Unit-1

Basics of Computer Organization and Processor Evolution

TOPICS:

1.1.1. Observe the characteristic of Intel processor from 4 bit (4004) to i7

1.2.1. Basic CPU Structure: CU, ALU and MU

1.2.2. Various Registers used in CPU & its applications AC, DR, AR, PC, MAR, MBR, IR
1.3.1. Types of Buses used in CPU
Common / Shared Bus v/s Dedicated Bus
Serial Bus v/s Parallel Bus

 Observe the characteristic of Intel processor from 4 bit (4004) to i7

Transistor was invented in 1948 (23 December 1947 in Bell lab). IC was invented in 1958 (Fair
Child Semiconductors) By Texas Instruments J Kilby. The first microprocessor was invented by
INTEL(INTegrated ELectronics).

Size of the microprocessor – 4 bit

Clock Number of Inst. per
Name Year of Invention
speed transistors sec

INTEL 1971 by Ted Hoff and

740 kHz 2300 60,000
4004/4040 Stanley Mazor

Size of the microprocessor – 8 bit

Clock Number of
Name Year of Invention Inst. per sec
speed transistors

8008 1972 500 kHz 3500 50,000

10 times faster than

8080 1974 2 MHz 6000
8008

1976 (16-bit address

8085 3 MHz 6500 769230
bus)
Size of microprocessor – 16-bit

Inst.
Clock Number of
Name Year of Invention per
speed transistors
sec

4.77 MHz,
1978 (multiply and divide instruction, 16-bit 2.5
8086 8 MHz, 10 29000
data bus and 20-bit address bus) Million
MHz

1979 (cheaper version of 8086 and 8-bit 2.5

8088
external bus) Million

1982 (80188 cheaper version of 80186, and

80186/ additional components like interrupt
6 MHz
80188 controller, clock generator, local bus
controller, counters)

4
80286 1982 (data bus 16bit and address bus 24 bit) 8 MHz 134000
Million

Size of the microprocessor – 32 bit

Clock Number of
Name Year of Invention Inst. per sec
speed transistors

1986 (other versions

16 MHz
INTEL 80386DX, 80386SX,
– 33 275000
80386 80386SL , and data bus 32-bit
MHz
address bus 32 bit)

1986 (other versions 16 MHz

INTEL 1.2 Million 8 KB of cache
80486DX, 80486SX, – 100
80486 transistors memory
80486DX2, 80486DX4) MHz

Cache memory 8 bit

PENTIU
1993 66 MHz for instructions 8 bit
M
for data
Size of the microprocessor – 64 bit
Number of
Name Year of Invention Clock speed Inst. per sec
transistors

64 KB of L1
2006 (other versions
INTEL 291 Million cache per core
core2 duo, core2 quad, 1.2 GHz to 3 GHz
core 2 transistors 4 MB of L2
core2 extreme)
cache

2.2GHz – 3.3GHz,
i3, i5,
2007, 2009, 2010 2.4GHz – 3.6GHz,
i7
2.93GHz – 3.33GHz

Generations of microprocessors:
1. First-generation –
From 1971 to 1972 the era of the first generation came which brought microprocessors like INTEL
4004 Rockwell international PPS-4 INTEL 8008 etc.

2. Second generation –
The second generation marked the development of 8-bit microprocessors from 1973 to 1978.
Processors like INTEL 8085 Motorola 6800 and 6801 etc came into existence.

3. Third generation –
The third generation brought forward the 16-bit processors like INTEL 8086/80186/80286
Motorola 68000 68010 etc. From 1979 to 1980 this generation used the HMOS technology.

4. Fourth generation –
The fourth-generation came into existence from 1981 to 1995. The 32-bit processors using HMOS
fabrication came into existence. INTEL 80386 and Motorola 68020 are some of the popular
processors of this generation.

5. Fifth-generation –
From 1995 till now we are in the fifth generation. 64-bit processors like PENTIUM, Celeron, dual,
quad, and octa-core processors came into existence.

