ELEC-201 Electric Circuits

Chapter 2

Basic Laws
Course Instructor

Dr. Maher Azzouz

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 Learning Objectives
At the end of this module on basic circuit laws and configurations, you
should be able to:
1. Use Ohm’s law to calculate the voltages and currents in electric
circuits.
2. Explain the basic structures of electrical circuits, namely, nodes,
branches, and loops.
3. Apply Kirchhoff’s current law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law to
determine the voltages and currents in an electric circuit.
4. Determine the equivalent resistance of resistors in series and parallel.

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 Learning Objectives (continued)

5. Calculate the voltages and currents in a simple electric circuit

using voltage and current division.
6. Transform/convert a wye-connected resistor network to a delta-
connected network and vice versa.
7. Analyse electric circuits to determine voltages and currents in
electric circuits that contain dependent and independent sources
analytically, practically and using computer simulation software.

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 Outline
 Introduction
 Ohm’s Law
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
 Single-Loop Circuits
− Series Resistor Combinations
 Single-Node-Pair Circuits
− Parallel Resistor Combinations
 Wye Delta Transformations
 Summary

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 Introduction
To determine the values of current, voltage, and power in
an electric circuit, the following are used:
 Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL & KCL)
 Voltage division and current division
 Circuit transformations:
− combining resistors in series or parallel
− delta-to-wye and wye-to-delta transformations

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 Ohm’s Law

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 Resistance
 Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric
charge. This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is
represented by the symbol R; it is measured in ohms ().
 The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends on A and
its length l.

𝑅=𝜌
where is known as the resistivity of the
material in ohm-meters.

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 Fluid-Flow Analogy

Pressure  Voltage
• both are measured between two points
• both have reference point

Water flow  Current

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 Ohm’s Law
 Ohm’s law states that the voltage v(t) across a resistor directly proportional
to the current i(t) flowing through it, that is
𝑣(𝑡) ∝ 𝑖(𝑡)
 Ohm defined the constant of proportionality as the resistance R of
the resistor, measured in ohms.Thus,
George Simon Ohm (1787-
1854), a German physicist,
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖 𝑡 , where 𝑅 ≥ 0
the unit of resistance is
named Ohm (Ω).

A circuit element designed primarily to have a specific resistance is

called a resistor and is represented by the symbol shown in the figure.

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 Ohm’s Law
 The current–voltage relationship for a linear and non-linear
resistor are shown in figures (a) and (b) respectively.

In this course, all resistors are assumed to be linear.

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 Voltage Polarity and Current Direction
 The current–voltage relationship defined by V = IR must be according to the
polarity of the voltage and direction of current as shown in figures (a), (b),
and (c). In (c), D (tip of the arrow) is at a higher potential compared to C.

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 Dissipated Power by a Resistor
 A resistor is a passive element.
 The power absorbed by a resistor is dissipated in the form of heat energy.
 The rate of dissipation of the energy (power) is given by
2 2
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 = i (t)R  v (t ) / R

[using Ohm’s law v 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 𝑅].

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 Conductance G of a Resistor
 A useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistance R, known as
conductance and denoted by G:
( )
𝐺= =
( )
German inventor
Ernst erner von
Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is
Siemens (1816-1892) measured in Siemens (S) or mho ( ).
 The power dissipated by a resistor may also be expressed in terms of G
𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 = v2 (t )G  i 2 (t) / G

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 Learning Assessment
The necessary component of an iron is a resistor that converts
electrical energy to heat energy.
(a) How much current is drawn by an iron with resistance 48  at
240V? 5A
(b)What is the power rating of the iron inWatts? 1200W

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 Learning Assessment
In the circuit shown, calculate the current i, the conductance G, and
the power p.

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 Learning Assessment
Given the circuits in the figure, find (a) the current I and the power
absorbed by the resistor, and (b) the voltage across the current source
and the power supplied by the source.

[Answers: (a) 0.3 mA, 3.6 mW (b) 3.6 V, 2.16 mW]

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 Short-circuit and Open-circuit
 The value of the resistance R can range from zero to infinity i.e.
0≤𝑅≤∞

 A resistive element with R = 0 is called a short-circuit.

 A resistive element with R =  is called an open-circuit.

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 Short-circuit
 For a short circuit as shown in the figure,
v = iR = 0
 The voltage is zero but the current may assume any value.
 In practice, a short circuit is usually a connecting wire assumed to
be a perfect conductor.

