual global GHG emissions by increasing global SOC stocks in the top
16 inches of the soil profile by an average of 0.4% per year (Lal, 2015). This would approximately offset the
world’s annual agricultural GHG emissions.
USDA Building Blocks for Climate Smart Agriculture and Forestry.
GHG Reduction by
Building Block NRCS Lead/Member 2025 (MMTCO2e)1
Soil Health Bianca Moebius-Clune 4-18
Norm Widman, Chris Gross,
Nitrogen Stewardship 7
Dana Ashford-Kornburger
Livestock Partnerships Glenn Carpenter 21.2
Conservation of Sensitive Lands Mike Wilson .8
Grazing and Pasture Lands Joel Brown, Sid Brantly, Dana Larsen 1.6
Private Forest Growth and
Eunice Padley, Dan Lawson 4.8
Retention
Stewardship of Federal Forests ---------- 2.5
Promotion of Wood Products ---------- 19.5
Urban Forests ---------- 0.1
Energy Generation and Efficiency Rebecca MacLeod 60.2
Adam Chambers, Mike Wilson,
Metrics and Quantification Total = 122-136
Katie Cerretani
1
MMTCO2e refers to metric tons of CO2 equivalent.

This plan is designed to help farmers, ranchers, forestland owners, and rural communities respond to cli-
mate change. The ten “building blocks” include a range of technologies and practices to reduce greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions, increase carbon storage, and generate clean renewable energy:
Conservative estimates of potential climate mitigation through sustainable farming range from reducing U.S.
agriculture’s GHG footprint by a few percent (Galik et al., 2017; Powlson et al., 2011) to cutting it by half (Cham-
bers et al., 2016). Reported SOC gains from conservation practices such as no-till or surface residue retention
vary widely and often occur near the surface where the accrued SOC is vulnerable to future mineralization
(Powlson et al., 2016). Based on these considerations, Powlson et al., (2011, 2016) recommend that mitigation
efforts focus on soil and nutrient management to minimize emissions of the more powerful GHG, CH4 and N2O.
In contrast, other analyses suggest that widespread adoption of integrated systems can make U.S. agri-
culture carbon-negative (Harden et al., 2018; Teague et al., 2016), and even offset all anthropogenic GHG
emissions (Rodale Institute, 2014). However, when soil stewardship improves, SOC levels rise steadily for
several years or decades, then level off as soil C dynamics reach a new steady state (Brady and Weil, 2008;
Lugato et al., 2018). Such “SOC saturation” has been observed in long term organic farming systems tri-
als (Rodale Institute, 2015, Carpenter-Boggs et al., 2016), and after cropland conversion to pasture (Jones,
2010; Machmuller et al., 2015). Lal (2016) estimated that SOC levels in managed lands that currently average
55% of their native levels, could be restored to 80% through known best practices, and potentially to 100%
or higher through future innovations. Overall, findings to date suggest that widespread implementation of
today’s best soil management practices could achieve the goal of the 4 per Thousand Initiative announced at
the 2015 Paris Climate Summit (Table 1).
Table 1. Per-acre annual C sequestration rates required to achieve three GHG mitigation goals.
Global GHG Mitigation Goal SOC seq. lb/ac-year1 References
Offset direct agricultural GHG emissions 3252 Richard & Camargo, 2011
Offset 25% human-caused GHG emissions thru
6602 Lal, 2016
4 per Thousand Initiative
Offset all human-caused GHG emissions 2,4702 Teague et al., 2016
1 Carbon sequestered as SOC

2 Based on C sequestration on the world’s ~12.2 billion acres of agricultural lands, including 3.51 billion
acres cropland and 8.65 billion acres grazing lands.
Table 2. SOC accrual rates estimated for various farming systems and practices
Practice: cropland SOC seq. lb/ac-year References
Organic system (vs conventional), long-term Coulter, 2012; Delate et al., 2015b;
400-6001
field crop farming systems trials Cavigelli et al., 2013; Rodale, 2015
Continuous no-till 510 West and Post, 2002
Diversified crop rotation (e.g., 4 year 4 crops West & Post, 2002; Alhameid et al.,
180-470
versus 2 year corn-soy) 2017; Lehman et al., 2017
Cover crop (NRCS practice2) 135-195 Chambers et al., 2016
Cover crop with no-till 440-800 Lal, 2015
Conservation Agriculture3 600– 1,000 Lal, 2016
Aguillera et al., 2013, Gattinger et
Regenerative cropping system4 2,400
al., 2012, Teague et al., 2016
Practice: grazing lands
Prescribed grazing (NRCS practice2) 150-400 Chambers et al., 2016
Machmuller et al., 2015; Wang et
Adaptive multipaddock grazing (AMP) 2,400
al., 2015; Teague et al., 2016
Practice: Perennial conservation plantings
Field border, filter strip, other herbaceous
375-850 Chambers et al., 2016
perennial conservation planting (NRCS2)
Converting cropland to grassland/prairie ≥ 2,000 Jones, 2010
Conservation Reserve Program (NRCS) 3,6005 Manale et al., 2016
Agroforestry, tropical region6 6,3205 Feliciano et al., 2018
Agroforestry, temperate region6 3,7005 Feliciano et al., 2018
Agroforestry, arid to semiarid regions6 2,4005 Feliciano et al., 2018
1 Based on differences in total SOC between organic and conventional farming systems.
2 ForNRCS Conservation Practice Standards, visit: https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/
national/technical/cp/ncps/?cid=nrcs143_026849.
3 Conservation
agriculture integrates diversified crop rotation, high biomass cover crops, no-till, organic soil
amendments, and limited use of synthetic inputs.
4 Regenerative cropping is similar to conservation agriculture, and includes “biotic fertilizer” to feed the soil
biota, strong emphasis on legumes and other organic N sources, and crop-livestock integration.

5 Soil + aboveground biomass C sequestration.
6 Based on a review of various agroforestry practices such as silvopasture, alley cropping, permaculture
home gardens, and transitioning cropland or degraded land to woodlot or forest
Organic Agriculture, Soil, and Climate

The USDA National Organic Program (NOP) Standards mandate best conservation management practices,
including diversified crop rotation, cover cropping, careful nutrient management, and other practices to
build SOC and protect soil health (USDA National Organic Program Final Rule). The main difference be-
tween organic and conventional approaches to soil conservation, SOC, and climate mitigation is that organic
farming excludes the chemical disturbance of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, but allows judicious tillage;
while non-organic conservation agriculture seeks to eliminate the physical disturbance of tillage, but allows ju-
dicious use of synthetic fertilizers, herbicides, and other crop protection chemicals when necessary. Extensive
research indicates that the organic approach has potential to sequester C and mitigate GHG emissions, but that
further research and development is needed to fully realize this potential (see Concept #1 on page 10).
In addition to sequestering C and mitigating GHG emissions, building soil health can contribute to the resil-
ience of the production system to abiotic stresses, including those related to climate change (Blanco-Canqui
and Francis, 2016; Lal, 2016). Organic systems tend to give somewhat lower yields than conventional (Poni-
sio et al., 2014), yet yield stability (resilience) may be improved. For example, the organic system in a Rodale
long term trial has sustained corn yields in drought years when conventional corn yields were reduced
(Rodale Institute, 2014). In another instance, regenerative range management helped a Texas ranch maintain
its herd through the extreme drought of 2012 that forced other ranchers to sell livestock (Lengnick, 2016).

CO N CEPT # 1
Estimating the Climate Mitigation Potential of Organic Farming

Organic farming practices can enhance the soil’s capacity to sequester carbon. However, assessments of
the overall climate impacts of organic farming range from substantial net GHG mitigation (Rodale Institute,
2014; Scialabba, 2013), to a net increase in agricultural GHG emissions as the organic industry has grown in
the U.S. (McGee, 2015). There are concerns that lower crop yields in organic production reduce crop residue
returns to the soil and increase GHG emissions per unit output (Lorenz & Lal 2016); greater reliance on tillage
to manage weeds and cover crops degrades SOM (USDA, NRCS, 2011), and SOC gains from off-farm organic
inputs do not represent net C sequestration (Gattinger et al., 2012).
One valuable tool for resolving this question is to conduct a meta-analysis, a quantitative review of multiple
studies across diverse regions, climates, and soils. Highlights from recent meta-analyses, reviews, and large-
scale studies include:
■■ Soil samples from 659 organic fields and 728 conventional fields across the U.S. showed 13%
higher total SOM and 53% higher stable SOM (“humic substances”) in organically managed soils
compared to conventional (Ghabbour et al., 2017).
■■ In 56 studies in humid-temperate, arid, and tropical regions on six continents, organic systems
averaged 19% higher total SOC, 41% higher microbial biomass C, and 32-84% higher levels of
several enzymes important to nutrient cycling (Lori et al., 2017).
■■ In 20 studies across five continents, organic systems accrued an average of 490 lb C/ac-yr
compared to just 80 lb C/ac-yr for conventional systems (Gattinger et al., 2012).
■■ In six long-term farming systems trials in CA, IA, MD, MN, PA, and WI, organic systems accrued
more SOC than conventional (Delate et al., 2015b). Organic systems with tillage outperformed
conventional no-till in the MD trial (Cavigelli et al., 2013).
■■ In a meta-analysis of 38 studies, organic N sources lost about 0.57% of their N content as N2O,
compared to 1.0% or more for synthetic N fertilizers (Charles et al., 2017).
■■ Based on 12 studies, organically managed soils emitted significantly less N2O and absorbed
slightly more CH4 per acre than conventional soils; however soil GHG emissions per unit output
were slightly higher for organic systems (Skinner et al., 2014).

CO N CEPT # 1
■■ Organic systems showed lower total GHG emissions per unit output than conventional in 72 out
of 121 direct comparisons, while the remaining 49 comparisons showed similar or greater GHG
emissions in the organic systems (Lee et al., 2015).
■■ A review of 115 studies with over 1,000 observations found organic yields averaging 19% lower
than conventional yields (Ponisio et al., 2014). See Concept #2 on page 22 for more.
■■ Statistical analysis of U.S. agriculture indicates that the growth in USDA certified organic acreage
has correlated with an increase in agricultural GHG emissions, likely because many organic farms
have not adopted integrated, sustainable, SOC-building systems (McGee, 2015). See Concept #3 on
page 27 for more.
BOTTOM LINE
Best organic management practices can build SOC and soil health, and potentially reduce GHG
emissions. However, further research, development, demonstration, and adoption of sustainable
organic systems is needed to optimize net climate impact.

Challenges in Carbon Sequestration and Greenhouse Gas
Mitigation in Organic Farming Systems
Throughout the history of organic agriculture, practitioners have emphasized environmental stewardship. In
a recent national survey, more than 86% of 615 participants in the NRCS Environmental Quality Incentives
Program (EQIP) Organic Initiative cited “concerns about environment” as a reason for adopting organic
practices, compared to just 61% motivated by business opportunities offered by organic markets (Ste-
phensen et al., 2017).
Carbon sequestration
Organic producers face several challenges in assessing and optimizing the impacts of their practices on SOC
and the farm’s net carbon balance.
1. Total SOC, which usually accounts for about 58% of SOM, changes slowly in response to management
and climate factors, making it difficult to assess short term (<10 years) trends in soil C sequestration.
Several indices of biologically active SOC respond more rapidly to management, but they are not yet
widely available through standard soil test labs. Of these, permanganate oxidizable carbon (POXC)
reflects SOC stabilization processes, the Solvita soil respiration test (which measures potentially min-
eralizable carbon or PMC) reflects SOC mineralization, and both SOC stabilization and mineralization
are positively correlated with crop yields (Hurisso et al., 2016). Field measurement protocols have been
developed for both indices (Moebius-Clune et al., 2016). However, further research is needed to develop
region- and soil-specific guidelines for interpretation of results (Roper et al., 2017).
2. Soil samples to determine total SOM (e.g., standard soil tests), or active SOC are normally taken from
the surface to a depth of 6 inches (Moebius-Clune et al., 2016). Although biological activity is greatest
near the surface, 53% of the world’s SOC is located from 12 to 39 inches below the surface (Lal, 2015)
where SOC residence time is much longer (Lehmann and Kleber, 2015). Root-derived SOC can play a
key role in long term SOC sequestration, provided that rotations include crops with deep, extensive
root systems and soil conditions favor their full development (Kell, 2011; Rosolem et al., 2017). Deep
rooted cover crops such as forage radish or cereal rye can relieve hardpan and enhance rooting depth