Types of microprocessors:

 Complex instruction set microprocessor:

The processors are designed to minimize the number of instructions per program and ignore the
number of cycles per instruction. The compiler is used to translate a high-level language to assembly-
level language because the length of code is relatively short and an extra RAM is used to store the
instructions. These processors can do tasks like downloading, uploading and recalling data from
memory. Apart from these tasks, this microprocessor can perform complex mathematical calculations
in a single command.
Example: IBM 370/168, VAX 11/780
 Reduced instruction set microprocessor:
These processors are made according to function. They are designed to reduce the execution time by
using the simplified instruction set. They can carry out small things in specific commands. These
processors complete commands at a faster rate. They require only one clock cycle to implement a
result at uniform execution time. There is a number of registers and less number of transistors. To
access the memory location LOAD and STORE instructions are used.
Example: Power PC 601, 604, 615, 620

 Superscalar microprocessor:
These processors can perform many tasks at a time. They can be used for ALUs and multiplier-like
arrays. They have multiple operation units and perform tasks by executing multiple commands.

 Application-specific integrated circuit:

These processors are application-specific like personal digital assistant computers. They are designed
according to proper specifications.

 Digital signal multiprocessor:

These processors are used to convert signals like analog to digital or digital to analog. The chips ofthese
processors are used in many devices such as RADAR SONAR home theatres etc.

Features:

Clock speed: One of the earliest features of microprocessors was the clock speed, which refers to the
speed at which the processor can execute instructions. Over time, clock speeds have increased, with
modern processors capable of speeds in the billions of cycles per second (GHz).

Instruction set architecture: Microprocessors have evolved to support different instruction set
architectures, including CISC (complex instruction set computer) and RISC (reduced instruction set
computer), which affect the efficiency and complexity of processing.

Cache memory: Microprocessors now include a cache memory, which is a small amount of high-speed
memory that stores frequently used data for quicker access.

Multi-core processors: Modern microprocessors have multiple cores, allowing for multiple tasks to be
executed simultaneously, increasing performance and multitasking capabilities.

Virtualization: Microprocessors now support virtualization, which enables multiple operating systems
to run on the same physical hardware.

Power management: Modern processors include power management features, which reduce power
consumption and improve energy efficiency.

Graphics processing: Many modern microprocessors include integrated graphics processing units
(GPUs), which allow for faster and more efficient handling of graphics-intensive tasks.

Security features: Microprocessors now include security features, such as hardware-level encryption
and secure boot, to protect against malware and hacking.

Internet connectivity: Microprocessors now include built-in networking capabilities, such as Wi-Fi
andEthernet, which allow for seamless internet connectivity.

Machine learning capabilities: Some modern microprocessors include specialized processing units for
 machine learning and artificial intelligence tasks, allowing for faster and more efficient processing of
these tasks.
Advantages of the microprocessor:
1. High processing speed
2. Compact size
3. Easy maintenance
4. Can perform complex mathematics
5. Flexible
6. Can be improved according to a requirement

Disadvantages of microprocessors:
1. Overheating occurs due to overuse
2. Performance depends on the size of the data
3. Large board size than microcontrollers
4. Most microprocessors do not support floating-point operations

 Basic CPU Structure

 A computer organization describes the functions and design of the various units of a digital system.
 A general-purpose computer system is the best-known example of a digital system. Other examples
include telephone switching exchanges, digital voltmeters, digital counters, electronic calculators
and digital displays.
 Computer architecture deals with the specification of the instruction set and the hardware units that
implement the instructions.
 Computer hardware consists of electronic circuits, displays, magnetic and optic storage media and
also the communication facilities.
 Functional units are a part of a CPU that performs the operations and calculations called for by the
computer program.
 Functional units of a computer system are parts of the CPU (Central Processing Unit) that performs
the operations and calculations called for by the computer program. A computer consists of five
main components namely, Input unit, Central Processing Unit, Memory unit Arithmetic & logical
unit, Control unit and an Output unit.
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DIGITAL COMPUTER:
● Input unit
○ Input units are used by the computer to read the data.

