Chapter 1
Chapter 1
I. The
FOREX
market
Concepts The foreign exchange includes the means of payment used in international payments:
- Foreign currency: The currency of other countries or the EUR and other official currencies
(of a zone) used in regional and international settlements (including the Special Drawing
Right - SDR).
SDR: was creasted by IMF in 1969, proposed by 10 nations in Paris Club
serving as reserve assets for member nations + used in credit transaction or in the
balance of trade between nations.
Existed as numbers on the account
Does not exist in the circulation
can only be transferred to USD, GBP, JPY, CNY, EUR
Functions 1. Trading and hedging FOREX risk (nơi kinh doanh phòng ngừa rủi ro tỷ giá)
2. Exchange rate’s formation (nơi hình thành tỷ giá)
3. Central bank intervenes to control exchange rate (nơi NHTW can thiệp lên tỷ giá)
4. Serving for international capital movement (phục vụ luân chuyển vốn quốc tế)
5. Serving for international commerce (phục vụ thương mại quốc tế)
Market - Individual customers + Enterprises Nhóm khách hàng mua – bán lẻ: phục vụ cho mục
participants đích của bản thân chứ không nhằm
mục đích kinh doanh. Mục đích: chuyển đổi ngoại tệ + phòng ngừa rủi ro tỷ giá
- Commercial banks Các NHTM: Mua bán hộ hoặc kinh doanh cho chính ngân hàng
- Brokers Nhà môi giới: Các NH có thể không giao dịch trực tiếp mà giao dịch gián tiếp
thông qua môi giới. Nhà môi giới muốn hành nghề phải có giấy phép và chỉ cung cấp dịch vụ
môi giới chứ không được mua bán cho chính mình.
- Central banks NHTW: Can thiệp lên tỷ giá thông qua hoạt động mua bán đồng nội tệ; Mua
bán, chuyển đổi tiền tệ nhằm thay đổi giá trị hoặc cơ cấu dự trữ ngoại hối và làm đại lý mua bán
hộ ngoại tệ cho chính phủ.
Market
classification
II. FOREX
TRADING
1, Exchange - E/C is the price of one currency in term of another cunrrency.
rate (Tỷ giá) - A quoting bank is the bank that provides exchange rate.
Ask rate the quoting bank ready to sell the commodity currency.
Bid rate the quoting bank ready to buy the commodity currency.
Spot rate formed directly by supply and demand on the FOREX market.
Spread = Chênh lệch giữa giá mua và bán
- ER classifications:
Transfer rate: used for the transactions of the currencies which are deposited at bank
accounts.
Bank note rate: used for cash transactions bank note bid rate is lower and bank
note ask rate is higher than the transfer rate.
Opening rate: first transaction of the business day.
Closing rate: last transaction of the business day.
Today’s closing rate is not opening rate of the next working day.
- Methods of quoting:
Direct: foreign currency is commodity – domestic one is term
Indirect: domestic currency is commodity – foreign one is term
5 nations using indirect quoting: SDR, GBP, AUD, NZD, EUR
- Point is the smallest unit of exchange rate quoted.
3, Cross - Is the rate between 2 currencies that is determined using a third currency.
exchange rate - Methods:
Simple: …
Complex: …
CHAPTER 2: BOP
1.
OVERVIEW
OF BOP
Concept and - BOP is a statement that summarizes economic transactions between residents and non-
relating terms residents during a specific time period.
- Residents: stayed over 1 year + main source of income is from that nation
Special cases:
International organizations (IMF, WHO, WB) non-residents to all countries.
Overseas students, National Diplomatic units, Gov prfessionals, patients…
residents to the countries they left.
Multi-national companies residents to the country they’re staying.
Structure
CA (quyền sở = TB + SE + Ic + Tr
hữu về gtri)
- TB (trade balance) (tangible) reflects the difference between the revenue from goods
exported and expenditure on goods imported.
Factors:
Exchange rate
The income of local and foreign consumers
The relative prices of goods in the local market and foreign maket (Inflation)
Consumer’s taste
The policy to international trade (Tariffs and quotas)
- SE (service exchange) reflects the difference between the revenue from services exported
and expenditure on services imported.
- Primary income (Ic) incomes arising between residents and non-residents from the
provision of labor, investment and leasing resources.
Thu nhập của người lao động
Thu từ đầu tư: dividend, interest…
Thu từ cho thuê tài nguyên: leasing land, property…
- Secondary income (Unilateral transfer/ Tr) the transaction in cash or other assets between
residents and non-residents without giving rise to any obligation to repay any debt.