and yield of future crops (Gruver et al., 2016; Marshall et al., 2016). Gypsum applications can ameliorate
root-inhibiting excesses of soluble aluminum (Al) in certain highly weathered soils (Rosolem et al., 2017).
Standard soil tests can track long term (>10 year) trends in topsoil SOC, but do not reflect the efficacy of
crop rotation and soil management in building deeper SOC.
3. The long term fate of newly-generated SOC is difficult to predict and monitor. Relationships among or-
ganic C input, soil biological activity, and long-term C sequestration are complex. Fresh organic residues
undergo a dynamic process of decomposition and transformation by the soil life. Half or more of the
added C is converted back to CO2 via microbial respiration, and the balance becomes microbial biomass
C and SOC (Grandy and Kallenbach, 2015), some of which turns over within a few years, while the rest
remains sequestered for decades to millennia. Many factors—quality of organic inputs, management
practices, species composition and activity of the soil food web, soil
type and texture, soil moisture, climate, and weather extremes—in-
fluence SOC sequestration (McLauchlan, 2006). For example, much of
the SOC gained during no-till accrues within aggregates near the soil
surface, and is readily destabilized by a single tillage pass (Grandy et
al., 2006; Kane, 2015). Generally, more plant root biomass C (35-40%)
becomes stable SOC than shoot biomass C (15-20%) (Brady and Weil,
2008; Rasse et al., 2005). Diverse organic inputs with varying C:N
ratios tend to build more SOC than single-source materials with low
C:N (e.g., poultry litter) or high C:N i (e.g., corn residues) (Cogger et
al., 2013; Fortuna et al., 2014; Grandy and Kallenbach, 2015).
4. While plants sequester SOC as they grow and die in situ, SOC from
compost and other amendments from off-farm sources represents im-
ported, not sequestered, C (Powlson et al., 2011). In a review of mul-
tiple studies, Gattinger (2012) found that, although organic systems
tend to have higher SOC than conventional systems, imported C may Soil analyses for various soil
carbon fractions help tell how
account for 40% of the SOC increase measured in organic systems.
much carbon plants have pulled
Therefore, although organic systems have higher SOC, a substantial from atmospheric Co2 and stored
portion does not contribute to carbon sequestration. in soil organic matter. USDA ARS

Yet, depending on how it is managed, compost can help stabilize SOC (Bhowmik et al., 2017; Reeve and
Creech, 2015). Compost and cover crops together build stable SOC while cover crops alone yield more ac-
tive SOC that is readily mineralized through microbial respiration (Hurisso et al., 2016). In several field trials,
cover crops with manure or compost application have accrued more SOC than either practice alone (Delate,
et al., 2015a; Hooks et al., 2015). A single compost application to depleted rangeland in California boosted
plant productivity and sequestered more C than was present in the compost itself (Ryals and Silver, 2013).
Thus, judicious use of compost, manure, and other organic amendments may play an important comple-
mentary role with in situ plant growth in SOC sequestration.
The net climate impact of utilizing off-farm organic materials depends in large part on their alternative fate.
Diverting food waste and yard waste from landfills or animal manure from lagoons to amend cropland,
converts these materials from major GHG sources into valuable soil amendments. A life cycle analysis of ap-
plying composted manure and plant residues to grazing lands indicated a large negative GHG footprint (net
mitigation), primarily through avoided CH4 emissions, and secondarily through enhanced forage biomass
and SOC on acreage receiving the compost (DeLonge et al., 2013). Carbon emissions during materials trans-
port, and GHG emissions during the composting process, were small relative to this offset. Careful manage-
ment of compost windrows to maintain aerobic conditions and avoid excessive moisture and N in the mix
minimizes GHG emissions (Brown et al., 2008; DeLonge et al., 2013).
Other opportunities to avoid GHG emissions and

build soil by composting organic “wastes” abound.
For example, Dr. Girish Panicker (2017) states:
“[A]ccording to EPA, we throw away 24 million

tons of dried [tree] leaves into the landfills every
year … This is the greatest gift of nature, which
contains thousands of tons of macro and micro
nutrients for the succeeding plants. It is the food
of our Mother Earth. It can conserve soil and
water. EPA states that Americans pay $65/ton
to put it in the landfill.”

Conversely, harvesting plant biomass to make compost or other Tips to enhance carbon
organic amendments can deplete the “donor” field. Removal of crop sequestration
residues (e.g., corn stover) from fields can severely compromise SOC
• Implement conservation
and soil health (Andrews, 2006), and intensify wind and water erosion practices, such as diversified
(Blanco-Canqui et al., 2016a, 2016b). Similar concerns apply to biochar, crop rotations and reduced
a soil amendment created by pyrolysis of organic residues, which can tillage.
help stabilize SOC, improve soil structure, and reduce N2O emissions • Consider regenerative
cropping systems that
(Blanco-Canqui, 2017; Cai et al., 2016 Mia et al., 2017). However, the integrate multiple conservation
pyrolysis process releases GHG, plant biomass is consumed as pyroly- practices with judicious use
sis feedstock rather than returning to the soil in situ, and some biochar of compost or other organic
amendments.
enterprises remove forest or other native plant biomass at unsustain-
• Incorporate agroforestry
able rates to make the product (North, 2015).
practices, such as silvopasture,
alley cropping, and hedgerows.
Finally, organic farmers can face tough choices between sequestering C
• Implement management
and maintaining crop yields and net economic returns. Organic produc-
intensive rotational grazing
tion relies on sufficient SOC mineralization to provide crop nutrients, systems.
which, at first glance, seems to contradict the goal of long term SOC • Plant marginal cropland to
sequestration. Hurisso et al., (2016) state: perennial sod or trees.
• Plant deep-rooted cover
“Soil organic matter levels are the balance of C inputs to soil (through crops, such as forage radish
crop residues and amendments) and losses via mineralization (i.e., or cereal rye, to enhance root
CO2 respiration). These dynamics (stabilization vs. mineralization) are biomass.
mediated through the soil food web, which plays a large role in SOM • Diversify crop rotations
by adding deep-rooted and
decomposition and supports crop nutrition. Growers have a vested
perennial crops.
interest in both processes because they rely on mineralization for
• Use diverse organic inputs
short-term crop productivity, but also strive for stabilization to build that vary in their C:N ratio.
soil resilience, tilth, and quality.” • Combine the use of compost
Compared to conventionally managed soils, organically managed soils and cover crops.
typically have higher microbial respiration rates (PMC) and higher lev- • Divert food and yard waste
from landfills to amend
els of active (POXC), stable, and total SOC, indicating that SOC miner- cropland.

alization and stabilization can be enhanced simultaneously (Hurisso et al., 2016; Lori et al., 2017).
Tillage and cultivation present a tougher challenge, as they accelerate SOC oxidation and sometimes ero-
sion. Cover crop-intensive, organic no-till systems that maximize SOC often entail substantial yield trad-
eoffs, especially in the colder climates of the northern half of the U.S. (Barbercheck et al., 2008; Delate, 2013,
Larsen et al., 2014). Thus, farmers often struggle to find the right balance between crop production and long
term SOC retention.
Conservation agriculture is a system that aims to achieve this balance by integrating diversified rotations,
cover crops, legumes, organic soil amendments, crop-livestock integration, and continuous no-till with limit-
ed synthetic inputs to maintain high yields, build soil health, and sequester C (Delgado et al., 2011; Teague et
al., 2016). Best sustainable organic practices differ from conservation agriculture primarily in the complete
non-use of synthetic inputs including herbicides, which protects soil life (Rose et al., 2016), but makes con-
tinuous no-till infeasible for annual crops. However, organic systems that reduce tillage intensity, maximize
crop biomass and diversity, and use organic amendments can build more SOC than continuous conventional
no-till (Cavigelli et al., 2013; Dimitri et al., 2012; Kane, 2015). Practical organic conservation tillage strategies
include ridge or strip tillage, which release nutrients in crop rows and build SOC between rows (Williams et
al., 2017), and implements such as spaders, rotary harrows, and sweep plow undercutters, which destroy less
SOC and leave soil in better condition than plow-disk or rototiller (Schonbeck et al., 2017).
Crop diversification is another practice that generally enhances SOC, especially when perennial and deep
rooted crops are added to the rotation, and this SOC accrual may be more stable than that achieved through
no-till (Cavigelli et al., 2013; Kane, 2015; Powlson et al., 2016; Wander et al., 1994). Increasing crop diversity
also enhances soil microbial biomass, biodiversity, nutrient cycling, and other soil food web functions, (King
and Hofmockel, 2017; McDaniel et al., 2014; Tiemann et al., 2015. However, adding new crops to the system
can entail acquiring new production tools and skills, market research for new products, and/or reduced
revenues resulting from unharvested cover or sod crops.

Nitrous oxide, methane, and total greenhouse gas “footprint” of the
farming system
Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from fertil-
ized soils account for about half of direct
GHG emissions in U.S. agriculture (EPA,
2018), and result from microbial transfor-
mations of soluble nitrogen in the form
of ammonium (NH4) and nitrate (NO3)
into N2O. The IPCC has estimated that
on average about 1% of applied fertilizer
is emitted as N20 (emission factor, EF).
However, actual EF values for organic N
sources can vary from nearly zero to as
high as 7% depending on the N source and
its C:N ratio, soil texture and drainage,
and seasonal rainfall (Charles et al., 2017).
In a meta-analysis of multiple studies, organic amendments with a high C:N ratio (e.g., crop residues, paper
mill sludge, etc.) or well-stabilized N (finished compost) had low EF (0-0.3%), while solid manures ranged
from 0.3-1.0%, and liquid manure slurry and biogas digestate averaged 1.2% (Charles et al., 2017). Although
a 1% loss from a 150 lb/ac N application has little economic impact on the farm, this loss in the form of N2O
negates about 200 lb C sequestration.
In conventional farming systems, N2O emissions show direct relationships with N application rates and
methods. Reliable, research-based nutrient management protocols for reducing N2O emissions by 50% or
more have been developed for field crops (Eagle et al., 2017; Millar et al., 2010). While organic N sources
have a mean EF of 0.57%, and organic practices can mitigate N2O (Cavigelli, 2010; Charles et al., 2017;
Reinbott, 2015), the dynamics of N2O emissions in organic systems are complex and challenging to man-
age, making it difficult to develop nutrient management protocols for organic systems. Brief, intense N2O
“spikes” can occur when high soil moisture levels and limited oxygen coincide with an abundance of readily-

decomposable organic C and N; for example, when N rich organic fertilizers (e.g., poultry litter) or legume green
manures are tilled into moist soil (Baas et al., 2015; Bhowmik et al., 2015; Cavigelli, 2010; Han et al., 2017).
Annual cover crops usually reduce N2O losses while they are growing (by taking up N), but may stimulate
emissions after termination, especially when all-legume covers are tilled in higher-rainfall climates (Basche
et al., 2014; Li et al., 2009; Rosolem et al., 2017). A recent European modelling study indicated that adding
clover cover crops (terminated by tillage) to existing crop rotations would boost N2O emissions to result in
large net GHG emissions by the year 2100 (Lugato et al., 2018).
In colder climates, spring thaw/snowmelt is a high-risk time for N2O (Thies, 2007), especially after a fall
alfalfa plowdown has released an abundance of soluble N into the soil (Westphal et al., 2018). Other risk fac-
tors include soil compaction, which impedes aeration and promotes denitrification when soil moisture levels
are high; and fine-textured (clayey) soils, in which EF values for organic N sources averaged 2.8 times those
for sandy soils (Balaine et al., 2016; Charles et al., 2017).
The soil microbial community plays a central role in regulating the conversions of soil N among organic,
soluble, and volatile forms, and thereby modulates N2O emissions. Among the many benefits of arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are their capacity to limit N2O emissions and build stable SOC (Hu et al., 2016,
Rillig, 2004). While organic practices and
reduced tillage can enhance AMF activity,
heavy compost use may inhibit AMF by
building up high soil P levels (Gottshall et al.,
2017; Hu et al., 2016; Van Geel et al., 2017).
Agricultural methane emissions are related

primarily to livestock and rice production.
Livestock-related GHG emissions include
enteric CH4 and GHG released during ma-
nure storage. Pasture-based systems reduce
the need for manure storage, yet 100%
grass-fed cattle emit more CH4 than animals

