For Your Reference - https://chatgpt.

com/share/6735d8a9-0298-800e-9a84-36f951caac21

Definitions and Basic Concepts

1. What is pointer to pointer? (2 Marks)

o A pointer to pointer is a variable that holds the address of another pointer variable.

o It allows for multi-level indirection, meaning you can use it to access another
pointer’s memory location.

o Declaration: int **ptr; where ptr holds the address of another pointer to an integer.

o Use Case: Commonly used in dynamic memory allocation and when working with
multi-dimensional arrays.

2. What is data structure? (2 Marks)

o A data structure is a specific way to organize and store data in a computer.

o It allows efficient access and modification of data.

o Common types include linear structures (like arrays and linked lists) and non-linear
structures (like trees and graphs).

o Used in a variety of applications, from database management to algorithm design.

3. What is sorting? State the techniques of sorting. (2 Marks)

o Sorting arranges elements in a specific order, typically ascending or descending.

o It improves search efficiency by organizing data.

o Common techniques include:

 Bubble Sort: Compares adjacent elements repeatedly.

 Selection Sort: Finds the smallest element and places it at the beginning.

 Insertion Sort: Builds a sorted list by inserting elements in the correct order.

 Quick Sort and Merge Sort: Divide and conquer algorithms for faster sorting.

4. What is non-primitive data structure? (2 Marks)

o Non-primitive data structures store multiple values and can hold complex
relationships.

o Examples include arrays, stacks, queues, linked lists, and trees.

o These structures depend on primitive data types but allow greater flexibility and
utility.

o They are essential in handling large data collections efficiently in software.

5. What is searching? (2 Marks)

o Searching is the process of finding a specific element within a data structure.

 o Types:

 Linear Search: Checks each element in sequence, best for unsorted data.

 Binary Search: Efficient search for sorted data by dividing the search space.

o Applications: Used in databases, search engines, and array operations.

o Crucial for retrieving data efficiently in large datasets.

6. What is polynomial? How is it represented/different from structure? (4 Marks)

o A polynomial is a mathematical expression with variables and coefficients, e.g., 3x^2

+ 2x + 1.

o Representation:

 Arrays: Each index represents the power, and the value at the index is the
coefficient.

 Linked Lists: Each node contains a coefficient and an exponent.

o Difference from Structure:

 A polynomial specifically represents mathematical terms, whereas a

structure is a data type that can store different types of data.

 Structures group unrelated fields, whereas polynomials focus on a

mathematical relationship.

Specific Data Structures

1. Applications of stack (2 Marks)

o Function Call Management: Used to keep track of active functions, especially for
recursion.

o Expression Evaluation: Crucial in evaluating postfix, infix, and prefix expressions.

o Undo Operations: Supports undo/redo in text editors and other applications.

o Syntax Parsing: Used in compilers to ensure balanced parentheses and braces.

2. What is stack? Explain different operations used in stack. (4 Marks)

o A stack is a linear data structure that follows the Last In, First Out (LIFO) principle.

o Operations:

 Push: Adds an element to the top of the stack.

 Pop: Removes the top element from the stack.

 Peek/Top: Accesses the top element without removing it.

 isEmpty: Checks if the stack contains any elements.

o Use Cases: Used in backtracking, function call tracking, and expression parsing.
 3. What is balance factor? How is it calculated? (2 Marks)

o Balance Factor is used in AVL trees to maintain balance.

o Definition: It’s the difference between the heights of the left and right subtrees.

o Calculation formula: Balance Factor = Height of Left Subtree - Height of Right

Subtree.

o A tree is balanced if the balance factor is -1, 0, or +1 for each node.

4. Differentiate array and structure. (4 Marks)

o Array:

 Stores elements of the same data type.

 Accessed by indices.

 Useful for sequential data.

o Structure:

 Stores elements of different data types.

 Accessed using dot notation with field names.

 Useful for representing complex objects with related attributes.

Tree and Graph Structures

1. Construct Binary Search Tree (BST) (4 Marks)

o Binary Search Tree: A tree where each node has up to two children, with the left
child having a smaller value and the right child having a larger value.

o Insertion Steps:

 Start with the root node.

 Compare each value; insert smaller values in the left subtree, larger values in
the right.

 Follow this rule recursively for each new value.

o Example: Constructing a BST for the data 15, 30, 20, 5, 10, 2, 7 involves starting with
15 as the root and organizing subsequent values in this manner.

2. Convert an infix expression to postfix/prefix (3 Marks)

o Conversion Process:

 Use a stack to hold operators.

 Read each token (operand/operator) left to right.

 Apply precedence and associativity rules to decide when to push or pop

operators.
 o Example:

 Infix: (A + B) * C

 Postfix: A B + C *

 Prefix: * + A B C

Algorithms and Sorting

1. Explain insertion sort technique with an example. (4 Marks)

o Insertion Sort:

 Begins with the second element and inserts it into the correct position in the
sorted section.

 Continues this process for each element until the list is sorted.

o Example:

 Given array: [18, 7, 22, 3, 14, 2]

 Steps:

 Insert 7 before 18, then 22 in the correct position, and so on until all
elements are sorted.

2. Selection Sort (and other sorting algorithms) (4 Marks)

o Selection Sort:

 Repeatedly finds the minimum element in the unsorted section and places it
at the beginning.

o Example:

 For [10, 5, 75, 62, 49, 58]:

 Start by finding the smallest element (5) and swapping it with the
first element (10).

 Repeat this for each unsorted section until the list is sorted.

Linked List Operations

1. Write a function to create and display singly or doubly linked list. (4 Marks)

o Function to Create:

 Initialize head to NULL.

 For each element, create a new node, link it to the previous node, and
update the head.

o Function to Display:
  Traverse from head, printing each node’s data until reaching the end.

o Example Code:

void displayList(Node* head) {

Node* current = head;

while (current != NULL) {

printf("%d ", current->data);

current = current->next;

2. Write a function to delete the first node in a singly linked list. (4 Marks)

o Steps:

 Set a temporary pointer to the current head.

 Move head to the next node.

 Free the memory of the initial node.

o Example Code:

void deleteFirstNode(Node** head) {

if (*head == NULL) return;

Node* temp = *head;

*head = (*head)->next;

free(temp);

Definitions Related to Graphs and Trees

1. Define terms like Directed Graph, Parent Node, Subtree, Degree of Vertex, Leaf Node, etc.
(6 Marks)

o Directed Graph: A graph where edges have a specific direction.

o Parent Node: A node in a tree that has at least one child node connected below it.

o Subtree: A smaller section of a tree, including a node and its descendants.

o Degree of Vertex: The number of edges connected to a vertex in a graph.

o Leaf Node: A node in a tree with no children, often the endpoint in paths.