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 Open-circuit
 For an open circuit as shown in the figure,

i = v/R = 0 (since R = )
 The current is zero but the voltage may assume any value.

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 Application
Electrical circuits have a maximum current that can pass through. If
that current is exceeded, the circuit will be damaged and may lead to
fire. To ensure that this does not happen, one of the electrical safety
devices used is the fuse. Using the concept of short-circuit and
open-circuit, explain how the fuse works.

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 Branches, Nodes, and Loops
 The elements of an electric circuit can be connected in different
ways.
 Circuits are made up of branches, nodes, and loops.

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 Branches
 A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or
a resistor.
 Alternatively, a branch is a two-terminal element.
 How many branches does the circuit shown have?

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 Nodes
 A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.

 A node may be indicated by a dot in a circuit.

 If a short circuit (a connecting wire) connects two nodes, the two
nodes are considered as the same node.
 How many nodes does the circuit shown have?

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 Learning Assessment
 Are the two circuits shown in the figures the same or different?
Explain.

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 Loops
 A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

 A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing

through a set of nodes, and returning to the starting node without
passing through any node more than once.

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 Independent Loops
 A loop is said to be independent if it contains a branch which is not
in any other loop
 Independent loops or paths result in independent sets of
equations.
 How many loops are there in the circuit? How many of these loops
are independent?
A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent
loops will satisfy the fundamental theorem of network
topology:

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 Kirchhoff ’s Laws

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 Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL)
 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of
currents entering a node is zero.
 Mathematically expressed,

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff 𝑖(𝑡) = 0

(1824- 1887), a German
physicist

where N is the number of branches connected to the node and

𝑖(𝑡) is the jth current entering or leaving the node. KCL is based
on the law of conservation of charge.

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 Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL)

 By KCL, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while

currents leaving the node may be taken as negative or vice versa.
 Thus, the sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving the node.
 In the given node, 𝑖 + 𝑖 + 𝑖 = 𝑖 + 𝑖

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 Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL)
 How many nodes are there in the given circuit?

 Using KCL, write down the currents associated with each node.

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 Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL)
 Since circuit (a) is the same as (b), use it to write down the
equations relating the currents at each of the five nodes.

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 Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL)
 Using KCL, write down the equations relating the currents in the
given circuit containing a dependent current source.

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 KCL: Learning Assessment
Find
(i) I1 in circuit (a)
(ii) I1 and I2 in circuit (b).

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 KCL: Learning Assessment

Find ix in circuits (a) and (b).

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 Kirchhoff Voltage Law (KVL)
 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of
all voltages around a closed path(or loop) is zero.
 Mathematically expressed,

𝑣(𝑡) = 0

where M is the number of voltages in a loop and 𝑣 is the kth

voltage.

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 Series Resistors & Voltage Division

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 Voltage Division
 Apply KVL to the single-loop circuit shown to
obtain:
−𝑣 𝑡 + 𝑣 +𝑣 =0

 From Ohm’s law

𝑣 = 𝑅 𝑖(𝑡)
𝑣 = 𝑅 𝑖(𝑡)
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑖 𝑡 →𝑅 =𝑅 +𝑅

Solving for 𝑖(𝑡) results in

𝑣(𝑡)
𝑖 𝑡 =
𝑅 +𝑅

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 Voltage Division
For N resistors in series,

𝑅 = 𝑅 + 𝑅 + ⋯+ 𝑅 = 𝑅

To determine the voltage across each resistor,

𝑣 = 𝑅 𝑖(𝑡)
𝑣 = 𝑅 𝑖(𝑡)

𝑅
𝑣 = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑅 +𝑅

𝑅
𝑣 = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑅 +𝑅

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 Learning Assessment
For the circuit shown, find the voltages 𝑣 and 𝑣 .

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 Learning Assessment
For the circuit shown, find the voltage 𝑣 and the current 𝑖.

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 Parallel Resistors & Current Division

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 Current Division
By KCL
𝐼 =𝐼 +𝐼
By Ohm’s law
𝑉
𝐼 =
𝑅
and
𝑉
𝐼 =
𝑅
1 1 𝑅 +𝑅
∴𝐼= + 𝑉= 𝑉
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
So,
1 1 1
= + →𝐺 =𝐺 +𝐺
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
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 Current Division
Since
𝑅 +𝑅
𝐼= 𝑉
𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅
𝑉= 𝐼
𝑅 +𝑅
Hence,
𝑉 𝑅
𝐼 = = 𝐼
𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅
and
𝑉 𝑅
𝐼 = = 𝐼
𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅
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 Learning Assessment
Show that “the equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to
the product of their resistances divided by their sum”.