that receive concentrates because the former diet is higher in fiber and lower in protein (Manale et al., 2016;
Richard and Camargo 2011). Pastured dairy systems also create N2O “hotspots” in areas of high stocking
density where manure is concentrated, and soil becomes compacted (Luo et al., 2017).
However, life cycle analyses of management-intensive rotational grazing systems (MIG) have shown that
they can sequester sufficient SOC to offset enteric and manure GHG emissions, and may reduce enteric
CH4 by ~30% through improved forage quality (Kittredge, 2016-17; Manale et al., 2016; Stanley et al., 2018;
Teague, 2016-17; Wang et al., 2015) ). MIG systems divide grazing lands into multiple paddocks, each grazed
intensively for 0.5-3 days at high stocking rates, followed by sufficient recovery periods for the sod to regrow
fully (Kittredge, 2014-15). Life cycle analyses on MIG systems in Texas, Michigan, and South Carolina
showed a net negative GHG footprint (ie. mitigation), though the investigators caution that the rapid SOC
accruals over the initial 5-10 years level off thereafter (Machmuller et al., 2015; Stanley et al., 2018; Wang et
al., 2015).
Well-drained agricultural and grassland soils generally do not release CH4, and may absorb small amounts
of this GHG, whereas water-saturated rice paddy soils release considerable CH4 (Richard and Camargo,
2011; Thakur et al., 2016; Topp and Pattey, 1997). Terminating cover crops in rice paddies just before flood-
ing intensifies emissions, whereas draining rice fields for part of the season can reduce them (Dou et al.,
2016; Oo et al., 2018; Tariq et al., 2017). The System of Rice Intensification (SRI), which integrates improved
crop establishment techniques, compost for fertility, and non-flooded field management, can enhance soil
and crop root health, improve yields, curb CH4 emissions, and reduce total GHG emissions per ton of grain
by 60% (Thakur et al., 2016).
Researchers are attempting to develop realistic models and decision tools for estimating the carbon bal-
ance and overall GHG “footprint” of a farming operation (Baas et al., 2015; Jones, 2010; Wander et al., 2014).
The USDA has developed GRACEnet, a field chamber protocol for monitoring CO2, N2O, and CH4 emis-
sions in different cropping systems, thereby providing data for construction of predictive models (Parkin
and Venterea, 2010). COMET Farm and COMET Planner are online tools designed to help producers in this
complex task, and to identify management changes that could reduce emissions or sequester SOC. Models
were initially developed for conventional production of commodity crops. Additional refinement to address
minor and specialty crops and other farming systems including organic are underway. OFOOT is another

tool under development by the Center for Sustaining Agriculture and Natural Resources at Washington State
University, designed to help organic producers understand and improve the net GHG footprint of their farms
(Carpenter-Boggs et al., 2016).
Positive feedback and the vital role of climate adaptation

Climate change itself can render C sequestration and GHG mitigation more difficult. Rising temperatures
are expected to accelerate the oxidation of SOC (ITPS, 2015; Kell, 2011, Petit, 2012). Warming-related SOC
losses will be especially pronounced in cold-temperate climates and in regions where permafrost thawing
occurs (Harden et al., 2018; Kirschbaum, 1995). Warmer, drier winters and springs in the U.S. Corn Belt may
complicate crop establishment and leave tilled soils more prone to wind erosion (Daigh and DeJong-Hughes,
2017). N2O emissions also increase with soil temperature (Ball et al., 2007), and with mean summer tem-
peratures (Eagle et al., 2017). Finally, rising atmospheric CO2 levels may also stimulate N2O formation by soil
fungi (Zhong et al., 2018).
These trends highlight the urgent need to strengthen the resilience of agricultural systems to climate dis-
ruptions already underway. As noted earlier, the deeper, more biologically active soils of mature organic
systems that have higher SOC can improve crop and livestock resilience to drought and other weather ex-
tremes. The soil benefits of organic practices appear especially pronounced in tropical climates (Lori et al.,
2017), and thus may become more important in temperate regions as mean temperatures increase.
New risks, learning curves, and other barriers to climate-friendly

organic farming
Adding new management practices to make a farming system more climate-friendly and climate resilient
can initially increase financial risks as producers must acquire new knowledge and training, and often new
equipment and infrastructure. The knowledge-intensive and site specific nature of organic farming is accen-
tuated when C sequestration and climate mitigation and adaptation are added to the producer’s goals. For
example, a cover crop-intensive organic minimum-till system that works well in the Southeast may lead to
crop failures in a colder or drier region.
Crop diversification requires careful business planning and market research to ensure sustained profitability.

For example, adding a specialty grain or legume crop to a corn-soy-wheat rotation may require new mar-
ket venues for the new crop. Integrating a sod crop into the rotation builds SOC but often entails foregone
income, and may be infeasible for a small-acreage market garden.
While the benefits of building soil health and sequestering SOC can lead to improved yields or yield stabil-
ity in organic systems, the financial returns may not be realized for several years. In the meantime, organic
producers encounter economic, infrastructural, social, and policy barriers to the adoption of climate friendly
and climate resilient farming systems, including:
■■ Upfront costs and delayed benefits of adopting new practices.

■■ A steep learning curve and lack of qualified technical assistance to help producers identify and
adopt the best suite of practices for their farm.
■■ A historical under-investment in organic agriculture research, which has contributed to the “yield
gap” between organic and conventional systems (see Concept #2 on page 22).
■■ A lack of crop cultivars adapted to sustainable organic production systems.
■■ An agriculture and food system infrastructure that perpetuates unsustainable production
systems.
■■ Government agricultural policies and programs that create dis-incentives to crop diversification,
cover cropping, and other conservation practices.
■■ The lack of viable carbon markets for climate-conscious producers.
■■ The current lack of political support for addressing climate change at a societal level.
■■ Social or cultural pressures that deter adoption of organic or climate friendly practices.
The bottom line is that farmers—organic or otherwise—need to make a living; thus, any management
changes to sequester C or mitigate GHG emissions must also maintain or improve the farmer’s net returns.
If the farm goes out of business and the land undergoes commercial or residential development, its net per-
acre GHG emissions may soar. For example, one study in Yolo County, California estimated that urban areas
emitted 70 times the GHG (in CO2 equivalents) as irrigated cropland (Jackson et al., 2012). Thus, farmland
preservation in itself can be seen as a climate-mitigating endeavor. In addition, our society must provide
farmers with the technical, economic, infrastructure, and social support to adopt optimal soil-building,
climate-friendly, and profitable systems for their farming or ranching operations.

CO N CEPT # 2
Closing the organic versus conventional yield gap

One challenge that organic farmers face as they strive to improve their environmental stewardship and stay
in business is the “yield gap.” Given the lower yields often associated with organic production, the GHG
footprint of organic food in carbon dioxide carbon equivalents (CO2-Ceq) per unit output is not as small as
might be expected based on CO2-Ceq per acre in production. In addition, concerns have been raised that
lower-yielding organic systems would require more acres of native vegetation to be cleared to meet human-
ity’s food and fiber needs, which would further increase the GHG footprint of organic production.
For grain crops, the mean yield shortfall for organic production has been estimated at 19%, based on stud-
ies in 38 countries (Ponisio et al., 2014). In comparisons of organic systems with a diversified crop rotation
or multicropping system versus a conventional monoculture or low-diversity rotation, the yield difference
diminished to 8-9%. However, in comparisons in which both organic and conventional systems were diversi-
fied, the yield gap remained at 21%.
Much of the yield gap can be attributed to low investment in organic research and plant breeding for organic
systems. Since 2002, the USDA Organic Research and Extension Initiative (OREI) and Organic Transitions
Program (ORG) have begun to address this need (Schonbeck et al., 2016). Yet, only 1.5% of USDA research
dollars currently go into organic systems, lagging behind the 5% market share for organic food. Ponisio et
al., (2014) add:
“Given that there is such a diversity of management practices used in both organic and conventional
farming, a broad-scale comparison of organic and conventional production may not provide the most useful
insights for improving management of organic systems. Instead, it might be more productive to investigate
explicitly and systematically how specific management practices (e.g., intercrop combinations, crop rotation
sequences, composting, biological control, etc.) could be altered in different cropping systems to mitigate
yield gaps between organic and conventional production.
“Further, many comparisons between organic and conventional agriculture use modern crop varieties
selected for their ability to produce under high-input (conventional) systems. Such varieties are known to
lack important traits needed for productivity in low-input systems, potentially biasing towards finding

CO N CEPT # 2
lower yields in organic versus conventional comparisons. By contrast, few modern varieties have yet been
developed to produce high yields under organic conditions; generating such breeds would be an important
first step towards reducing yield gaps when they occur.”
BOTTOM LINE
Today’s climate and food security crises make research into sustainable organic systems more
urgent than ever. The potential of plant breeding for soil health and economic viability of organic
farms and ranches is discussed in the companion Guide, Soil Health and Organic Farming: Plant
Genetics, Plant Breeding and Variety Selection.

Best Management Practices and Information Resources for Carbon
Sequestration and Net Greenhouse Gas Mitigation in Organic Farming
The first steps toward creating a climate-resilient and climate-friendly farm or ranch ecosystem are to:
■■ Clarify your objectives and priorities.

■■ Inventory farm resources including soil, water, crops and livestock, infrastructure, expertise, and
labor.
■■ Evaluate your current production practices and their potential impacts on GHG emissions and the
resilience of your farming system.
■■ Identify opportunities to improve your operation’s climate and environmental impacts while
maintaining or enhancing your bottom line.
■■ Outline your overall strategy to achieve your objectives.
Gather the information you need on current and potential new practices or components, their C sequestra-
tion or GHG implications, and their direct costs and benefits to your operation. For example, diversifying
your crop rotation can enhance SOC sequestration and reduce GHG; it also presents marketing and man-
agement challenges and an opportunity to evaluate and compare net returns of your current crops and new
crops under consideration. Some valuable resources for this part of the process include enterprise budgets,
business planning templates, and market information on organic farm products, available online or as Ex-
tension bulletins.
Consider seeking technical assistance from NRCS field staff or independent consultants with a commitment
to agricultural sustainability and expertise in organic systems, soil health, climate in agriculture, and agri-
cultural economics. These professionals can help you clarify goals and develop a practical and site specific
strategy for your operation. NRCS has developed a nine-step comprehensive conservation planning process
in which their field staff or a technical services provider works on the ground with farmers to clarify objec-
tives, inventory resources and concerns, develop and implement a strategy, and evaluate outcomes (USDA
NRCS, 2014). In addition, the Conservation Stewardship Program (Resources, item 23) offers high level
conservation strategies that can mitigate GHG and improve resilience to weather extremes.

Factors to consider and their GHG and resilience impacts (listed in parentheses) include:
■■ Your soil type(s), including texture, mineralogy, profile, depth, drainage, topography, inherent
strengths and constraints, and risk factors for soil erosion or degradation. NRCS Web Soil Survey
(Resources, item 22) provides this information.
■■ Management history and current condition (fertility, tilth, vegetative cover) of the soil in each field
or pasture.
■■ Tillage practices and other field operations (CO2 from fuel, loss of SOC, soil erosion).
■■ Cover crops (C sequestration, N uptake, reduced input needs), termination of legume and other low
C:N cover crops (N2O emissions).
■■ Compost and other organic amendments, on- or off-farm sourcing (soil health, SOC stabilization,
nutrient cycling, soil nutrient balance, GHG impacts of manufacture and transport versus GHG offsets for
materials diverted from landfill or lagoon).
■■ Nitrogen applications such as poultry litter or livestock manure (N2O).
■■ Critical times in the season or crop rotation when high levels of soil moisture and soluble N may
occur together (N2O).
■■ Flooded field production systems, e.g., rice (CH4).
■■ Livestock nutrition, forage quality, grazing and pasture/range management (enteric CH4 and its
mitigation, N2O “hotspots,” C sequestration).
■■ Manure storage facilities and composting operations (CH4 and N2O).
■■ Opportunities to increase plant cover (days per year), biomass, and depth and extent of living
roots in the farm’s cropland, pasture, or range (enhanced C sequestration and resilience to drought,
temperature extremes, and other stresses; reduced soil erosion).
■■ Opportunities to diversify the crop rotation and farm enterprises (C sequestration, resilience,
including economic resilience to crop failure or market fluctuations).
■■ Opportunities to plant trees, shrubs and other perennials, including orchard and other perennial
crops; windbreaks, hedgerows, alley crops, silvopasture, and other agroforestry; restoration of
native plant communities or wildlife habitat (C sequestration, erosion control, resilience).
■■ Opportunities to tighten nutrient cycles, such as crop-livestock integration (N2O mitigation,
resilience).

