C++(11) features – part 1

1. What are the contexts “auto” can be used?

2.

3. Decltype syntax? How it works?

4.

5.

6. Auto stripes out all the cv-qualifiers from a declaration. (like const, &, * anything).

That’s why we have to explicitly add that in case of “auto”.

Const auto& x = I;

7. But decltype automatically deduces the complete type without evaluating the value.

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8. Auto and decltype conversion happened in compile time. Now what compiler interpret the
type for auto or decltype, no ways to know.

But here is two hacks:

 form the error message, we can see the compiler interpreted type.

 We can also use typeid to know the compiler interpreted type. But it is in a compiler
dependent format which is different compiler to compiler, which is really hard to decode
the type from the format.

9. Suffix/ Trailing Return type

10. C++ (14) upgradation in place of Suffix/ Trailing Return type.

11.

 We can assign on a reference.

 We have to assign on a reference.

Summary:
1. auto
2. decltype
3. decltype(auto)
4. compiler deduced type (error msg / typeid)
5. suffix / trailing return type (old – new)
6. The example
 C++(11) features – part 2

1. Initializer list

2. See the custom vector class.

3. std::initializer list stores initializer values in an array and offers these member functions:
◦ size // # of elements in the array
◦ begin // ptr to first array element
◦ end

4.
5. vector<double> v1{7};

 this means invoking the initializer list.

 If you don’t create a template that accepts an initializer list, it will not work.

6. Overload resolution(very imp)

7.

8.

9. Uniform initialization syntax.

 Using {} curly braces.

 In case of const or pointer type array declaration it is really helpful.
10. Aggregate:

Error: too many initializers

11. Non-aggregate (We have to give exactly same parameter in this case)

Error: too many initializers

, too few initializers

12.

13.

14. Narrowing is not possible in case of initializer list.

15. Range for operator.

Summary:

1. For function calling, () this must be used, f {1, 2} this is totally not supported. This brace
is only for initialization purpose, not invoking functions.

2. Initializer list

3. Overload Resolution (Narrowing is not possible in {} But possible for ()) *

4. Auto can deduce initializer list but template cannot.*

5. Uniform syntax using {}

6. Aggregate vs non-aggregate

7. Brace initializer can use = {} but not in every case.

8. No – 13 – explicit wala example💩*

9. Narrowing is not possible in initializer list.*

10. Range for operator

 C++(11) features – part 3

1. Constexpr : when we need to calculate an expression at the compile time, then we should
use constexpr as a suffix.

 If operator | is not initialized at the compile time, the switch statement gives an error.

2.

 Because we will get the value of f3 at run time, so constexpr is not applicable here.

3. M – 48.10 - const

4. Static constexpr

5.

 As vector is resizable.so, vector’s size is not a compile time contant.

6.
  array is of fixed size, so it can be done.

7. Noexcept and its usages (ChatGPT)

 https://chatgpt.com/c/6711d8eb-8a0c-8009-a258-277b920273b5

8.

9. nullptr vs NULL vs 0 (Regular function)

0 -> int

NULL -> may be integer, may be a pointer to 0. (Here its pointer, so ambiguity)

Nullptr -> int*

10.

 0 -> int

NULL -> long int

Nullptr -> okay! (template)

11. C++(11 ) inline namespace(make things global)***

12. C++(03) inline namespace implementation using “using”.***

13. Static_assert

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14. user-defined literals

 read the codes. (double is not allowed, use long double as signature)

15. Digit separators and binary literals.

16. Raw string literals

 Here u don’t need to use escape characters. Here we can easily print multi lines.

s
 17. Some more: https://chatgpt.com/c/6711eafc-7c0c-8009-9286-8f8078797305

Summary:

1. Constexpr
 Const, static, vector, array
2. Noexcept
3. 0 vs NULL vs nullptr (Reg func. vs template forwarding)
4. Inline namespace
5. Static_assert
6. User defined literals(long double)**
7. Digit separators and binary literals
8. Raw string
9. more
10.
 C++(11) features – part 4

1. Copying vs moving

 swapping by move
2. lvalue and rvalue.

 Lvalue

 Rvalue

 Examples.

3. Value movement is unsafe when the source is a lvalue object.

Value movement is safe when the source is a rvalue object.

Source lvalue: copy needed.

Source rvalue: move okay!

4. Lvalues may bind to lvalue references:

5. Rvalues may bind to lvalue references to const:

6. Rvalues may bind to rvalue references to non-const:

7. Lvalues may not bind to rvalue references:

 8. Rvalue reference slide(practice)

9. Rvalue References and const

 Rvalue references (T&&) are primarily intended to enable move semantics. A const
rvalue reference (const T&&) means that the rvalue reference points to a constant
object, which cannot be modified.
 This means you cannot move from it because moving inherently involves altering the
state of the original object (leaving it in an unspecified state).
 So, const rvalue reference commonly not used!!

10. Slide – 21, 22

 What is RVO? (see in case of function return Move ctor is invoked, which is RVO)

11. Copy: (construct -> delegation(same) -> copy -> destruct)

Move: (construct -> move -> dtor: nullptr)

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  In move semantics, dtor = nullptr as we are moving, that means we are using the existing
resource.
 So, that will be destroyed only after full execution of the code.