○ The most commonly used input devices are keyboards, mouse, joysticks, trackballs, microphones,
etc.
● Central processing unit
○ Central processing unit commonly known as CPU can be referred to as an electronic circuitry within
a computer that carries out the instructions given by a computer program by performing the basic
arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions.
● Memory unit
○ The Memory unit can be referred to as the storage area in which programs are kept which are
running, and that contains data needed by the running programs.
○ The Memory unit can be categorized in two ways namely, primary memory and secondary
memory.
○ It enables a processor to access running execution applications and services that are temporarily
stored in a specific memory location.
● Arithmetic & logical unit
○ Most of all the arithmetic and logical operations of a computer are executed in the ALU(Arithmetic
and Logical Unit) of the processor. It performs arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and also the logical operations like AND, OR, NOT operations.
● Control unit
○ The control unit is a component of a computer's central processing unit that coordinates the operation
of the processor. It tells the computer's memory, arithmetic/logic unit and input and output devices
how to respond to a program's instructions.
○ The control unit is also known as the nerve center of a computer system.
● Output Unit
○ The primary function of the output unit is to send the processed results to the user. Output devices
display information in a way that the user can understand.
○ Output devices are pieces of equipment that are used to generate information or any other response
processed by the computer. These devices display information that has been held or generated within
a computer.
○ The most common example of an output device is a monitor.
 Various Registers used in CPU & its applications
o In Computer Architecture, the Registers are very fast computer memory which are used to
execute programs and operations efficiently.
o The sole purpose of having register is fast retrieval of data for processing by CPU.
o Though accessing instructions from RAM is comparatively faster with hard drive, it still isn’t enough
for CPU. For even better processing, there are memories in CPU which can get data from RAM
which are about to be executed beforehand. After registers we have cache memory, which are faster
but less fast than registers.
o These are classified as given below.

Sr
Name Symbol Description
No
An accumulator is the most often utilized register and it
1 Accumulator AC
isused to store information taken from memory.
2 Data Register DR Holds memory operand

3 AddressRegister AR Holds address for the memory

o These registers are utilized in keeping the record of a
program that is being executed or under execution.
These registers consist of the memory address of the
next instruction to be fetched.
o PC points to the address of the next instruction to be
fetched from the main memory when the previous
4 ProgramCounter PC instruction has been completed successfully.
Program Counter (PC) also functions to count the
number of instructions.
o The incrementation of PC depends on the type of
architecture being used. If we use a 32-bit
architecture, the PC gets incremented by 4 every time
to fetch the next instruction.
Address location of memory is stored in this register to
MemoryAddress
5 MAR be accessed later. It is called by both MAR and MDR
Register
together
MBR - Memory buffer registers are used to store data
Memory Buffer content or memory commands used to write on the disk.
6 MBR
Register The basic functionality of these is to save called data
from memory.
 MBR is very similar to MDR
Instruction registers hold the information about to be
executed. The immediate instructions received from the
Instruction system are fetched and stored in these registers.
7 IR
Register Once the instructions are stored in registers, the
processor starts executing the set instructions, and the
PC will point to the next instructions to be executed

 Types of Buses used in CPU :

 What is Bus?
In computer architecture, a bus is a communication system that transfers data between components
inside a computer, or between computers.

 Common / Shared Bus v/s Dedicated Bus

Common/Shared Bus: A common or shared bus refers to a single communication pathway that
is shared by multiple components within a computer system. It serves as a shared medium for
transferring data, addresses, and control signals between different components. This type of bus is
typically used in systems where cost, simplicity, and flexibility are important factors.