As you fine-tune your organic production system for soil and climate stewardship, keep in mind that adopt-
ing new crops or practices entail a learning curve and new potential risks, as well as benefits. Add one or
two practices or components at a time, trying them out on a small scale first, then integrate those that sup-
port the farm’s economic viability while advancing your soil health and climate mitigation/adaptation goals.
Clay soil Sandy soil Silty soil
Remember also that no single practice or new crop will be a “silver bullet” solution for soil health, climate,
or profit. Your long term goal is to develop an integrated systems approach, which is the essence of organic
farming (see Concept #3 on page 27).
See Resources, items 1-5, 8, 9, 12, 14-18, 21, 22, 24 and 25 for resources to help identify and estimate GHG
impacts of your farming system and practical strategies for mitigation and adaptation.

CO N CEPT #3
Organic is More than Renouncing Synthetics and GMOs
How full implementation of NOP Standards can sequester carbon, limit
greenhouse gas emissions, and build agricultural resilience
“Organic agriculture is defined as having no synthetic inputs, but organic farms may or may not practice the
full suite of cultivation techniques characterizing sustainable agriculture.” (Ponisio et al., 2014).
In order to become part of the climate solution, organic producers and certifiers have been urged to move
beyond a narrow focus on “input substitution” (McGee, 2015) and to fully implement NOP requirements to
protect natural resources, wildlife, and biodiversity (Wild Farm Alliance, 2017). The NOP Rules provides a
clear roadmap to resilient, climate-friendly farming. Note, these rules are subject to change.
§ 205.2 Definitions:
“Organic Production: a production system that is managed … to respond to site-specific conditions by integrating cul-
tural, biological, and mechanical practices that foster cycling of resources, promote ecological balance, and conserve
biodiversity.”
§ 205.202 Land Requirements:

“[F]ield or farm parcel … must have distinct, defined boundaries and buffer zones … to prevent the unintended ap-
plication of a prohibited substance …”
■■ Tree and shrub plantings to meet this requirement also sequester C.
§ 205.105 Allowed and Prohibited Substances:

“[Organic] product must be produced … without the use of synthetic substances…”
■■ Non-use of synthetic N stabilizes SOC, enhances microbial function, and reduces N2O.
■■ Non-use of synthetic crop protection chemicals protects soil organisms that build SOC.

CO N CEPT #3
§ 205.203 Soil fertility and crop nutrient management practice standard:

“[T]illage and cultivation practices [must] maintain or improve physical, chemical, and biological condition of soil,
and minimize erosion.”
■■ Tilling with care and reducing tillage when practical protects SOC and soil health.
§ 205.203 Soil fertility and crop nutrient management practice standard:

“[M]anage crop nutrients and soil fertility through rotations, cover crops, and the application of plant and animal
materials …”
§ 205.205 Crop rotation practice standard:

“[I]mplement a crop rotation including … sod, cover crops, green manure crops, and catch crops that … maintain or
improve SOM, provide for pest management, manage deficient or excess plant nutrients, and provide erosion control.”
■■ Diversified crop rotations build microbial biodiversity and biomass, and total SOC.
■■ Cover crops and rotation reduce the need for applied N, and thus reduce N2O risks.
■■ Cover crops, sod crops, and diversified rotations build yield stability and resilience.
■■ Judicious use of compost and other organic inputs stabilizes SOC and enhances soil life.
§ 205.240 Pasture practice standard

“The producer … must [have] a functioning management plan for pasture… to annually provide a minimum of 30 per-
cent of a ruminant’s dry matter intake …”
■■ Management intensive grazing can build SOC, distribute nutrients, and foster resilience.

In selecting management practices, consider the following detailed lists as menus of options from which to
choose. Some of the recommendations are well researched and widely applicable, while others are more
specific to certain regions, soils, or production systems, and may or may not be the right choice for you. A
few of the practices listed are noted as experimental; while they have shown promise, they are also poten-
tially risky in certain circumstances.
Sequestering and conserving carbon in the soil

Extensive research has illustrated the central role of living vegetation in restoring and maintaining SOC,
and has validated the four NRCS principles of soil health management as guidelines for C sequestration and
resilience of the farming system. These principles are:
■■ Keep the soil covered year round.

■■ Maintain living roots throughout the soil profile as
much of the year as practical.
■■ Minimize soil disturbance – tillage, compaction,
overgrazing, chemicals.
■■ Energize the system with biodiversity.
The following practices and strategies can build SOC and

agricultural resilience.
Grow and sequester carbon in place:

■■ Maintain plant cover, biomass, and living roots as much of the year as practical; avoid or
minimize bare fallow periods.
–– In regions with sufficient rainfall, implement “tight” crop rotations after each harvest or cover
crop termination; plant the next crop as soon as practical.
–– In semiarid conditions such as dryland grain production, grow one cash or cover crop per
year to maintain SOC and soil health. If extended fallow is needed to store soil moisture, keep
surface covered with plant residues.
■■ Diversify the crop rotation. Adding just one new crop can enhance SOC and soil health.

■■ Grow high biomass, multi-species cover crops in rotation with production crops.
■■ Include a perennial sod phase (1-3 years) in the rotation, if economically feasible.
■■ Close time and space gaps between crops in the rotation whenever practical. Some advanced
techniques for maximizing year round living cover include:
–– Interseed or overseed cover crops into standing grain, row, or vegetable crops. Interseed cover
crops into corn at the V5-V6 (~knee high) stage.
–– Roll-crimp, mow, or ridge-till cover crops before planting cash crop (may be risky, especially in
colder regions; experiment first on small area).
–– Seed row crop into standing cover before roll-down if soil moisture is ample and good seed-soil
contact can be achieved for the row crop (may be risky; experiment first on small area).
–– Plant intercrops of dissimilar but complementary species, for example
• “Three sisters”: corn (tall, erect, N demanding), pole beans (climbing, N fixing), and winter
squash (covers ground, tolerates part shade).
• Alternate rows of tomato (tall, need good air circulation and full sun) with beds of salad
greens (low growing, appreciate light shade in summer).
■■ Manage for high crop root biomass and deeper root growth:
–– Include deep rooted crops (cash, cover, or sod) in the rotation.
–– Choose crop varieties with greater root mass and depth.
–– Avoid “spoon-feeding” soluble N; use slow-release fertility sources.
–– Relieve hardpan using deep-rooted cover crops (subsoil first if necessary).
–– If subsoil acidity and high Al constrains root depth, apply gypsum.
■■ Keep orchard and vineyard floor, and berry crop alleys covered in living vegetation. Perennial sod
maintained by periodic mowing works well for established fruit crops.
■■ Install windbreaks, hedgerows, silvopasture, alley cropping, and other functional agroforestry
plantings as appropriate to your operation.
■■ Convert highly erodible cropland to orchard, other perennial crops, or permanent pasture.
■■ Restore degraded lands, marginal cropland, and riparian or other ecologically sensitive areas to
forest or prairie, with emphasis on native perennial plants and wildlife habitat.

Use organic amendments to supplement and enhance Slow-release
in-situ plant based C sequestration:
Fertility Sources
■■ Apply compost, manure, or other amendments. Start with
on-farm or nearby sources. • Finished compost
■■ Adjust manure and compost use rates to maintain moderate
soil P levels; avoid excess P.
• Legume-grass
■■ Combine low and high C:N cover crops and organic inputs.
cover crop residues
■■ If additional organic materials from off-farm sources are
• Alfalfa meal
needed, choose materials that would otherwise “go to
waste,” e.g., autumn leaves or food waste headed to landfills,
or manure that would otherwise be stored in a lagoon or
unmanaged heap.
■■ Avoid inputs whose “harvest” depletes SOC on other lands
(e.g., corn stover biochar).
■■ Commercial microbial soil inoculants may be valuable when
rebuilding depleted soils.
■■ Mycorrhizal inoculants can be valuable, especially for
woody perennial crops.
Conserve soil carbon:

■■ Prevent or remedy soil erosion—it is an infamous SOC thief.
–– Reduce tillage whenever practical.
–– On sloping fields, lay out raised beds or ridges
UC Davis
approximately on contour, with gradual (0.5-1%) row
grade down toward one or both edges of field. Use
contour buffer strips (sod), terraces, or other soil
conservation measures as warranted.
–– Put steeper, highly-erodible lands in permanent
cover—pasture, silvopasture, forest, orchard with sod
understory, native plants, wildlife habitat, etc.

■■ Avoid breaking perennial sod, and especially native forest, prairie, wetland, or other natural
ecosystems, for annual crop production.
■■ Avoid harvesting or “baling-off” crop residues such as corn stover or mature cover crops,
especially for fuel or off-farm use. Leave residues on soil surface as long as practical.
■■ Carefully managed grazing of crop residues or cover crops as part of a crop-livestock integrated
system can be compatible with soil health and SOC sequestration.
■■ Terminate cover crops by mowing, roll-crimping, tarping (occultation), winterkill, undercutting,
or shallow tillage that leaves most of the root mass undisturbed in the soil profile (note that no-till
cover crop management can be challenging in organic systems).
■■ Use ridge tillage or strip tillage to promote nutrient release in crop rows while leaving between-
row soil undisturbed to maximize SOC accrual (experimental for organic systems, has shown promise
in research trials).
■■ Avoid overapplying plant-available N, which can “burn
up” SOC. On fertile soils, simply replenish N removed
by harvest, ≤50 lb/ac for most vegetables (Wander,
2015).
For more on building SOC and soil health, see Resources, items
2, 5, 6, 7, 9-13, 19-21, 23-25, and the other guides in the Soil Health
and Organic Farming series.
Minimizing nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane

(CH4) emissions from cropland soils
Although abundant soil moisture and organic C and N during
spring thaw or after green manuring have been identified as risk
factors for N2O emissions, more research is needed to better
understand and minimize pulses of N2O emissions from fertile,
biologically active soils. However, the following strategies can
reduce annual total N2O emissions in organic crop production:

Know your soil properties and plan moisture management accordingly:
■■ Identify soil type, texture, and drainage properties to better understand N2O risks:
–– Heavy (clay, clay loam, silt loam) soils have two to three times the N2O “emissions factors” for
organic N inputs as light (sandy loam) soils.
–– Floodplains, depressions, soils with naturally occurring hardpan (“fragipan” or “duripan”), and
areas with naturally slow drainage (“moderately well drained” to “poorly drained”) are likely
N2O hotspots in the farm landscape.
–– Sodic (high-sodium) soils, which occur in low-rainfall regions such as interior parts of the
western US, often have poor, compacted structure and drain slowly.
■■ Remedy moderate drainage/aeration issues with deep rooted cover crops, inputs to build SOC
and tilth, graded raised beds (sloping at 0.5-1% grade to field edge), or tile drains.
■■ Plant wetter, high-risk areas in unfertilized perennial vegetation such as grass sod, edible
perennial landscape, or native woodland or wetland plant communities.
■■ Prevent and remedy soil compaction with deep rooted cover crops, diversified rotation, controlled
traffic, and soil health building practices. For severe compaction, subsoil or chisel plow just before
planting deep rooted crops.
■■ On irrigated crops:
–– Manage water applications to avoid prolonged periods of excessive soil moisture.
–– Monitor fields for ponding in low spots or tailwater collection areas—these can be major N2O
hotspots especially in high SOC soils.
–– In sodic soils, gypsum applications can relieve compaction, improve water relations, and
prevent waterlogging during irrigation.
Manage soil nitrogen to minimize nitrous oxide emissions:

■■ Aim to meet most of crop N needs through the action of the soil food web on SOM and slow-
release N sources, such as legume-grass cover crop residues.
■■ If “quick” N is needed, use concentrated N sources such as poultry litter, blood meal, manure
slurry, and Chilean nitrate in moderation, perhaps 50 lb N/ac.