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 Learning Assessment
Compare the value of I1 to I2 if
a. R1= R2
b. R1 > R2
c. R1 < R2
d. R1= 0 (short-circuit)
e. R1=  (open-circuit)

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 Learning Assessment
The circuit shown in (a) can be reduced to an equivalent
circuit in (b). Prove that Req is given by

1 1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯+ =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

OR
𝐺 = 𝐺 + 𝐺 + ⋯+ 𝐺 = 𝐺

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 Learning Assessment
Show that the equivalent resistance 𝑅 at the terminals A-B in the circuit is 3 k.

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 Learning Assessment
Show that the equivalent resistance 𝑅 at the terminals A-B in the circuit is 12 k.

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 Learning Assessment
Show that Vo in the circuit is 2 V.

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 Delta-Wye Transformations

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 Delta-Wye Transformations
 In the circuit shown, the resistors are neither in series or parallel.

 To make it easier to analyse, the circuit can be simplified using equivalent

three-terminal networks; wye (Y) or (T) and delta (∆) or pi (Π) networks.
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 Delta-Wye Transformations
Wye (Y) or (T)

Two forms of the same network (a) Y, (b) T

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 Delta-Wye Transformations
Delta (∆) or (𝚷)

Two forms of the same network (a) ∆, (b) 𝚷

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 Delta to Wye Transformation
To obtain the equivalent resistances in the wye network, compare
the two networks and make sure that the resistance between each
pair of nodes in the wye (Y) network is the same as the resistance
between the same pair of nodes in the delta (Δ) network.

Δ network Y network
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 Delta to Wye Transformation
𝑅 (𝑌) = 𝑅 + 𝑅 (1)

𝑅 (Δ) = 𝑅 ||(𝑅 + 𝑅 ) (2)

Δ network Y network

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 Delta to Wye Transformation
𝑅 𝑌 =𝑅 +𝑅 = = 𝑅 (Δ) (3)

𝑅 𝑌 =𝑅 +𝑅 = = 𝑅 (Δ) (4)

𝑅 𝑌 =𝑅 +𝑅 = == 𝑅 (Δ) (5)

Δ network Y network
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 Delta to Wye Transformation
𝑅 𝑌 =𝑅 +𝑅 = = 𝑅 (Δ) (3)

𝑅 𝑌 =𝑅 +𝑅 = = 𝑅 (Δ) (4)

𝑅 𝑌 =𝑅 +𝑅 = == 𝑅 (Δ) (5)

By subtracting (5) from (3), we get

𝑅 −𝑅 = (6)

Adding (4) and (6), we get

𝑅 = (7)

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 Delta to Wye Transformation
𝑅 = (7)

Similarly
𝑅 = (8)
and
𝑅 = (9)

Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the

resistors in the two adjacent Δ branches, divided by the
sum of the three Δ resistors.

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 Wye to Delta Transformation
𝑅 = (7)

𝑅 = (8)
𝑅 = (9)

From equations (7) to (9), we write

( )
𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅 = (10)
Therefore,
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑅 = (11)
𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅
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 Wye to Delta Transformation
Dividing (11) by (7), then (8), then (9) results in

Each resistor in the Δ network is the sum of all possible products

of Y resistors taken two at a time, divided by the opposite resistor.
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 Learning Assessment
Show that the total resistance RT in the circuit is 34 k.

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 Learning Assessment
Show that Vo in the circuit is 24 V.

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 Learning Assessment
Show that I1 in the circuit is 1.2 A.

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 Learning Assessment
If the power supplied by the 3-A current source is 12 W, obtain
show that
obtain
Vs = 42VsV and the power supplied by the 10V source .is 30 W.

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 Summary
 Ohm’s law
V = IR
 The passive sign convention
The current enters the resistor terminal with the positive voltage
reference.
 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
The algebraic sum of the currents leaving (entering) a node is
zero.
 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
The algebraic sum of the voltages around any closed path is zero.

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 Summary
 Solving a single-loop circuit
Determine the loop current by applying KVL and Ohm’s law.
 Solving a single-node-pair circuit
Determine the voltage between the pair of nodes by applying KCL and Ohm’s law.
 The voltage-division rule
The voltage is divided between two series resistors in direct proportion to their resistance.
 The current-division rule
The current is divided between two parallel resistors in reverse proportion to their
resistance.

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