Government sector: subsidies, aids…
Private sector: transfer remittance, gifts…
factors affect SI: kindness, affection and relationship between residents and non-
residents.
KA (quyền sở - One-way transfer of capital: is a donation in cash or in kind of donation relating to the
hữu về gtri) purchase of fixed assets or a debt removal between resident and non-residents.
- Tranfer of non-financial and non-production assets:
Natuaral resources
Contracts, patents… (Hợp đồng, giấy phép, bằng sáng chế)
Brands (Thương hiệu)
Quốc gia ở vị thế con nợ khi CA + KA < 0
Quốc gia ở vị thế chủ nợ khi CA + KA > 0
FA (quyền sử records the transfer of financial assets and liabilities between residents and nonresidents (right to
dụng về giá use).
trị) - FDI: a foreign investor invests in a business of another country investor has rights to
control or have a certain influence on the business. Theo IMF, đầu tư trực tiếp phải có tỷ lệ
vốn góp tối thiểu (ít nhất) 10% vốn cổ phần
- FPI: investments in the form of purchased shares, stocks, bonds and valuable papers, or
investments in investment funds or through financial intermediaries investor cannot
control or manage the business.
- Financial Derivative Assets
- Other investments
Cash and deposits
Loans
Commercial credit and prepayments
Receivables and payables
OM - the actual economic transactions occurred between residents and non-residents, but not
recorded or recorded incorrectly in BOP.
- Reasons:
Donot account all statistics
Dta on the basis estimation
Due to the deviation of time
The report data is inaccurate
Như vậy, "lỗi và sai sót" (Error and Omission - OM) là hạng mục tự động được ghi chèn
thêm vào OB nhằm mục đích sao cho "tổng các bút toán ghi có" bằng với "tổng các bút toán ghi
nợ".
OB Overall balance: OB = CA + KA + FA + OM
surplus: the government may follow a policy that aims to increase goods imported and reduce
export of raw materials to maintain the natural resources...
deficit: the government may devalue the domestic currency to boost exports and reduce imports,
or/and to borrow more to pay its due debts...
R - Reserve assets: inancial instruments which are internationally recognized central banks use
to finance the deficit on the BOP and to intervene and to influence the exchange rate in
FOREX market.
includes:
Monetary gold
SDR
Reserve position in the IMF
Foreign exchange
Other reserve assets
- Credit and loans from IMF
Loans from IMF: an agreement that country member borrows from the IMF and
pledges to repay to the IMF.
Credit from IMF: one nation will purchase foreign exchange with its national
currency. If the value of its currency changed in relation to SDR, the nation will have
to increase or decrease the volume of its currency to maintain the original debt level
denominated in SDR.
Về cơ bản sử dụng tín dụng của IMF và vay của IMF giống nhau ở chỗ là: Các nước thành viên có
thể tiếp cận vốn IMF trên cơ sở cảm kết thực hiện các điều kiện theo yêu cầu của IMF.
Tuy nhiên, có sự khác biệt giữa việc sử dụng tín dụng của IMF và các khoản vay như sau:
Vay IMF: Là một thỏa ước mà thành viên vay ngoại hối và cam kết sẽ hoàn trả cho IMF.
Sử dụng tín dụng: Là việc một nước sẽ mua ngoại hối bằng đồng bản tệ của nước mình. Nếu
giá trị đồng bản tệ của nước đó thay đổi so với SDR thì nước đó sẽ phải tăng hoặc giảm đồng bản
tệ để đảm bảo luôn duy trì một khoản nợ bằng SDR với IMF. Các tài sản nợ theo thỏa ước sử dụng
tín dụng IMF sẽ mất đi khi nước đó sử dụng ngoại hối để mua lại đồng bản tệ.
- Special purpose government funds: Including transactions be used to replace or combine with
reserve assets, the use of IMF credit, the IMF loan to finance the Overall Balance.
Khoản tiền mà NHTW sẵn sang dử dụng để tài trợ cho sự cân bằng cán cân thanh toán, điều
tiết thị trường ngoại hối, tỷ giá, và các mục đích khác.
2. DOUBLE-
ENTRY
PRINCIPLE
Double - entry - Double – entry is based on the perspective of residents in an economy to non-residents
basis (Residents in other economies)
- All transactions are recorded by two entries of equal value. One entry is credit (positive) and
the other is debit (negative)
- The sum of all credit entries is equal to the sum of all debit entries. Therefore, in principle,
the sum of all the entries in the BOP must be equal to zero (0).