■■ Ration applied N to meet, but not exceed crop N needs.
–– Conduct simple N rate trials to assess crop response.
–– On biologically active soils, crop N need may be well below amounts recommended on a
standard soil test.
–– Measure in-season soil or crop tissue nitrate-N (e.g., pre-sidedress nitrate test for corn at 12-
inch height), to determine if more N is needed.
■■ Match timing of plant-available N with crop N demand, which usually peaks during the period of
most rapid growth, such as the V9-V10 stage for corn.
–– Split applications of more concentrated N, such as feather or blood meal, or
–– Use in-row drip irrigation to deliver a little N each week to the crop.
■■ Monitor and “mop up” excess soluble N.
–– Measure soil nitrate-N after harvest. Send soil samples to a laboratory or use an in-field test
kit.
–– If surplus soluble N (≥30 ppm nitrate-N) is found or expected to remain after harvest, plant a
high biomass, N-demanding cover crop immediately. Intercrop or overseed before harvest, if
practical.
■■ Avoid adding manure or other concentrated N sources or turning under succulent, high-N cover
crops (green manure) when soil is wet or heavy rainfall is likely.
■■ For the perennial sod phase of a rotation, plant a mix of legumes with grasses and other non-
legumes to minimize risk of N2O emissions after plowdown.
■■ Manage for mycorrhizal fungi and other soil organisms that promote tight N cycling:
–– Avoid excess soil P and soluble N levels.
–– Monitor P levels in compost and manure, adjust application rates accordingly.
■■ Use mycorrhizal fungal inoculum to help restore depleted soils with low P.
Mitigate GHG risks in organic rice production and composting:

■■ Use the non-flooded System of Rice Intensification (SRI) .
■■ If your rice production system includes periodic flooding, time cover crops so that the paddy is
not flooded when large amounts of fresh residue are present.

■■ Make compost from a diversity of organic materials with an overall C:N ratio between 25:1 and
40:1, and maintain aerobic conditions (e.g., turn windrows).
See Resources, items 1-5, 14, 15, 18, 24, and 25 for tips on mitigating N2O and CH4 emissions from cropland;
item 6 for on-farm propagation of mycorrhizal inocula; and item 11 for SRI production methods. For more
on managing N in organic systems, see Soil Health and Organic Farming: Nutrient Management for Crops, Soil,
and Environment. For more on water management, see Soil Health and Organic Farming: Water Management and
Water Quality.
Minimizing methane (CH4) and net total GHG emissions in livestock operations
Although grass-fed ruminants emit more enteric CH4 than grainfed (Manale et al., 2016), management-in-
tensive rotational grazing (MIG) systems may sequester sufficient SOC to offset CH4 and N2O emissions, and
higher forage quality may reduce enteric CH4 (Wang et al., 2015; Rowntree et al., 2016; Stanley et al., 2018).
To mitigate net GHG emissions during organic livestock production:

■■ Maximize time on pasture and minimize time spent in confinement (reduces need for manure
storage).
■■ Implement mob grazing, holistic management, adaptive multipaddock (AMP), or other MIG
system, adapted to your
region, climate, soils, pasture
resources, livestock species and
breeds, and farming or ranching
system.
■■ Ensure sufficient rest periods
for full recovery of pasture or
range before re-grazing. This
is critical for C sequestration,
soil health, forage quality, and
livestock nutrition.

■■ Monitor and manage pasture/range for forage quality and livestock nutrition; modify grazing
schedule and/or overseed desirable species as needed to improve forage quality.
■■ Arrange paddocks, watering areas, and rotation schedule to distribute manure evenly and
minimize N2O hotspots.
■■ Eliminate manure lagoon storage if possible.
■■ Compost or dry stack manure with sufficient dry, high-carbon bedding (straw, wood shavings,
etc.) to achieve an initial C:N ratio of 25:1 or higher; turn windrows as needed to maintain aerobic
conditions.
■■ If liquid manure storage is unavoidable, install a facility to capture CH4 for use as fuel, or at least
“flare” it (controlled burn) for release as less-harmful CO2.
■■ Spread manure when soil is well drained and aerobic, not while saturated, frozen, or snow-
covered.
■■ Apply manure at rates consistent with sound nutrient management, based on soil tests.
See Resources, items 7-10, 14, 16, 17, 19-21, and 23-25 for more information on estimating and managing
GHG emissions in organic livestock production. Items 10, 19, 21, and 25 provide case studies of successful
MIG systems from different regions across the U.S.
Building soil health for climate adaptation and agricultural resilience

Practices that enhance soil food web function, build SOC throughout the soil profile, or enhance nutrient
cycling and nutrient efficiency, tend to improve crop and livestock resilience to pests, diseases, and abiotic
stresses such as drought and unpredictable frost dates. So, don’t wait for the farm GHG models to become
more accurate or for carbon trading markets to open. Climate-friendly soil-building practices can help your
farming system adapt to climate changes already under way, and may improve your economic bottom line
in the long run.
See Resources, items 7, 19-21, and 23 for an overview of farm management strategies for climate adaptation,
including farm stories that illustrate successful strategies.

Resources
1. Greenhouse Gases and Agriculture: Where does Organic Farming Fit? (Lynne Carpenter-Boggs,
D. Granatstein, and D. Huggins, 2016). In-depth webinar on agricultural GHG emissions and opportu-
nities for mitigation. http://articles.extension.org/pages/30835/greenhouse-gases-and-agriculture:-
where-does-organic-farming-fit-webinar
2. Impact of Organic Grain Farming Methods on Climate Change (Webinar by M. Cavigelli, USDA
ARS Beltsville, MD, 2010). http://articles.extension.org/pages/30850/impact-of-organic-grain-farming-
methods-on-climate-change-webinar
3. Why the Concern about Nitrous Oxide Emissions? (C. Cogger and D. Collins, Washington State
University, and A. Fortuna, North Dakota State University, 2014).
4. Management to Reduce N2O Emissions in Organic Vegetable Production Systems. (A. Fortuna,
D. Collins, and C. Cogger). Webinars 1 and 2 at: http://articles.extension.org/pages/70280/two-part-
webinar-series-on-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-soil-quality-in-long-term-integrated-and-tra
5. Soil Microbial Nitrogen Cycling for Organic Farms (Louise Jackson, University of California, Da-
vis, 2010). Describes how soil organisms regulate soil N retention, crop N nutrition, and N2O emissions.
http://articles.extension.org/pages/18657/soil-microbial-nitrogen-cycling-for-organic-farms
6. Soil Fertility in Organic Farming Systems: Much More than Plant Nutrition (Michelle Wander,
University of Illinois, 2015). N cycling and practical organic nutrient management. http://articles.exten-
sion.org/pages/18636/soil-fertility-in-organic-farming-systems:-much-more-than-plant-nutrition
7. On-farm Production and Utilization of AM Fungus Inoculum (David Douds, Jr., USDA Agricul-
tural Research Service, 2015). How to introduce and foster mycorrhizal fungi in organic fields. http://
articles.extension.org/pages/18627/on-farm-production-and-utilization-of-am-fungus-inoculum

8. New Times, New Tools: Cultivating Climate Resilience on Your Organic Farm (L. Lengnick,
2016). Climate change adaptation, including adaptation stories from leading organic farms across the
US. http://articles.extension.org/pages/73466/new-times-new-tools:-cultivating-climate-resilience-on-
your-organic-farm
9. Greenhouse Gas Emissions Associated with Dairy Farming Systems (Tom Richard and Gustavo
Camargo, Pennsylvania State University, 2011) Webinar comparing organic grass, organic grass/crop,
conventional grazing, and confinement systems, and strategies to mitigate GHG. http://articles.exten-
sion.org/pages/32626/greenhouse-gas-emissions-associated-with-dairy-farming-systems-webinar
10. Carbon Farming. Special supplement to The Natural Farmer, Winter 2016-17, 32 pp. Practical C
sequestration strategies that organic farms in New England utilize, including cover cropping, rotational
grazing, and reduced tillage in small scale vegetable production. http://thenaturalfarmer.org/issue/
winter-2016-17-carbon-farming/
11. Grazing. Special supplement to The Natural Farmer, Winter 2014-15, 32 pp. In-depth how-to informa-
tion on management-intensive rotational grazing systems that sequester SOC and build soil, pasture,
and herd health. Articles include Mob Grazing, Allen Savory’s Holistic Management system, and several
farmer articles on organic dairy cattle and lamb grazing systems. http://thenaturalfarmer.org/issue/
winter-2014/
12. Crop Intensification. Special supplement to The Natural Farmer, Winter 2013-14, 32 pp. Describes the
System of Rice Intensification (SRI), a non-flooded approach to high-yield organic rice production devel-
oped in Madagascar in the 1980s, and implemented successfully in the U.S. and elsewhere. Compared to
paddy rice, SRI builds soil and crop health, and sharply reduces CH4 emissions. http://thenaturalfarmer.
org/issue/winter-2013/
13. Biochar in Agriculture, special supplement to the Fall, 2015 issue of The Natural Farmer includes a
number of articles on the history, science, practical applications, potential C sequestration benefits, and
eco-social pros and cons of biochar as a soil amendment. http://thenaturalfarmer.org/issue/fall-2015/

14. Rodale Institute’s Farming Systems Trial, https://rodaleinstitute.org/our-work/farming-systems-
trial/
a. Farming Systems Trial Brochure. Summary after 35 years. 2015, 2 pp. http://rodaleinstitute.org/assets/
FST-Brochure-2015.pdf
b. The Farming Systems Trial, Celebrating 30 Years. 2011, 21 pp. http://rodaleinstitute.org/assets/FST-

bookletFINAL.pdf
c. Regenerative Organic Agriculture and Climate Change: a Down to Earth solution to Global Warming.
2014, 16 pp. White paper based on Rodale’s farming systems trial and other farming systems
trials around the world. https://rodaleinstitute.org/assets/RegenOrgAgricultureAndClimat-
eChange_20140418.pdf
d. Reversing Climate Change Achievable by Farming Organically. Blog post at https://rodaleinstitute.org/

reversing-climate-change-achievable-by-farming-organically/
15. Denitrification-Decomposition (DNDC) Calculator, developed by Institute for the Study of Earth,
Oceans, and Space at University of New Hampshire, includes modules for estimating GHG emissions
in farming systems across the U.S. (US-DNDC Model), in livestock production (Manure-DNDC Model),
and in forestry (Forest-DNDC Model). Models are updated periodically. http://www.dndc.sr.unh.edu/
16. Organic Farming Footprint (OFoot), developed by Center for Sustaining Agriculture and Natural
Resources at Washington State University, aims to provide organic farmers, certifiers, and carbon trad-
ers with a scientifically sound yet simple estimate of C and N sequestration and net GHG balance for a
given organic cropping scenario. Tool is available at https://ofoot.wsu.edu/, with additional information
at http://csanr.wsu.edu/organic-farming-footprints/. The project has also updated the CropSyst model
to support water and nutrient management of 28 additional crops. http://sites.bsyse.wsu.edu/cs_suite/
cropsyst/documentation/articles/description.htm

17. Shades of Green Dairy Farm Calculator (Charles Benbrook, The Organic Center, 2014). Webinar
offers instruction on the use of this GHG footprint calculator for dairy farms, and discusses the reasons
for wildly inconsistent outcomes of GHG studies. http://articles.extension.org/pages/31790/shades-of-
green-dairy-farm-calculator-webinar
18. Northeast Dairy Emissions Estimator (NDEE), is an on-line tool to help dairy producers in New
York and New England estimate GHG emissions from all parts of the farm operation, and evaluate tac-
tics to reduce GHG. http://nedairy.ags.io/
19. GoCrop is an online nutrient management planning tool developed by University of Vermont. http://
gocrop.com/. University of Illinois is refining modules for estimating plant available nitrogen and GHG
emissions for organic systems.
20. Two Percent Solutions for the Planet: 50 low-cost, low-tech, nature-based practices for
combatting hunger, drought, and climate change (Courtney White, Quivira Coalition, www.quivi-
racoalition.org. 2015. Chelsea Green Publishing, White River Junction VT, 227 pp.). Farmers, ranchers,
conservationists, and food system activists share their stories and practical solutions to mitigate climate
change, sequester carbon, and build resilient and abundant agricultural and food systems.
21. The Soil will Save Us: how scientists, farmers, and foodies are healing the soil to save the
planet (Kristin Ohlson, 2014. Rodale Press, http://rodalebooks.com, 242 pp). Journalist Kristin Ohlson
interviews leading scientists in sustainable agriculture and presents the science of soil C sequestration
and soil health in plain English.
22. Soil Health, Water & Climate Change: a Pocket Guide to What You Need to Know. (Land
Stewardship Project, October 2017, http://landstewardshipproject.org/smartsoil, 51 pp). Although not
specifically geared towards organic systems, this Pocket Guide offers valuable practical information on
conservation agriculture and management intensive rotational grazing practices for soil health, water
quality, and C sequestration in the Midwest. The Guide also discusses impacts of climate disruption on
agriculture and the urgent need—and opportunities—to build system resilience to weather extremes.