Summary:

1. Only see RVO slide and vector slide.

 C++(11) features – part 5

1.

2. Move semantics in case of built-in data type.

3. In case of user defined types.

 mRrc = c.mRrc; still copying thing. As c has a address, it is a lvalue, which matches with
the copy constructor version not with the move one.

 same for this also, as c is a lvalue.

4.

 Solution: std::move takes lvalue and returns rvalue.

5.

 reference collapsing in cpp says that if any one of the references is a lvalue reference, the
resultant will be a lvalue reference.
 If both are rvalue reference, then only the resultant will be a rvalue reference.

6. Std::move return type. (Should always return a rvalue..now how to ensure that?)

7. Parameter type.

 So only solution is overloading.


 8. Suppose a template declared with typename T&& (rvalue reference). In the body it has both
lvalue and rvalue constructor. Now, what it will invoke?

 Based on reference collapsing rule.

 Slide – 21

9. The return type of a lvalue ref should be lvalue and rvalue -> rvalue.

Summary:

Std::move takes both lvalue and rvalue(ovaerload)

But return only rvalue.(remove ref)

 C++(11) features – part 6

1. Summary:

 If it is a regular function, a rvalue reference only takes non-const rvalue.

 If it is a function respect to the context of templates, rvalue reference tales takes lvalue
or rvalue, const or non-const. As it follows the rules of reference collapsing.

2. auto type deduction vs decltype type deduction.

 Auto follows the collapsing rule.

 Decltype doesn’t use template type deduction. Both are int.

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3. Perfect forwarding problem

 Every forwarded function calls the copy constructor.

4. solution: std::forward

5. Type safety
 That means perfect forwarding is totally type-safe.
 C++(11) features – part 7

1. Lambda expression(void return type)

2. Lambda expression(return type)

3. Instant calling.

4. call by Reference.
5. = operator in capture clause.

 It will copy all the variables defined in the scope only which are required in the lambda.
(before the lambda).

6. When it is captured and when not?

 No capture as t is not used in the lambda.so no copying occurred.

 here we are using &. So, no copy occurred.

 The copy is for auto m2 = m1.
7.

8.

 The second point.

9.

 Read this carefully.

10. Mutable and non-mutable lambda in case of capture-by value(ChatGPT)

11. Slide: 22, 23 : = may create infinite loop.

TIPS: when we are modifying something and that is associated with lambda then we must
use &.Otherwise we can use =.
12.

 In case of mutable, we can change value locally using capture by value. The change made
in the expression body doesn’t reflect on the original one.

13. Slide-26 example***

14. = & usecases

15. Restrictions on capture.

 C++(11) features – part 8

1. Std::function

2. Slide – 9

3. Pipelining

4. Generalized lambda in c++.

 Using template or auto.

 Slide 13: for generic lambda, we need to explicitly convert const char* to string.

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5. Capture-less Generic λ can be conv. to Function Pointers.

6. Recursive λ expression.

 Problem:

 Solution: (capture clause solution)

or, (parameter list solution)

7. Generalized lambda captures.

Summary:
 First example (why m_ will not work, this or = work)
 Std::function
 Pipeline
 Generic lambda
 Capture less generalized lambda -> function pointers
 Recursive lambda problem & sol.
 Generalized lambda captures
 C++(11) features – part 9

1. =default and =delete Functions

 https://chatgpt.com/c/6720f0ba-1f08-8009-bb3a-c519d37961c5

2. Control of Default Move and Copy.☹

 Rule of five
 Rule of three
 Rule of zero

 https://chatgpt.com/c/6714fbcb-0cf4-8009-b182-275d4a5d3175

3. Delegating constructors

 https://chatgpt.com/c/6720f0ba-1f08-8009-bb3a-c519d37961c5

4. In class member initializers.(Act as default parameter)

 https://chatgpt.com/c/6720f0ba-1f08-8009-bb3a-c519d37961c5

5. Inheriting Constructors (using using)

 https://chatgpt.com/c/6720f0ba-1f08-8009-bb3a-c519d37961c5
 VVI- PPT example

6. Override Controls – virtual & final

7. explicit Conversion Operators(VVI)

 implicit conversions will not be permitted

https://chatgpt.com/c/671500b1-20a4-8009-a783-a3c5f599ee34
https://chatgpt.com/c/6721025e-7a5c-8009-a21e-b12390e039be (BOOL)
 C++(11) features – part 10

1. enum in c++(11).

2.

3. It is scoped. Can’t be accessed globally.

4. conversion from int to Enum-type is not possible.
5. Enum-type to int is possible in only for non-class enum.
6. For class based enum no conversion is allowed.

7. Enum class underlying type.

8.

9. If you give a value greater in size than the underlying type, it will show a error.

10.
11. In c++(03), for forward declaration you must give a size.
12. In c++(11), the underlying type is int by default.

13. Fixed size integer types.

14. https://chatgpt.com/c/6715d219-07f8-8009-aa13-c41826673cb9

15.

16. Generalized unions-Which can store different type of values.