Double – - Rule No.1: All revenues from the non-resident is credited (Recorded +)
entry rules All the expenses for non-residents is debited (Recorded -)
- Rule No.2: All revenues from the non-resident is credited (Recorded +)
All the expenses for non-residents is debited (Recorded -)
- Rule No.3: - Capital inflows are credited (+), reflecting:
+ A reduction in the nation's abroad assets
+ An increase in the nation's debt to foreigners
- Capital outflows are debited (-), reflecting:
+ An increase in the nation’s abroad assets
+ A reduction in the nation's debt to foreigners
Foreign currencies are considered as assets
The domestic currency is considered as liabilities
Asset reflects assets of residents but is held by non-residents (lending, investing ..)
Liability reflects the assets of non-residents being held by residents. (borrowing, receiving
investment ..)
3. BOP - When it comes to the deficit or surplus of the BOP without stating any balance that is, we would
SURPLUS understand that it is a surplus or deficit in the OB, therefore the OB is also known as Official
AND Settlements balance (Cán cân thanh toán chính thức của quốc gia)
DEFICIT
Trade balance TB = X – M
surplus and - (X - M) < 0 A deficit balance of trade (Nhập siêu)
deficit - (X - M) > 0 A surplus balance of trade (Xuất siêu)
Curent CA = TB + Se + Ic + Tr
account Current account balance reflects the economic transactions that change the ownership of property
surplus and of nations.
deficit Indicates the status of a national debt:
- CA < 0 : The nation is a debtor
- CA > 0 : The nation is a creditor
Overall - Do OB = - OFB nên OB>0 thì OFB <0; OB < 0 thì OFB >0
balance (OB) - Nếu OB thặng dư: Thu từ người không cư trú > chi cho người không cư trú, cho biết số tiền
sẵn có mà một quốc gia có thế:
+ Tăng dự trữ ngoại hối
+ Trả bớt các khoản nợ
- Nếu OB thâm hụt: Thu từ người không cư trú < chi cho người không cư trú, cho biết số tiền
mà một quốc gia thiếu hụt và phải tài trợ bằng cách:
+ Giảm dự trữ ngoại hối
+ Tăng đi vay IMF hoặc NHTW khác để bù đắp thâm hụt OB
Nominal - is the price of a currency is expressed via another currency without accounting for the
Exchage Rate correlation of purchasing power of goods and services
(NER)
Real - is the ratio index of the exchange rate adjusted by both the domestic inflation and foreign
Exchnage inflation, so it reflects the correlation of purchasing power between the two currencies
Rate (RER)
Nominal - is the price of a currency, which is expressed via other currencies without accounting for the
Effective correlation of purchasing power of goods and services.
Exchange
Rate (NEER)
Real Effective - is the ratio index of the exchange rate adjusted by both the domestic inflation and foreign
Exchange inflations, so it reflects the correlation of purchasing power between the domestic currency
Rate (REER) and the basket of foreign currencies. (slide 41)
2. EXC.Rate - Supply of FX: needs of foreigners to buy goods, services and assets in the domestic market.
regimes and Factors:
EXC.rate Exports
classification Receive income and receive from foreign residents.
Receive capital from abroad: FDI, FPI, ODA
Central bank sells the foreign currnecy
- Demand for FX: needs of domestic consumers to buy goods, services and assets from foreign
markets (importing)
Factors:
Imports
Payment of incomes (Dividend) and transfers from residents
Transfer capital abroad: FDI, FPI, ODA Invest
Central Bank buys the foreign currency
Fixed EC The Central Bank announces and pledges to intervene to maintain a fixed exchange rate (known as
regime the central rate - ECR) in a narrow band which has been predetermined (usually 1%).
The Central Bank must buy or sell the foreign currency to fix exc. rate or to maintain exc. rate in
a narrow band.
- Advantages:
Promoting international trade and investment
Forcing the macroeconomic policies to be more disciplined
Promoting international cooperation
- Disadvantages:
Speculation activities may create instability
Fixed exchange rate regimes necessitate that central banks maintain large quantities of
international reserves for use in the occasional defence of the fixed rate.
Fixed rates are generally not advocated by economists today.
Sterilized vs. Unsterilized Intervention
- Sterilized intervention:
The CB’s intervention is considered as a sterilized intervention if after the
purchase/sale of the foreign currency, the CB simultaneously or subsequently carries
out an action to eliminates any impact to the supply of the domestic currency
(monetary base).