23. NRCS Web Soil Survey, https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/HomePage.htm. Enter your full
mailing address to locate your fields and identify your soil types and their properties including texture,
depth, profile, drainage, topography, production capability, and constraints.
24. NRCS Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP), https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/

main/national/programs/financial/csp/. The CSP offers technical and financial support for farmers and
ranchers in adopting a whole-farm approach to resource stewardship that can enhance productivity and
build resilience to weather extremes. CSP offers a menu of conservation enhancements including many
that enhance SOC accrual, and some that are designed specifically for organic systems.
25. Organic Agriculture Resource Area on the Extension website http://articles.extension.org/or-

ganic_production. Articles, webinars, videos, courses on many aspects of organic vegetable, grain, and
dairy production and marketing, developed by the eOrganic Community of Practice.
26. ATTRA – National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service, https://attra.ncat.org/ Offers

publications, videos, and webinars on a wide range of topics; an Ask an Ag Expert service by phone or
online; breaking research news and new information resources; and a search function that facilitates
information retrieval on topics such as organic no-till or enterprise budgets. Some topic areas with sub-
stantial offerings include:
a. Organic farming https://attra.ncat.org/organic.html
b. Marketing, business, and risk management https://attra.ncat.org/marketing.html
c. Urban agriculture https://attra.ncat.org/urban_ag.html
d. Soils and compost https://attra.ncat.org/soils.html

Organic Farming, Soil Health, Carbon Sequestration, and Green-
house Gas Emissions: A Summary of Recent Research Findings
Research continues to validate the four NRCS principles of soil health as guidelines for SOC sequestration,
climate mitigation and adaptation. The National Organic Standards require organic producers to imple-
ment these principles (see Concept #3 on page 27), using practices to keep the soil covered, maintain living roots,
and increase biodiversity that non-organic conservation farmers also use routinely. As noted earlier, organic
producers must take a different approach to the fourth principle to minimize soil disturbance, as the Organic
Standards exclude synthetic fertilizers and herbicides, and require the use of organic and natural mineral
nutrient sources.
Following are a few highlights from recent research findings on organic and sustainable agriculture, soil
health, C sequestration, and climate mitigation and adaptation.
Agricultural carbon sequestration and climate mitigation

■■ Protecting the world’s agricultural soils from erosion would reduce GHG emissions by ~ 1.1 billion
tons CO2-Ceq per year, or 7% of humanity’s total annual GHG (Lal, 2003).
■■ Worldwide implementation of NOP requirements to “maintain or improve soil organic matter”
would check the net decline in global SOC pools and thereby save 2 billion tons C/year, about
12% of total annual GHG (Harden et al., 2018).
Growing SOC in place: diversifying and intensifying the crop rotation

■■ In long-term trials, organic grain rotations have accrued 400-600 lb SOC/ac-year more than
conventional grain rotations, primarily through higher crop diversity (e.g., three annual grains and
a perennial forage versus corn-soy, Cavigelli et al., 2013; Delate et al., 2015b), and greater mean
duration of living plant cover (e.g., 72% vs 42% of the calendar year, Wander et al., 1994).
■■ Organic orchards managed with living orchard floor cover have double the SOC levels of orchards
maintained by clean tillage or herbicide fallow (Lorenz and Lal, 2016).
■■ Removing annual crop residues (e.g., corn stover for biofuel) severely depletes SOC and increases
erosion risks (Blanco-Canqui et al., 2016a, 2016b)

■■ In semiarid regions, alternate year fallow (e.g., in dryland wheat) causes significant losses of
SOC, even under no-till management, whereas planting one crop per year can sustain SOC levels
(Halvorson et al., 2002; West and Post, 2002).
Growing and holding SOC in place: the central role of soil life:
■■ Organic practices that build soil microbial activity and biodiversity, generally enhance POXC
(index of SOC stabilization) and PMC (SOC mineralization). POXC and PMC are better predictors
of crop yields than other SOC
fractions (Hurisso et al., 2016).
■■ Short-term increases in microbial
biomass, microbial activity, and
active SOC generally foretell
longer-term increases in total SOC
(Ghabbour et al., 2017; Lori et al.,
2017).
■■ Cover crops with compost or manure
applications may build more SOC and
microbial functional biodiversity than
either practice alone (Delate et al.,
2015a, Hooks et al., 2015).
■■ As crop diversity increases from monoculture or corn-soy to four or five crops, microbial biomass,
and functional diversity increase substantially (Tiemann et al., 2015).
■■ Reduced tillage (shallow ~ 3 inches, or non-inversion chisel plow) can improve microbial biomass
and function in organic systems (Sun et al.,2016, Zuber and Villamil, 2016).
■■ Increased microbial respiration per unit microbial biomass (metabolic quotient) may indicate
stresses on the soil biota, such as bare fallow, intensive tillage, or excessive soluble N (Fauci and
Dick, 1994; Lori et al., 2017; Zuber and Villamil, 2016).
■■ Plant root symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) play a major role in nutrient cycling and
transmuting plant organic C into stable SOC (Hamel, 2004; Rillig, 2004).

■■ Many cover crops, including oats, rye, sorghum, sunnhemp, and bahiagrass, host AMF and
increase soil AMF populations (Douds, 2015; Duncan, 2017; Finney et al., 2017).
■■ AMF are deterred by tillage, fallow periods, and excessive soil P levels, which may occur with
heavy use of compost or manure (Rillig, 2004).
■■ In-row subsurface drip irrigation can enhance water use efficiency and yield in organic tomato in
low-rainfall regions, but leaving interrow soil unwatered can reduce microbial activity and SOC
sequestration (Schmidt et al., 2018).
Sequestering C in perennial conservation plantings

■■ The NRCS Conservation
Reserve Program
(CRP), which converts
degraded, marginal, or
environmentally sensitive
cropland to perennial grass
or woodland has been
estimated to sequester
3,200 lb C/ac annually in
SOC and aboveground
biomass (Manale et al.,
2016).
■■ Permaculture home gardens planted on previously “under-utilized” land, and replanting degraded
cropland to forest can accrue over 3,000 lb SOC/ac-year (Feliciano et al., 2018).
SOC saturation: how much C can the land hold?

■■ Restoration of global SOC to pre-agriculture levels ( ~ 8,000 BC) may be achievable with further
advances in soil health management, and would absorb about 34 years’ worth of total global
human-caused GHG emissions at current rates (Lal, 2016).

Looking below the surface: the hidden value of deep roots
■■ While most soil
biological activity
and nutrient release
occurs in the top 12
inches, at least one-
half of all SOC exists
below 12 inches
(Brady and Weil,
2008; Lal, 2015).
■■ Deep SOC is
deposited mainly by
plant roots, and long-
term SOC accrual
correlates closely with root biomass (Brady and Weil, 2018; Kell, 2011; Rasse et al., 2005).
■■ Many crops send roots 4 to 8 feet deep if soil conditions allow it. Cover crops such as pearl millet,
sorghum-sudangrass, sunflower, sunnhemp, radish, and winter rye penetrate subsurface hardpan
and facilitate deep rooting by subsequent crops (Rosolem et al., 2017).
■■ Organic practices can enhance cereal grain root biomass up to 60 percent (Hu et al., 2018).
■■ Managing for deep, extensive root systems, including plant breeding, may be a major opportunity
for SOC sequestration, climate mitigation, and resilience (Kell, 2011).
Soil inorganic carbon: an important unanswered question

■■ Soils of prairie, semiarid, and arid regions hold 20-90% of their total carbon in the form of
carbonates (soil inorganic carbon or SIC) (Brady and Weil, 2008).
■■ Recent research has documented significant management impacts on SIC, including SIC losses in
organic systems in three out of seven organic-conventional comparisons.
■■ More research on SIC management in drier regions is needed (Lorenz and Lal, 2016).

Reducing soil disturbance: tillage
■■ Organic rotations with cover crops, compost or manure, and routine tillage often sequester as
much C as conventional no-till (Syswerda et al., 2011; Wander et al., 2014).
■■ In one long term trial, the organic system accrued 400 lb/ac-year more SOC than continuous
conventional no-till (Cavigelli et al., 2013).
■■ Practical reduced-till options for organic producers include ridge tillage, spading machine,
chisel plow, rotary harrow (shallow till), and sweep-plow undercutter to terminate cover crops
(Schonbeck et al., 2017).
■■ Compared to plow-disk or rototiller, terminating cover crops with spader or undercutter can
reduce compaction and improve yields (Cogger et al., 2013; Wortman et al., 2016).
Reducing soil disturbance: organic versus conventional inputs

■■ Long-term use of soluble NPK fertilizers has depleted deep (12-18 inch) SOC and total soil N in the
100+ year Morrow Plots (University of Illinois) and many other long term trials around the world
(Khan et al., 2007).
■■ Regular or heavy use of inorganic N can reduce microbial biomass, increase metabolic quotient,
and compromise nutrient cycling and soil food web function (Fauci and Dick, 1994).
■■ Organic nutrient sources supported greater SOC accrual and AMF activity than inorganic
(soluble) fertilizers (Zhang et al., 2016).
Compost, manure, and other organic amendments

■■ In a meta-analysis of 74 farming system studies, crop-livestock integrated organic systems that
use on-farm manure and compost accrue ~240 lb SOC/ac-year) without relying on imported
organic inputs (Gattinger et al., 2012).
■■ The percent of applied organic C retained as stable SOC is generally greatest for finished
compost, followed by solid manure, uncomposted plant residues, and liquid manure (slurry) or
liquid biogas digestate (in that order). (Cogger et al., 2013; Hurisso et al., 2016; Sadeghpour et al.,
2016; Wuest and Reardon, 2016).

■■ One ton of finished compost may add ~220 lb stable SOC, but GHG emissions (primarily CH4)
during compost production have been estimated at 400 lb CO2-Ceq per ton (Carpenter-Boggs et
al., 2016). This analysis did not include offsets from diverting organic materials from landfills or
manure lagoons.
■■ A single compost application (total N 225 lb/ac) to grasslands in a California study stimulated
plant production and enhanced “ecosystem C storage” (soil + biomass C) by 25-70% over a three
year period (Ryals and Silver, 2013).
■■ A single application of composted cattle manure (22 tons dry weight/ac) to a dryland wheat field
in Utah enhanced wheat yields for 15 years, at the end of which SOC in the top 4 inches was
double that in an adjacent unamended field (Reeve and Creech, 2015).
Biochar
■■ The biochar method is based on findings that up
to half of the SOC in fertile prairie soils is “black
carbon” left by prairie fires, and that charcoal
from indigenous peoples’ cooking fires helped
create the anomalously fertile terra preta soils
in the Amazon basin, where the native soils are
nutrient-poor (Kittredge, 2015; Wilson, 2014).
■■ Biochar can stabilize SOC, improve soil
aggregation and moisture retention, enhance
nutrient availability, and improve crop yields.
Results vary widely, and biochar works best
in conjunction with compost or microbial
inoculants (Blanco-canqui, 2017; Kittredge, 2015;
Wilson, 2014).
■■ As biochar ages for several years in the soil, it
acquires cation exchange capacity, binds to soil
clays, and stabilizes SOC more effectively (Mia et
al., 2017).

■■ Sustainability concerns include removal of plant biomass to create biochar, land grabs in the
Global South for biochar feedstock, and GHG emissions during pyrolysis (North, 2015).
■■ Annual spring burning enhanced root biomass and AMF activity in a Kansas native tallgrass
prairie, suggesting that prescribed burning might yield some of the benefits of biochar without the
need for off-farm inputs (Wilson et al., 2009).
Nitrous oxide emissions from cropland soils

■■ Soil N2O emissions are related to soil moisture, soluble N, and labile organic C; N2O emissions
are minimal when soil nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) is below 6 ppm, or soil moisture is below field
capacity (Cai et al., 2016; Thomas et al., 2017).
■■ N2O emissions are directly related to impeded gas diffusion through the soil, and are therefore
related to high soil moisture, fine (clayey) texture, and soil compaction (Balaine et al., 2016;
Charles et al., 2017).
■■ N2O emissions may increase in no-till if
roll-crimped covers maintain soil moisture
levels above field capacity (Linn and
Doran, 1984).
■■ In conventional corn production, N2O
emissions rise sharply as rates of fertilizer
N begin to exceed crop needs (Eagle et al.,
2017; Millar et al., 2010).
■■ Peak N2O emissions occur when
rains follow soluble N applications in
conventional agriculture, and after legume-
rich cover crops or sod are plowed down in
organic systems (Burger et al., 2005; Han et
al., 2017; Westphal et al., 2018).
–– Red clover sod can contain 300 lb N/ac, with 85% of it below ground. A legume-grass sod is
recommended for grain-forage rotations because it may emit less N2O at plowdown than an
all-legume sod (Han et al., 2017).