Common buses can be classified into three main categories:

o Address Bus: It carries the memory addresses from the CPU to the memory subsystem or other
devices. It determines the location in memory or device where data is read from or written to.

o Data Bus: It transfers the actual data between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices. The width of
the data bus determines the maximum amount of data that can be transferred in parallel.

o Control Bus: It carries control signals that coordinate and control the activities of various
components in the system. Control signals include read/write signals, interrupt signals, clock
signals and more.

Common buses are relatively simple and cost-effective since they use a single set of physical wires
communication. However, sharing the bus among multiple components can introduce limitations, s
such as limited bandwidth and potential contention if multiple components try to use the bus
simultaneously.

Characteristic of Common/Shared Bus:

o Shared Medium: A common/shared bus serves as a shared communication pathway among

multiple components within a computer system. It uses a single set of physical wires or lines to
transfer data, addresses and control signals between components.
o Cost-Effective: Shared buses are relatively simple and cost-effective compared to dedicated
buses. They require fewer physical connections and wiring, reducing the overall complexity and
cost of the system.
o Flexibility: Common buses offer flexibility in terms of connecting various components within the
system. Different components can access the bus at different times, allowing for dynamic sharing
and resource allocation.
o Limited Bandwidth: One limitation of shared buses is limited bandwidth. Since multiple
component share the same bus, the available bandwidth must be divided among them. This can
 lead to congestion and performance degradation if multiple components try to use the bus
simultaneously.
o Contention: Contention can occur when multiple components attempt to access the bus at
the same time. In such cases, arbitration mechanisms are required to manage access and resolve
conflicts, ensuring fair and efficient bus utilization.

Dedicated Bus:

A dedicated bus, as the name suggests, is a dedicated communication pathway between specific
components within a computer system. Unlike a common bus, it provides a separate and exclusive
connection for data transfer between two specific components. Dedicated buses are commonly used
in high-performance systems or for critical communications requiring higher bandwidth and low
latency.

Dedicated buses can be designed to meet specific requirements, such as connecting the CPU and
cache CPU and graphics processing unit (GPU), or CPU and memory. These buses are optimized
for specific data transfer needs, often utilizing advanced protocols and higher bandwidths. Dedicated
buses allow for efficient and direct communication between components without the potential
contention issues found in shared buses.

Examples of dedicated buses include:

o Front Side Bus (FSB): It connects the CPU with the memory and chipset components in older
computer systems.
o Peripheral Component interconnect (PCI) Bus: It provides a dedicated connection between
the CPU and peripheral devices, such as expansion cards, network cards, and sound cards.
o Advanced High-Performance Bus (AHB): It is a dedicated bus used in ARM-based systems for
communication between the CPU, memory, and peripherals.

Dedicated buses offer increased performance and efficiency in terms of data transfer and can be
tailored to the specific requirements of the connected components. However, they may require
additional design complexity and can be more costly to implement compared to shared buses.

Characteristic of Dedicated Bus:

o Exclusive Communication: A dedicated bus provides a dedicated communication pathway

between a. specific components. It offers an exclusive connection for data transfer between those
components without sharing the bus with other devices

o High Performance: Dedicated buses are often designed for high-performance systems or critical
Communications that require high bandwidth, low latency, and efficient data transfer. They can
be optimized for specific needs and offer faster and more direct communication compared to
shared buses.
o Specific Functionality: Dedicated buses can be designed to meet specific requirements,
connecting specific components in the system. For example, a dedicated bus can connect the
CPU and cache, CPU and graphics processing unit (GPU), or CPU and memory.
o Advanced Protocols: Dedicated buses often employ advanced protocols and signaling techniques
to maximize performance. These protocols can include techniques such as pipelining, data
buffering, and error correction mechanisms to ensure efficient and reliable data transfer.
o Increased Complexity and Cost: Implementing dedicated buses can require additional design
complexity and incur higher costs compared to shared buses. Dedicated buses often necessitate
extra physical connections, specialized protocols, and more advanced circuitry.