Most of the world's central banks neutralized the impact of interventions through
Open Market Operations (OMO)
∆NFA + ∆NDA = 0
∆NFA: Changes in the Net Foreign Assets.
∆NDA: Changes in the Net Domestic Assets.
Floating EC The exchange rate is entirely and freely determined by supply and demand on the foreign exchange
regime market without any intervention of the central bank.
The Central Bank participates in the FOREX market as a normal participants – does not
intervene to affect the exc. rate level
- Advantages:
Consistent with economic fundamentals
Ensuring the balance of the international balance of payment
Ensuring the independence of monetary policy
Helping the economy to become more independent
Contributing to economic stability
Speculation helps to stabilize the market
- Disadvantages:
Speculative activities distort the market, these are capable of causing high inflation
and rising foreign debt.
Limiting the investment and credit activities due to the fear of adverse fluctuations of
the exchange rate.
Regulated The exchange rate is determined based on the relation of supply and demand in the FOREX market.
floating EC However, The Central Bank can still intervene to maintain a certain level of the exchange rate but not
regime to fix it.
The Central Bank positively, proactively intervenes for the exc. rate to change and create a
good impact to the economy
- The purchasing power parity: is the rate of exchange (EP) between two currencies at which
the quantity of goods bought in each market are the same when a unit of domestic currency
is converted to foreign currency and vice versa.
Formula:
3. The 5 assumptions:
Purchasing - No shipping cost
power parity - No trading barrier
( 1 rổ hàng - No risks
hóa) - Perfectly compepitive market
- Identical goods
Determinant: Arbitrage Trading Mechanism.
Formula (in notebook)
The market exchange rate (E) should reflect the purchasing power parity between two currencies.
In other words, PPP is the basis of the exchange rate formation on the foreign exchange market:
E = Ep
4. The NITG NITG là nhóm hàng hóa không thể tham gia vào thương mại quốc tế, là sản phẩm được điều
chỉnh bởi quy luật cạnh tranh trên thị trường nội địa, ví dụ: dịch vụ nhà hàng,
Bao gồm những hàng hóa:
(1) Hàng hóa cục bộ địa phương. Ví dụ, dịch vụ cắt tóc.
(2) Hàng hóa không đủ tiêu chuẩn xuất khẩu. Ví dụ: hàng quần áo VNXK đang xuất hiện tràn lan
ở thị trường VN trong thời gian gần đây.
(3) Hàng hóa đặc trưng - là những hàng hóa chỉ tồn tại và tiêu thụ được bởi quốc gia đó do yếu tố
phong tục, văn hóa. Ví dụ, áo dài, mắm tôm...
(4) Tài sản cố định - vd: bất động sản, cao ốc văn phòng…
Những loại hàng hóa này sẽ có một hay nhiều đặc điểm trong những đặc điểm sau: khó vận
chuyển, khó bảo quản, chất lượng thấp, dễ thay thế.
Giá cả của hàng hóa NITG được hình thành theo quy luật cung cầu và quy luật cạnh tranh trên
thị trường nội địa.
Hay nói cách khác, nhóm hàng hóa NITG chính là nguyên nhân để cho ngang giá không được
duy trì hay là nguyên nhân để tỷ giá lệch khỏi ngang giá sức mua.
CIP - in the process of lending/borrowing, an investor uses the forward rate to convert the
principle and interest from one currency to another, therefore the foreign exchange risk is
eliminated (covered).
Forming mechanism: Arbitrage trading in the money market.
Formula
UIP - in the process of lending/borrowing, an investor uses the expected spot rate to convert
the principle and interest from one currency to another, therefore the foreign exchange risk is
not eliminated (uncovered).
Forming mechanism: Exchange rate speculation.
Formula
2. The - IFE vs. UIP: The difference between the 2 levels of interest rate in 2 countries reflect the
international expected change of the exchange rate:
Fisher effect - IFE vs. PPP: The difference between the 2 levels of inflation rate in 2 countries reflect the
(IFE) expected change of the exchange rate
Fisher effect formula: OTHK
The international Fisher effect in the open economy tells that all the real interest rate levels
must be equal to each other.
- The IFE’s implications:
Investors, who are trying to invest in a country with high interest rates, may be
adversely affected by the impact of high inflation in that country.
The currencies with higher expected interest rates will also have higher expected
inflations, therefore they are expected to depreciate. Investors do not necessarily
invest in profitable securities in countries with higher interest rates because the impact
of the exchange rate can offset the interest rate advantage in every phase.