–– In a meta-analysis and modelling study including 8,000 sites throughout Europe, adding
legume cover crops to existing rotations (clover planted in any fallow period ≥ 2 months) was
estimated to sequester about 3 tons SOC/ac over 80 years, but also to emit twice that amount
of N2O in CO2-Ceq (Lugato et al., 2018).
■■ Studies on N2O emissions from organic systems illustrate the need for careful management of
organic N, and for more research. For example:
–– In Colorado organic lettuce trials, reducing preplant N (feather or blood meal) from 50 to
25 lb/ac cut N2O emissions by 2/3 without affecting yield. Delivering the N in five split
applications via drip fertigation (fish emulsion) during crop growth eliminated N2O emissions
altogether (Toonsiri et al., 2016).
–– In California, N2O emissions from organic tomato systems were half those from conventional
tomato systems (Burger et al., 2005).
–– Some California tomato fields under long term organic management exhibit “tight N cycling,”
in which plant-soil-microbe dynamics and expression of plant N uptake genes maintain
low soil soluble N, yet adequate plant nutrition and high yields. These fields receive diverse
low- and high-C:N organic inputs, and have high active and total SOC levels (Jackson, 2013;
Jackson and Bowles, 2013).
–– Organic broccoli in California and Washington required more than 200 lb N/ac for optimal
yield. Providing it with legume green manure + organic fertilizers released 11-27 lb N/ac-year
as N2O, which negates 1,400-3,400 lb/ac SOC sequestration (Collins and Bary, 2017; Li et al.,
2009).
–– An organic grain rotation in Michigan fertilized with poultry litter (130-200 lb N/ac-year)
emitted five times as much N2O per year as the conventional system, mostly during intense
bursts after heavy rains (Baas et al., 2015).
■■ Indirect emissions take place when NO3-N is leached from the soil profile and a portion (estimated
by IPCC at 0.75%) is converted to N2O off site (Parkin et al., 2016).
–– Deep rooted cover crops like sorghum, millets, radish, and chicory scavenge NO3-N, thus
curbing indirect N2O emissions (Rosolem et al., 2017).
–– Pearl millet, sorghum, groundnut, and signalgrass, release natural nitrification inhibitors that
reduce NO3-N leaching and N2O emissions (Rosolem et al., 2017).

■■ Active AMF can promote tight nutrient cycling and reduce N2O provided that soil P levels are not
excessively high (Hamel, 2004; Hu et al., 2016).
■■ Lab trials suggest that biochar may help curb N2O emissions (Cai et al., 2016).
Methane emissions in rice production

■■ Paddy (flooded cultivation) rice can release 110 lb CH4 -C/ac per cropping cycle (~840 lb CO2-
Ceq), and emissions increase when a cover crop is terminated prior to flooding or organic N
fertilizer is applied (Dou et al., 2016).
■■ While flooded rice shows severe root decay by the time the crop flowers, roots of SRI (non-
flooded) rice remain healthy, grow larger and deeper, host AMF and beneficial soil bacteria, and
enhance nutrient use efficiency (Thakur et al., 2016).
Sequestering C and minimizing GHG emissions in organic livestock production

■■ Higher enteric CH4 and lower milk production in grass-fed organic dairy cows double direct
GHG emissions per gallon of milk compared to conventional confinement dairy (Richard and
Camargo, 2011). However, this comparison does not consider potential SOC sequestration under
management intensive grazing (MIG).
■■ Compared to continuous grazing in the cow-calf phase of beef production in the Southern
Great Plains region of Texas, multipaddock grazing enhanced SOC sequestration by 2,400 lb/
ac annually for 10 years, improved forage quality, and thereby reduced enteric CH4 about 30%,
resulting in a net negative GHG footprint (Wang et al., 2015).
■■ In Michigan, conversion of grass-finishing beef operations from continuous grazing to adaptive
multipaddock grazing sequestered 3,200 lb C/ac annually for four years, and reduced enteric CH4
by 36%, again resulting in a net GHG sink (Stanley et al., 2018).
■■ In coastal South Carolina, converting depleted sandy loam (0.5% SOC) from row crops to
Bermuda grass pasture under MIG accrued 6,300 lb C/ac annually during the third through sixth
year, after which annual SOC accrual tapered off (Machmuller et al., 2015).
■■ Producer success stories with MIG abound from across the U.S.; before and after photos show
dramatic soil and forage health outcomes from MIG. One farm in upstate New York documented
SOC gains well over 3 tons/ac in three years through dozens of soil tests. (Kittredge, 2014-15).

■■ Crop-livestock integration can enhance SOC, improve nutrient cycling, and mitigate GHG
emissions. While baling-off cover crops or corn residues reduces SOC and promotes erosion,
these resources can be grazed without seriously compromising soil health (Blanco-Canqui et al.,
2016a, 2016b; Franzluebbers and Studeman, 2015).
Breaking the vicious cycle: positive feedback between greenhouse gases

and climate change
■■ Warming temperatures will accelerate SOC decomposition; for example, models indicate that,
with continued warming, no-till corn fields in Ohio that are currently sequestering C will begin
losing SOC before the end of the century (Maas et al., 2017).
■■ Impacts will be most severe in cold climates (a 10% SOC loss for every 1.8°F increase), and less
pronounced in tropical regions (3% loss per 1.8°F) (Kirschbaum, 1995).
■■ Thawing of permafrost may lead to an additional 600 million tons SOC loss per year globally, a
30% increase over current net SOC loss (Hardin et al., 2018).
■■ Fall tillage combined with warmer, drier winters and springs leaves Corn Belt soils in an
excessively “fluffy” condition that hinders seed-soil contact and stand establishment, leading to
further SOC losses to erosion (Daigh and DeJong-Hughes, 2017).
■■ Soil N2O emissions are directly related to soil temperature, and thus may increase as climates
warm. In a meta-analysis of 27 studies across the Corn Belt, N2O emissions increased 18-28%
with every 1.8° F increase in mean July temperatures (Ball et al., 2007; Eagle et al., 2017).
■■ Rising atmospheric CO2 levels may directly accelerate SOC losses. In Florida, scrub oak lands
experimentally subjected to elevated CO2 lost SOC even as tree growth increased (Petit, 2012).
■■ Experimental CO2 enrichment of grazing lands increased fungal biomass and N2O emissions, an
unexpected finding given the role of mycorrhizal fungi in mitigating N2O (Rillig, 2004; Zhong et
al., 2018).
■■ No-till based conservation systems that store SOC near the surface may not suffice in the face
of these trends; new, innovative approaches, such as integrated organic systems and deep SOC
sequestration, will be needed to break the vicious cycle (Kell, 2011).

Questions for Further Research: Organic Farming Soil Carbon, Soil
Health, and Climate
Findings to date suggest that widespread adoption of sustainable organic production systems could make
the world’s agriculture climate-neutral, and enhance the resilience of farms and ranches to the impacts of
climate changes already underway. Multiple studies and meta-analyses on organic systems have validated
the National Organic Standards and the NRCS Four Principles of Soil Health Management as frameworks for
climate-friendly and adaptive farming and ranching. In addition, researchers have identified some promising
new strategies that merit further research and development into practical guidelines for producers. How-
ever, several major hurdles to realizing the vision of soil- and climate-friendly agricultural systems remain,
including:
■■ A need for tools to help producers and service providers translate framework principles into
effective, economically viable, site-specific applications.
■■ A need for practical tools that farmers can use to measure SOC, estimate GHG emissions, and
monitor progress toward soil health and climate goals.
■■ A need for crop cultivars and livestock breeds that will thrive and yield well in sustainable organic
production systems.
■■ Knowledge gaps in areas such as soil microbial community dynamics, the nature of stable SOC,
and the coupling of C and N cycles in the agroecosystem.
■■ A need to address economic, logistical, policy, and social barriers to farmer adoption of soil health
and climate mitigation practices.
Putting principles into practice

Several pivotal strategies appear to offer substantial and fairly consistent benefits to soil health, SOC seques-
tration, climate mitigation, and agricultural resilience:
■■ Crop intensification – maximizing plant biomass and year round soil coverage.
■■ Maximizing living roots – root biomass, depth, duration, diverse root architecture.
■■ Diversified crop rotation – production crops, cover crop mixes, perennial sod phase.

■■ Reducing soil disturbance – physical (tillage, traffic), chemical (inputs), and biological
(overgrazing, invasive exotic species).
■■ Integrated organic soil and crop management: diverse rotation + cover crops + organic
amendments + nutrient management + soil-friendly tillage practices.
■■ Management-intensive rotational grazing for livestock systems.
■■ Crop-livestock integration.
In implementing these strategies on their farms, organic producers must learn new skills and consider new
costs (e.g., cover crop seed, planting equipment for new crops), risks (e.g., weed pressure and potential yield
reductions in reduced tillage systems), and income foregone (e.g., adding a sod break to an intensive vegeta-
ble rotation). There are potential economic benefits as well, ranging from new crop or livestock enterprises
to long term improvements in soil health, fertility, and resilience. Farmers may have questions such as:
■■ What are the most cost-effective and least risky practices to increase crop biomass, soil coverage,
and living roots in my crop rotation?
■■ How can I ensure that new crops added to the rotation will be profitable?
■■ What are the best cover crops for my farm and crop rotation?
■■ When and how should the cover crops be terminated?
■■ How can I minimize N2O emissions upon plowing-down the sod phase of the rotation?
■■ How much compost should I apply?
■■ What are the most practical and least risky ways to reduce tillage intensity?
The answers to these questions depend so much upon site specific factors—climate, soil, topography, farm-
ing system, crop and livestock mix, markets, etc., that research cannot yield prescriptive answers for all pro-
ducers. In addition, solutions developed in collaboration with farmers engaged as equal partners are much
more readily adopted than formulae developed and delivered in a top-down manner. Research outcomes
that could help organic producers implement soil-building, climate-friendly, and profitable management
practices include:
■■ Tools to help the farmer select the best system components (crop rotation, cover crops, organic
fertilizers and amendments, tillage tools and techniques, etc) for their climate, soil, production
system, and market constraints and opportunities.

■■ A process similar to the NRCS’s Comprehensive Conservation Planning that farmers and service
providers can use to develop the best site-specific strategies to meet identified production, soil
health, and climate mitigation/adaptation goals.
■■ Farm case studies and success stories in soil health, C sequestration, and climate adaptation.
■■ Enterprise budgets and business planning templates to help producers evaluate the economic
viability of current and potential new crops in a diversified rotation.
■■ Economic analysis and risk management tools to help producers evaluate the potential costs and
benefits of adopting a new system or practice.
Monitoring SOC, soil N, GHG, and progress toward soil and climate goals
Farmers need practical tools to monitor soil health and fertility, and the GHG footprint of their production
systems. These include simple, reliable tests that can be conducted on site or by a standard soils lab for a
modest fee, and user-friendly computer models and decision tools that provide output that is relevant for
organic systems. Most soil test labs estimate total SOM by loss on ignition, a few labs offer POXC (index of
SOC stabilization) and PMC (SOC mineralization), and several research teams have developed experimen-
tal protocols for estimating the release of plant-available N via SOC mineralization. Additional research is
needed to:
■■ Develop improved sampling and testing protocols for accurate and meaningful measurement of
total SOC, which usually accounts for about 58% of SOM.
■■ Develop practical sampling and testing protocols for monitoring subsurface SOC beyond the
normal sampling depths of 6 to 12 inches.
■■ Develop benchmarks and realistic site-specific goals for total SOC based on climate (temperature
and rainfall regimes), soil type and texture, and production system.
■■ Verify and demonstrate a simple in-field soil nitrate-N test as a N monitoring and management
tool in organic production (Collins and Bary, 2017).
■■ Develop reliable, practical methods to estimate plant-available N released through SOC
mineralization.
■■ Make practical, reliable on-farm monitoring of POXC, PMC, and other measures of soil microbial
activity and SOC fractions widely available and affordable.