Dedicated buses provide exclusive communication, high performance, and specific functionality but
can be more complex and expensive to implement. The choice between a shared bus and a
dedicated bus depends on the specific requirements and trade-offs of the system design.

Serial Bus and Parallel Bus are two different types of data transfer methods used in computer system
Here's an explanation of each:

Serial Bus:

o Data Transfer: In a serial bus, data is transferred one bit at a time data line. The bits are sent in a
serial fashion, one after the other.

o Communication Efficiency: Serial buses are generally slower compared to parallel buses, but
they can transmit data over longer distances with fewer physical connections. They are
commonly use in situations where longer distances or simplicity in wiring are important factors.

o Simplicity and Cost: Serial buses require fewer wires and physical connections, making them
simple and more cost-effective to implement. They are commonly found in devices such as USB
(Universal Serial Bus), Ethernet, and SATA (Serial ATA) interfaces.

o Synchronization: In serial communication, synchronization is essential to ensure the accurate

transmission and reception of data. Synchronization can be achieved using techniques such as
star and stop bits, clock signals, or embedded timing information in the data stream.

o Lower Bandwidth: Serial buses typically have lower bandwidth compared to parallel buses since
they transfer data one bit at a time. However, advancements in serial bus technologies, such as
high-speed USB or Thunderbolt, have significantly increased their data transfer rates.

o Serial buses are used for long-distance communication. Eg, Computer to the computer.
 Parallel Bus:

o Data Transfer: In a parallel bus, multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously across multiple
data lines. Each bit is sent over a separate wire or line, allowing for parallel data transfer.

o Higher Bandwidth: Parallel buses have the potential for higher data transfer rates compared to
serial buses since multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously. This makes parallel buses well-
suite for applications requiring high-speed data transfer, such as memory buses and system
interconnects.

o Data Integrity: Parallel buses are generally more susceptible to signal integrity issues due to
the simultaneous switching of multiple data lines. Signal integrity becomes crucial when
dealing with high-speed parallel buses to ensure accurate data transmission.

o Complexity and Cost: Parallel buses require more wires and physical connections, resulting
in increased complexity and cost of implementation. They are commonly found in systems that
require high-bandwidth communication, such as internal system buses or memory interfaces.

o Shorter Distances: Parallel buses are typically limited to shorter distances due to the increased
susceptibility to signal degradation and synchronization challenges over longer distances.

o Parallel buses are used for short distance. e.g. computer to a printer.

It's worth noting that both serial and parallel buses have their own advantages and applications. The
choice between them depends on factors such as required data transfer rate, distance, complexity,
cost and specific system requirements.

Serial vs Parallel

S.NO Serial Bus Parallel Bus

In this type, a single communication link is In this type, multiple parallels links used to
1.
used to transfer data from one end to another transmit the data

In serial transmission, data(bit) flows in bi- In Parallel Transmission, data flows in

2.
direction. multiple lines.

3. Serial Transmission is cost-efficient. Parallel Transmission is not cost-efficient.

In serial transmission, one bit transferred at In Parallel Transmission, eight bits

4.
one clock pulse. transferred at one clock pulse.

Serial Transmission is slow in comparison of Parallel Transmission is fast in comparison

5.
Parallel Transmission. of Serial Transmission.

6. Generally, Serial Transmission is used for Generally, Parallel Transmission is used for
S.NO Serial Bus Parallel Bus

long-distance. short distance.

The circuit used in Serial Transmission is The circuit used in Parallel Transmission is
7.
simple. relatively complex.

Serial Transmission is full duplex as sender Parallel Transmission is half-duplex since

8.
can send as well as receive the data the data is either send or receive

Converters are required in a serial

No converters are required in Parallel
9. transmission to convert the data between
Transmission
internal and parallel form

Serial transmission is reliable and Parallel transmission is unreliable and

10.
straightforward. complicated.