■■ Complete development of OFOOT and organic modules for tools such as DNDC and COMET-
Farm, so that organic producers can estimate soil N2O emissions, enteric CH4, and net total GHG
of their farming system, and identify mitigation opportunities.
Plant and animal breeding for SOC sequestration, GHG mitigation, and resilience in
organic farming
Development and release of public crop cultivars and livestock breeds that thrive and perform well in sus-
tainable organic production systems could enhance organic farmers’ yields, and thereby reduce the GHG
footprint per unit output for organic farm products. New cultivars and breeds that combine this capacity
with desired market traits (flavor, nutritional quality, etc.) will improve organic producers’ bottom line and
increase their capacity to implement climate-friendly soil health management practices. Farmer participa-
tory plant breeding, in which producers work with plant breeders to identify objectives, conduct on-farm
breeding and selection, and produce seed, have proven cost-effective in making new, improved cultivars
available to farmers (Schonbeck et al., 2016). In addition, certain plant breeding objectives based on known
heritable traits can contribute directly to SOC sequestration, GHG mitigation, and resilience. These include:
■■ Nutrient use efficiency, tight N cycling, capacity to thrive in soils low in soluble N.
■■ Enhanced rhizosphere interaction with mycorrhizal fungi, N fixing bacteria, and other beneficial
soil biota that facilitate plant nutrition, vigor, and resilience.
■■ Water use efficiency.
■■ Resilience to drought, excessive moisture, temperature extremes, and other stresses.
■■ Capacity to maintain normal production despite reduced or unpredictable chill-hours and frost
dates resulting from climate change (perennial fruit and nut crops).
■■ Deep, extensive, high biomass root systems.
■■ Enhanced total biomass, increased plant residue return to the soil while maintaining yield, market
qualities, and ease of harvest.
Climate related livestock breeding objectives might include:

■■ Capacity to thrive in management-intensive rotational grazing (MIG) systems.
■■ Reduced enteric methane production in ruminants.
■■ Increased resilience to heat and other weather extremes.

Developing promising leads into practical applications
Soil health research over the past ten years has identified several new strategies that show potential to en-
hance agricultural SOC sequestration or GHG mitigation. Some are based on one or a few studies, and merit
further testing in a diversity of regions, soils, climates, and organic production systems, to evaluate their
potential for practical application. Others have a more substantial track record in research, and need fine-
tuning, demonstration, and outreach to facilitate more widespread and successful adoption. Promising new
strategies and associated research priorities include:
■■ Tight nitrogen cycling: Identify practical methods to promote tight N cycling and N use efficiency in
a wider range of organic vegetable, fruit, and grain crops, across a wider range of soils, climates,
and regions (Jackson, 2013; Jackson and Bowles, 2013).
■■ System of Rice Intensification: Refine, evaluate, and demonstrate SRI for yield and GHG mitigation
in organic rice in U.S. rice growing regions (Thakur et al., 2016).
■■ Deep roots, soil health, and climate: Explore the potential of deep rooted crops and organic
practices to enhance deep SOC sequestration and N recovery; develop and demonstrate practical
applications (Hu et al., 2018; Kell 2011; Rosolem et al., 2017).
■■ Compost for grazing lands: Determine whether the multi-year gains in forage biomass and SOC
from a single compost application in California grasslands can be replicated in other regions, soils,
and climates (DeLonge et al., 2013; Ryals and Silver, 2013).
■■ Prescribed burning for in-situ biochar: Conduct trials on grazing lands in different regions and
climates to determine whether prescribed fire generates in situ biochar and benefits soil food web
function and root growth as observed in Kansas (Wilson, et al., 2009).
■■ Forage quality and livestock GHG mitigation: Verify and demonstrate efficacy of MIG in reducing
ruminant enteric CH4 emissions through improved forage quality on grazing lands in different
regions across the U.S. (Stanley et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2015).
Addressing key knowledge gaps

Additional research is needed to better understand soil C and N dynamics and soil-plant-microbe interac-
tions as they influence soil fertility, C sequestration, and GHG emissions in organic systems. For example,
the chemical nature and sequestration mechanisms of “stable” SOC remain unclear, and sharply contrast-

ing conceptual models of SOC-related processes have been proposed (Ghabbour et al., 2017; Lehman and
Kleber, 2015; Six et al., 2002). Similarly, since organic N sources release plant available N through biological
processes, their impacts on soluble soil N levels and N2O emissions are more challenging to predict and
manage than conventional fertilizer N (Charles et al., 2017). Research-based N recommendations for organic
production are not available for many crops, and research-based estimates vary from as little as 25 lb N/
ac to optimize organic lettuce yields (Toonsiri et al., 2016) and 20 - 40 lb/ac to replace N removed in mixed
vegetable harvests (Wander et al., 2015), to > 200 lb/ac to optimize organic broccoli yields (Li et al., 2009;
Collins and Bary, 2017).
GHG impact analyses for organic practices can give widely different outcomes depending on the factors
included in the analysis. For example, the composting process has been reported to emit more GHG (in
CO2-Ceq) than is sequestered as stable C in the compost itself; yet, composting can prevent much larger
emissions by diverting organic materials from waste streams (Carpenter-Boggs et al., 2016; DeLonge et
al., 2013). The direct GHG emissions of organic grassfed cattle have been estimated at double those from
conventional confinement, yet total GHG footprint of grassfed livestock can become negative (net mitiga-
tion) based on rapid SOC sequestration during the first few years after implementation of MIG (Richard and
Camargo, 2011; Stanley et al., 2018). However, composting and landfill are not the only two possible fates of
organic “wastes,” and the initial rapid increase in SOC under MIG levels off after the first decade. Thus, the
full climate implications of these practices merit further study.
Priorities for additional research on soil, GHG, and climate in organic production include:
■■ Mechanisms of SOC stabilization and de-stabilization, and potential impacts of warming climates,
tillage, fertility inputs, and other management practices on long term SOC sequestration (Grandy
et al., 2006; ITPS, 2015; Lehman and Kleber, 2015).
■■ Realistic estimates of total SOC sequestration from improved practices, taking into consideration
climate, soil type and texture, and production system.
■■ Roles of soil bacteria, mycorrhizal fungi, nematodes, plant roots, and other soil food web
components in soil C and N dynamics, SOC accrual, and GHG emissions..
■■ Efficacy of microbial inoculants (produced on-farm or commercial products) for soil health,
climate mitigation, and adaptation.

■■ Impacts of inherent soil properties (soil series, texture, horizons, drainage, mineralogy, natural
hardpans, etc.), on C and N cycling, soil-plant-microbe dynamics, and response of SOC and GHG
emissions to organic management practices.
■■ Best management of organic N inputs for soil health, plant nutrition and N2O mitigation:
–– N sources – compost, manure, organic N fertilizers, and legume cover crops.
–– Potential to mitigate N2O emissions from green manure plowdown by using grass-legume
mixtures in lieu of all-legume, and non-tillage termination methods.
–– Placement and timing – preplant broadcast or band, or in-row drip fertigation.
–– Application rates – establish optimum N rates for a wide range of crops, based on trials in
organic fields in different regions, climates, and soil.
■■ Life cycle GHG analyses of compost production and application, including:
–– Comparison of composting with direct land application of uncomposted residues, as well as
with GHG-intensive waste disposal (landfills, manure lagoons).
–– Best management practices for composting processes, and GHG impacts of variations from
optimum starting C:N ratios, aeration/windrow turning schedules, and moisture management.
■■ Optimum compost use rates, considering soil nutrient levels, direct costs and benefits, and
potential synergism between cover crops and compost on SOC seqeustration.
■■ Life cycle GHG analysis of biochar manufacture and use.
■■ Best irrigation practices, including potential tradeoffs between N2O mitigation and reduced SOC
sequestration under in-row drip fertigation (Schmidt et al., 2018; Toonsiri et al., 2016).
■■ Impacts of organic inputs and management practices on soil inorganic carbon (SIC) in soils of
drier regions (Lorenz and Lal, 2016).
■■ Life cycle GHG analyses for MIG systems for organic beef, dairy, and other livestock, conducted
over time spans beyond the initial period of rapid SOC sequestration after conversion from
cropping or continuous grazing to MIG.
■■ Additional strategies to mitigate enteric CH4 in organic livestock, including forage species
composition, and NOP-allowed dietary supplements.

Overcoming socioeconomic, logistical, cultural, and policy barriers to adoption of
climate-friendly organic farming practices
Farmers face significant economic, social, cultural, and policy barriers to adopting soil- and climate-friendly
production systems. For example, many of the practices discussed here entail up-front costs, and economic
benefits arising from improved production and resilience or reduced input needs may not begin to accrue for
several years. Given the great variability in soil-crop-livestock-climate interactions, and the current lack of
political support for climate mitigation, financial support through carbon markets or carbon offset payments
does not appear feasible at this time.
While socioeconomic and policy issues were beyond the immediate scope of the research review on which
this Guide is based, it has become clear that several key constraints and missed opportunities must be ad-
dressed before the potential for organic agriculture to mitigate GHG emissions and build agricultural resil-
ience can be fully realized. These include:
■■ Lack of educational resources and qualified technical assistance to help organic farmers learn
and successfully adopt new soil health and climate mitigation practices while maintaining or
improving their bottom line.
■■ Actual and perceived risks associated with new practices, including the costs of acquiring
new skills, equipment, and infrastructure, and lack of carbon markets or other cost offset for
ecosystem services.
■■ Crop insurance and government farm policies that create disincentives to adopting conservation
practices, such as cover cropping and diversified crop rotations.
■■ Social and cultural forces that deter adoption of new sustainable practices, including peer
pressure and social norming in farming communities, as well as a pervasive political climate
hostile to climate change mitigation science and action.
■■ Current agricultural and food system infrastructure, markets, and government policies that
perpetuate the segregation of U.S. agriculture into livestock production within confined animal
feeding operations (CAFOs), commodity grains (corn-soy-wheat), and specialty crops; lack of
informational, market, and policy support for diversified systems.

■■ Society-wide waste management systems that fail to return organic residues to the land.
■■ Unrealized potential to expand urban agriculture, agroforestry, and permaculture practices,
which are known for their high per-acre C sequestration potential.
Conclusion
A national and global investment in further research into these topics is urgently needed to enable all
producers—organic, transitioning, and non-organic—to make effective contributions to climate mitigation
and to enhance the resilience of their farming and ranching systems to impacts of climate change. Based on
research outcomes to date, producers and society as a whole can anticipate a substantial return on invest-
ment in this field of research.

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starfinder/0?path=crisassist.txt&id=anon&pass=&OK=OK.
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research findings in greater detail.

P.O. Box 440
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831.426.6606
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Soil Health and Organic Farming

Organic Practices for Climate Mitigation,

ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION,

An Analysis of USDA Organic Research and

for supporting this project.

© 2018 Organic Farming Research Foundation • Santa Cruz, CA

CONCEPT #1: Estimating the Climate Mitigation Potential of

Challenges in Carbon Sequestration and Greenhouse Gas Mitigation in

CONCEPT #2: Closing the Organic Versus

Best Management Practices and Information Resources for Carbon

CONCEPT #3: Organic is More than Renouncing Synthetics

Organic Farming, Soil Health, Carbon Sequestration, and Greenhouse

Questions for Further Research: Organic Farming Soil Carbon, Soil

ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION 1

2 ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION

Soil, Agriculture, and the Global Carbon Cycle

ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION 3

CO2 and plant nutrients. Living

Agriculture exerts multiple impacts on the global C cycle. Harvest

4 ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION

ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION 5

USDA Building Blocks for Climate Smart Agriculture and Forestry.

6 ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION

1 Carbon sequestered as SOC

8 ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION

Organic Agriculture, Soil, and Climate

ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION 9

Estimating the Climate Mitigation Potential of Organic Farming

10 ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION

ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION 11

12 ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION

ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION 13

Other opportunities to avoid GHG emissions and

“[A]ccording to EPA, we throw away 24 million

14 ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION

ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION 15

16 ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION

ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION 17

Agricultural methane emissions are related

18 ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION

ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION 19

Positive feedback and the vital role of climate adaptation

New risks, learning curves, and other barriers to climate-friendly

20 ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION

■■ Upfront costs and delayed benefits of adopting new practices.

ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION 21

Closing the organic versus conventional yield gap

22 ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION

ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION 23

■■ Clarify your objectives and priorities.

24 ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION

ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION 25

Clay soil Sandy soil Silty soil

26 ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION

§ 205.202 Land Requirements:

■■ Tree and shrub plantings to meet this requirement also sequester C.

§ 205.105 Allowed and Prohibited Substances:

ORGANIC PRACTICES FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, ADAPTATION, AND CARBON SEQUESTRATION 27

§ 205.203 Soil fertility and crop nutrient management practice standard: