1 RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

KEY CONCEPT INVOLVED

1. Relations - Let A and B be two non-empty sets then every subset of A × B defines a relation from A to B
and every relation from A to B is a subset of A × B.
Let R  A × B and (a, b)  R. then we say that a is related to b by the relation R as aRb. If (a, b)  R as
a R b.
2. Domain and Range of a Relation - Let R be a relation from A to B, that is, let R  A × B. then Domain
R = {a : a A, (a, b) R for some b B} i.e. dom. R is the set of all the first elements of the ordered pairs
which belong to R. Range R = (b : b B, (a, b) R for some a A} i.e. range R is the set of all the second
elements of the ordered pairs which belong to R. Thus Dom. R  A, Range R  B.
3. Inverse Relation - Let R  A × B be a relation from A to B. Then inverse relation R–1  B × A is defined by
R–1 {(b, a) : (a, b) R}
It is clear that
(i) aRb = bR–1 a
(ii) dom. R–1 = range R and range R–1 = dom R.
(iii) (R–1)–1 = R.
4. Composition of Relation - Let R A × B, S B × C be two relations. Then composition of the relations
R and S is denoted by SoR A × C and is defined by (a, c)  (SoR) iff b  B such that (a, b) 
R, (b, c) S.
5. Relations in a set - let A () be a set and R A × A i.e. R is a relation in the set A.
6. Reflexive Relations - R is a reflexive relation if (a, a) R,  a R it should be noted that if for any a A
such that a R a. then R is not reflexive.
7. Symmetric Relation - R is called symmetric relation on A if (x, y) R (y, x) R.
i.e. if x is related to y, then y is also related to x.
It should be noted that R is symmetric iff R–1 = R.
8. Anti Symmetric Relations - R is called an anti symmetric relation if (a, b) R and (b, a) R a = b.
Thus if a  b then a may be related to b or b may be related to a but never both.
9. Transitive Relations - R is called a transitive relation if (a, b) R (b, c) R (a, c) R
10. Identity Relations - R is an identity relation if (a, b) R iff a = b. i.e. every element of A is related to only
itself and always identity relation is reflexive symmetric and transitive.
11. Equivalence Relations - a relation R in a set A is called an equivalence relation if
(i) R is reflexive i.e. (a, a) R  a A
(ii) R is symmetric i.e. (a, b) R (b, a) R
(iii) R is transitive i.e. (a, b), (b, c) R (a, c) R.
12. Functions - Suppose that to each element in a set A there is assigned, by some rule, an unique element of
a set B. Such rules are called functions. If we let f denote these rules, then we write f : A  B as f is a
function of A into B.
13. Equal Functions - If f and g are functions defined on the same domain A and if f (a) = g (a) for every
a A, then f = g.
14. Constant Functions - Let f : A  B. If f (a) = b, a constant, for all a A, then f is called a constant function.
Thus f is called a constant function if range f consists of only one element.
15. Identity Functions - A function f is such that A  A is called an identity function if f (x) = x,  x A it is
denoted by IA.
16. One-One Functions (Injective) - Let f : A  B then f is called a one-one function. If no two different
elements in A have the same image i.e. different elements in A have different elements in B.
Denoted by symbol f is one-one if
f (a) = f (a)  a = a
i.e. a  a f (a)  f (a)
A mapping which is not one-one is called many one function.
17. Onto functions (Surjective) - In the mapping f : A  B, if every member of B appears as the image of
atleast one element of A, then we say “f is a function of A onto B or simply f is an onto functions” Thus
f is onto iff f (A) = B
i.e. range = codomain
A function which is not onto is called into function.
18. Inverse of a function - Let f : A  B and b B then the inverse of b i.e. f–1 (b) consists of those elements
in A which are mapped onto b i.e. f–1 (b) = {x ; x A, f (x) b}
 f–1 (b) A, f–1 (b) may be a null set or a singleton.
19. Inverse Functions - Let f : A  B be a one-one onto-function from A onto B. Then for each b B.
f–1 (b) A and is unique. So, f–1 : B  A is a function defined by f–1 (b) = a, iff f (a) = b.
Then f–1 is called the inverse function of f. If f has inverse function, f is also called invertible or non-
singular.
Thus f is invertible (non-singular) iff it is one-one onto (bijective) function.
20. Composition Functions - Let f : A  B and g : B  C, be two functions,
Then composition of f and g denoted by gof : A  C is defined by (gof) (a) = g {f (a)}.
21. Binary Operation - A binary operation  on a set A is a function  : A × A  A. We denote  (a, b) by a  b
22. Commutative Binary Operation - A binary operation  on the set A is commutative if for every a, b A,
a  b = b  a.
23. Associative Binary Operation - A binary operation  on the set A is associative if
(a  b)  c = a  (b  c).
24. An Identity Element e for Binary Operation - Let  : A × A  A be a binary operation. There exists an
element e  A such that a  e = a = e  a  a A, then e is called an identity element for Binary Operation  .
25. Inverse of an Element a - Let  : A × A  A be a binary operation with identity element e in A.
an element a A is invertible w.r.t. binary operation  , if there exists an element b in A such that
a  b = e = b  a. and b is called the inverse of a and is denoted by a–1.

CONNECTING CONCEPTS
1. In general gof  fog.
2. f : A  B, be one-one, onto then
f–1 of = IA and fof–1 = IB
3. f : A  B, g : B  C, h : C  D
then (hog) of = ho (gof).
4. f : A  B, g : B  C be one-one and onto then gof : A  C is also one-one onto and (gof)–1 = f–1 o g–1.
5. Let : A  B, then IB of = f and foIA = f. It should be noted that foIB is not defined since for
(foIB) (x) = fo {IB (x)} = f (x)
IB (x) exist when x B and f (x) exist when x A
6. f : A  B, g : B  C are both one-one, then gof : A  C is also one-one it should be noted that for gof to
be one-one f must be one-one.
7. If f : A  B g : B  C are both onto then gof must be onto. However, the converse is not true. But for gof
to be onto g must be onto.
8. The domain of the functions
(f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x)
(f – g) (x) = f (x) – g (x)
(fg) (x) = f (x) g (x)
f (x)
is given by (dom. f)  (dom g) while domain of the function (f/g) (x) = is given by..
g (x)
(dom f) (dom. g) – {x : g (x) = 0}
9. If O (A) = m, O (B) = n, then total number of mappings from A to B is nm.
10. If A and B are finite sets and O (A) = m, O (B) = n, m  n.
n!
Then number of injection (one-one) from A to B is nPm = (n  m)!
11. If f : A  B is injective (one-one), then O(A)  O (B).
12. If f : A  B is surjective (onto), then O (A)  O (B).
13. If f : A  B is bijective (one-one onto), then O (A) = O (B).
14. Let f : A  B and O (A) = O (B), then f is one-one  it is onto.
15. Let f : A  B and X1, X2  A, then f is one-one iff f (X1  X2) = f (X1) f (X2)
16. Let f : A  B and X A, Y B, then in general f–1 (f (x)) X, f (f–1 (y)) Y
If f is one-one onto f–1 (f (x)) = x, f (f–1 (y)) = Y.
 2 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS

KEY CONCEPT INVOLVED

1. Functions Domain Range
(i) sin R [–1, 1]
(ii) cos R [–1, 1]

(iii) tan R – {x : x = (2n + 1) , n  z} R
2
(iv) cot R – {x : x = n , n  z} R

(v) sec R – { x : x = (2n + 1) } n  z} R – [–1, 1]
2
(vi) cosec R – {x : x = n , n  z} R– [–1, 1]
2. Inverse Function - If f : X  Y such that y = f (x) is one-one and onto, then we define another function
g : Y  X such that x = g (y), where x  X and y  Y which is also one-one and onto. In such a case domain
of g = Range of f and Range of g = domain of f
g is called inverse of f or g = f –1
Inverse of g = g–1 = (f–1)–1 = f.
3. Principal value Branch of function sin–1 - It may be noted that for the domain [-1, 1] the range sould be
 3         3 
any one of the intervals   ,  ,  ,  or  ,  corresponding to each interval we get a
 2 2   2 2 2 2 
   
branch of the function sin–1 the branch with range  ,  is called the principal value branch.
 2 2
–1
Thus sin : [–1, 1]     
,
 2 2 
y
2
3
–1
2

1
2
x   x
–1
2
3
1
2

2
y
y = sin–1 x
4. Principal Value branch of function cos–1 - Domain of the function cos–1 is [–1, 1].
Its range is one of the intervals (–, 0), (0, ), (, 2). etc. The branch with range (0, ) is called the
principal value branch of the function cos–1 thus cos–1 : [–1, 1]  [0, ]
y

2

–1

x 0 1 x

–1 –

–2 1
y
y = cos–1 x
5. Principal Value branch of function tan–1 - The function tan–1 is defined whose domain is set of real
 3         3 
numbers and range is one of the intervals  ,  , ,  ,  ,  etc.
 2 2   2 2 2 2 
   
Graph of the function is as shown in the adjoining figure the branch with range  ,  is called the
 2 2
   
pricnipal value branch of function tan–1. Thus tan–1 : R   , .
 2 2
y
3
2

 
2
x x
0
–
2 –

–3
y 2
y = tan–1 x
6. Principal Value branch of function cosec–1 - The function cosec–1 is defined on a function whose domain
 3         3 
is R – (–1, 1) and the range is anyone of the interval  ,   {},  ,   {0},  ,   {},......
 2 2   2 2 2 2 
  
The function corresponding to the range   ,   {0} is called the principal value branch
 2 2
of cosec–1
  
Thus, cosec–1 : R – (–1, 1)    ,   {0}
 2 2
 y
3
1 2


1
2
x x
0
–
–1 2
–
–3
2 1
y
y = cosec–1 x
7. Principal value branch of function sec–1 - The sec–1 is defined as a function whose domain is

 
R – (–1, 1) and the range could be any of the intervals is ........, [–p, 0] –

2 
, [0, p] 

2  
,[, 2] 
3
2
..... etc.

The branch corresponding to range [0, ]  

2
is known as the principal value branch of sec–1. Thus


sec–1 : R – (–1, 1)  [0, ]   .
2
y
2
3
2 
–1

x 2 x
0 1
–
–1
2
–
–2

y
y = sec–1 x
8. Principal Value branch of function cot - The cot–1 function is defined as the function whose domain is
–1

R and the range is any of the intervals......... (–, 0) (0, ), (, 2) etc. The branch corresponding to (0, )
is called the principal value branch of the function cot–1, then cot–1 : R  (0, )
y

2
3
2


2 x
x
0
–
2 –
–3
2 –2

y
y = cot–1 x
9. Inverse function Domain Principal Value branch
   
sin–1 [–1, 1]  2 , 2 
cos –1 [–1, 1] [0, ]
   
cosec–1 R – (–1, 1)  2 , 2   {0}

sec –1 R – (–1, 1) 
[0, ]  
2
   
tan–1 R  2 , 2 
cot –1 R (0, )

CONNECTING CONCEPTS
1. (i) sin–1 1/x = cosec–1 x, x  1, x –1 (ii) cos–1 1/x = sec–1 x, x  1, x –1
(iii) tan–1 1/x = cot–1 x, x > 0 (iv) cosec–1 1/x = sin–1 x, x [–1, 1]
(v) sec–1 1/x = cos–1 x, x [–1, 1] (vi) cot–1 1/x = tan–1 x, x > 0
2. (i) sin–1 (–x) = – sin–1 x, x [–1, 1]
(ii) tan–1 (–x) = – tan–1 x, x  R
(iii) cosec–1 (–x) = – cosec–1 x, |x|  1
(iv) cos–1 (–x) =  – cos–1 x, x [–1, 1]
(v) sec–1 (–x) =  – sec–1 x, |x| 
(vi) cot–1 (–x) = – cot–1 x, x  R
3. (i) sin–1 x + cos–1 x = /2, x [–1, 1]
(ii) tan–1 x + cot–1 x = /2, x  R
(iii) cosec–1 x + sec–1x = /2, |x|  1
xy
4. (i) tan–1 x + tan–1 y = tan–1 , xy < 1
1  xy
xy
(ii) tan–1 x – tan–1 y = tan–1 , xy > –1
1  xy
1 1
(iii)  
2 sin–1 x = sin–1 2x 1  x 2 , 
2
x
2
(iv) 2 cos–1 x = cos–1 (2x2 – 1) ,  1  x  1
2
2x 2x 2
–1 1  x , x  0
(v) 2 tan–1 x = tan–1 2
, 1  x  1  sin 1 2 , |x|  1 = cos
1 x 1 x 1  x2
 APPLICATION OF
6 DERIVATIVES

KEY CONCEPTS INVOLVED

1. Rate of change of Quantities – Let y = f (x) be a function. If the change in one quantity y varies with
dy dy 
another quantity x, then or f  (x) denotes the rate of change of y with respect to x.  x  x
dx dx 0
or f (x0) represents the rate of change of y w.r.t. x at x = x0.
2. Increasing and Decreasing function at x0 A function f is said to be
(a) Increasing on an interval (a, b) if x1 < x2 in (a, b)  f (x1) < f (x2) for all x1 , x2  (a, b)
Alternatively, if f  (x)  0 for each x in (a, b)
(b) Decreasing on (a, b) if x1 < x2 in (a, b)  f (x1)  f (x2) for all x1 , x2  (a, b) Alternatively, if f  (x)  0 for
each x in (a, b)
3. Test : Increasing/decreasing/constant function – Let f be a continuous on [a, b] and differentiable in an
open interval (a, b), then.
(i) f is increasing on [a, b], if f (x) > 0 for each x  (a, b)
(ii) f is decreasing on [a, b], if f (x) < 0 for each x  (a, b)
(iii) f is constant on [a, b], if f (x) = 0 for each x  (a, b)
4. Tangent to a Curve – Let y = f (x) be the equation of a curve. The equation of the tangent at (x0, y0) is
dy
y – y0 = m (x – x0), where m = slope of the tangent   or f (x 0 )
dx  (x0 , y0 )
5. Normal to the Curve – Let y = f (x) be the equation of the curve Equation of the normal at (x0, y0) is
1
y – y0 = – (x – x0)
m
where m = Slope of the tangent at (x0, y0)
dy 
= or f (x 0 )
dx  (x 0 , y0 )
6. Approximation – Let y = f (x), x be a small increament in x and y be the increament in y corrseponding

to the increament in x, i.e., y = f (x + x) – f (x). Then approximate value of y =   dy

dx
x
7. Maximum Value, Minimum value, Extreme Value – Let f be a function defined in the interval I, then
(i) Maximum Value – If there exists a point c in I such that f (c) f (x), for all x  I then f (c) is called
maximum value of f in I. The point c is known as a point of maximum value of f in I.
y

f (c)

x
O c
 (ii) Minimum Value – If three exists a point c in I such that f (c)  f (x),  x  I, then f (x) is called the
minimum value of f in I. The point c is called as a point of minimum value of f in I
y

f (c)

x
O c

(iii) Extreme Value – If there exists a point c in I such that f (c) is either a maximum value or a minimum
value of f in I, then f (c) is the extreme value of f (x) in I.
The point c is said to be an extreme point.
y

x
O a b

8. Absolute Maxima and Minima – let f be a continuous function on an interval I = [a, b]. Then f has the
absolute maximum value and f attains it at least once in I. Similarly, f has the absolute minimum value and
attains at least once in I
y

f (a) f (b) f (c)

f (d)
x
O x=a b c d

At x = b , there is a local minima

At x = c, there is a local maxima
At x = a, f (a) is the greatest value or absolute max. value.
At x = d, f (d) is the least value or absolute min. value.
9. Local Maxima and Minima – let f be a real valued function and c be an interior point in the domain of
f, then
(a) Local Maxima – c is a point of local maxima if there is an h > 0, such that f (c)  f (x) for all
x  [c – h, c + h)
The value f (c) is called local maximum value of f.
(b) Local Minima – c is a point of local minima if there is an h > 0, such that f (c)  f (x) for all
x  (c – h c + h)
The value of f (c) is known as the local minimum value of f.
Geometrically – If x = c is a point of local maxima of f, then
 y y
f (c) = 0

Inc ) > 0
f (x sing
Dec

g
Dec
asing

sin
)<

f (x
rea
>0

f (x)

re a
r

0
Incre
f (x)

<0

f (c) = 0
x x
O c O c

f is increasing (i.e., f  (x) > 0) in the interval (c – h, c) and decreasing (i.e., f  (x) < 0) in the interval
(c, c + h)
 f  (c) = 0
Similarly, if x = c is a point of local minima of f, then f is decreasing (i.e., f  (x) < 0) in the interval
(c – h, c) and increasing (i.e., f  (x) > 0) in the interval (c, c + h).
 f  (c) = 0
10. Test of Local Maxima and Minima –
(i) Let f be a differentiable function defined on an open interval I and c  I be any point. f has a local
maxima or a local minima at x = c, f  (c) = 0
y
0
f (
Dec

x) >

g
s in
x) <
reas

re a
f (
Inc
0
ing

f (c)
x
O C
(ii) If f  (x) changes sign from positive to negative as x increases from left to right through c i.e.,
(a) f  (x) > 0 at every point in (c – h, c)
(b) f  (x) < 0 at every point in (c, c + h)
Then c is called a point of local maxima of f and f (c) is local maximum value of f.
(iii) If f  (x) changes sign from negative to positive as x increase from left to right through c i.e.,
(a) f  (x) < 0 at every point in (c – h, c)
(b) f  (x) > 0 at every point in (c, c + h)
Then c is called a point of local minima of f and f (c) is a local minimum value of f.
(iv) If f  (x) does not change sign as x increases through c, then c is neither a point of local maxima nor a
point of local minima. Such a point is called point of inflection.
11. Second Derivative Test of Local Maxima and Minima – let f be a twice differentiable function defined on
an interval I and c  I and f be differentiable at c  I, then,
(i) x = c is a local maxima,
if f  (c) = 0 and f  (c) < 0.
f (c) is the local maximum value of f
(ii) x = c is a local minima, if f  (c) = 0 and f  (c) > 0
f (c) is the local minimum value of f.
(iii) Point of inflection If f  (c) = 0 and f  (c) = 0
Test fails. Then we apply first derivative test and find whether c is a point of local maxima, local
minima or a point of inflexion.
12. To find absolute maximum value or absolute minimum value –
(i) Find all the critical points where f  (x) = 0
(ii) Consider the end point also.
(iii) Calculate the functional values at all the points found in step (i) and (ii)
(iv) Identify the maximum and minimum values out of the values calculated in step (iii). These are absolute
maximum and absolute minimum values.

CONNECTING CONCEPTS
1. Increasing Function – f is said to be increasing on I, if x1 < x2 on I, then f (x1)  f (x2). for all x1, x2  I.
y

x
O

2. Strictly Increasing function – f is said to be strictly increasing on I, if x1 < x2 in I then f (x1) < f (x2) for all
x1, x2  I.
y

x
O
3. Decreasing function – f is said to be decreasing function on I, if x1 < x2 in I, then f (x1)  f (x2) for all x1, x2  I.
y

x
O

4. Strictly Decreasing function – f is said to be strictly decreasing function on I, if x1 > x2 in I then f (x1)  f
(x2) for all x1, x2  I.
y

x
O
5. Particular case of tangent – Let m = tan 
If  = 0, m = 0
Equation of tangent is y – y0 = 0 i.e., y = y0

If  = , m is not defined.
2
1
 (x – x0) = (y – y0)
m
 
when  = , cot  0
2 2
 Equation of tangent is x – x0 = 0 or x = x0
 CONTINUITY AND
5 DIFFERENTIABILITY

KEY CONCEPT INVOLVED

1. Continuity - A real valued function f (x) of variable x defined on an interval I is said to be continuous at
x = a I, lim f (x) exists, is finite and is equal to f (a).
x a
lim f (a + h) = lim f (a–h) = f (a), where ‘h’ is a very small +ve quantity..
 h 0 h 0
2. A function f (x) is said to be continuous in an interval I, if it is continuous at each point of the interval.
3. Discontinuity - A function said to be discontinuous at a point x = a, if it is not continuous at this point.
This point x = a where the function is not continuous is called the point of discontinuity.
4. Suppose f and g be two real functions continuous at a real number c, then
(i) f + g is continuous at x = c
(ii) f – g is continuous at x = c
(iii) f  g is continuous at x = c
f
(iv) g is continuous at x = c, (provided g (c)  0)
1
5. (i) If g is a continuous function, then g is also continuous.
(ii) Suppose f and g are real valued functions such that (fog) is defined at c. If f and g is continuous at c
then (fog) is also continuous at c.
6. Differentiability - The concept of differentiability has been introduced in the lower class let f be a real
f (c  h)  f (c)
function and c is a point in its domain. The derivative f  (c) of f at c is defined as lim ,
h 0 h
provided limit exists
d f (x  h)  f (x)
Thus, f  (c) = [f (x)]c. f  (x) is defined as f  (x) = lim
dx h 0 h
Every differentiable function is continuous.
7. Algebra of Derivatives - Let u, v be the function of x.
(i) (u ± v) = u ± v
(ii) (uv) = uv + uv
 u  u v  uv
(iii)    , where v  0.
v v2
8. Chain Rule - If f and g are differentiable functions in their domain, then fog (x) or f g (x) is also differentiable
and (fog) (x) = f  g (x) × g (x)
dy dy du
More easily if y = f (u) and u = g (x), then  
dx du dx
dy dy du dv
If y is a function of u, u is a function of v and v is a function of x then    .
dx du dv dx
9. Implicit functions - An equation in the form f (x, y) = 0 in which y is not expressible in terms of x is called
as an implicit function of x and y.
 dy
Both sides of equations are differentiated term wise with respect to x then from this equation is
dx
obtained. It may be noted that when a function of y occurs, then differentiate it w.r.t. y and multiply it by
dy
.
dx
dy dy
Collect the terms containing at one side and find
dx dx
10. Exponential function - The exponential function with positive base b > 1, is the function y = bx.
(i) The graph of y = 10x is
(ii) Domain = R
(iii) Range = R +
(iv) The point (0, 1) always lies on the graph.
(v) It is an increasing function
(vi) As x  –  y  0
d x x d x x
(vii) a = a loge a, e =e .
dx dx y
x
y = 10

(0, 1)
x x
0
y
11. Logarithmic function - Let b > 1 be a real number. bx = a may be written as logb a = x.
(i) The graph of y = log10 x is
(ii) Domain = R +
(iii) Range = R
(iv) It is an increasing function.
(v) As x  0, y 
(vi) The functiony = ex and y = logex are the mirror images of each other
d 1 d 1
(vii) (loga x) = loga e, loge x =
dx x dx x
y

y = log10 x

(1, 0)
x x
O

y
12. Derivatives of functions in Parametric form - The set of equations x = f (t), y = g (t) is called the
parametric form of an equation.
 dx dy dy dy dt g (t)
Now,  f (t),  g (t) ,   or
dt dt dx dx dt f  (t)
dy
13. Second order derivative- let y = f (x) then  f (x)
dx
If f  (x) is differentiable, then it is again differentiated and get
d  dy  d2 y
  or = f  (x)
dx  dx  dx2
d2 y
or f  (x) is called the second derivative of y or f (x) with respect to x.
dx 2
14. Rolle’s Theorem - Let f : [a, b]  R be continuous an closed interval [a, b] and differentiable an open
interval (a, b) such that f (a) = f (b) where a, b are real numbers, then there must exists at least one value
c (a, b) of x,such that f (c) = 0.
y

x x
O a c1 c2 b

y
We observe that f (a) = f (b), There exists two point c1 and c2 (a, b) such that f (c1) = 0 and f (c2) = 0,
i.e. Tangent at c1 and c2 are parallel to x-axis.
15. Mean Value Theorem- Let f : [a, b]  R be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b] and
differentiable in the open interval (a, b), then there must exists at least one value c  (a, b) of x, such that
f (b)  f (a)
f (c) = .
ba y

B [b, f (b)]
[a, f (a)]
C f (b)
A f (a) f (c)
x x
O a c b

y
f (b)  f (a)
Here, is the slope of secant drawn between A [a, f (a)] and B [b, f (b)]. There is at least one
ba
point c  (a, b) of x where slope of the tangent at x = c is parallel to chord AB.

CONNECTING CONCEPTS
Some common type functions as constant function, Identity function, implicit function, Modulus function,
Exponential function, and logarithmic function are continuous in their domains.
1. Every polynomial function is differentiable at each x  R.
2. The exponential function ax, a > 0, is differentiable at each x R
3. Every constant function is differentiable at each x  R.
4. The logarithmic function is differentiable at each point in its demain.
5. Trigonometric and inverse-trigenometric functions are differentiable in their domains.
6. The sum, difference, product and quotient of two differentiable functions is differentiable
7. The composition of differentiable function is differentiable function.
8. (i) logb pq = logb p + logb q
p
(ii) logb = logb p – logb q
q
(iii) logb px = x logb p
log b p
(iv) loga p =
log b a
9. Derivativs of Inverse Trigonometric Functions.
Functions Domain Derivative
1
sin–1 x [–1, 1]
1  x2
1
cos–1 x [–1,1]
1  x2
1
tan–1 x R
1  x2
1
cot–1 x R
1  x2
1
sec–1 x (–, –1]  [1, )
x x2 1
1
cosec–1 x (–, –1) [1, )
x x2 1
 4 DETERMINANTS

KEY CONCEPTS INVOLVED

1. Determinant - (i) A determinant is a particular type of expression written in a special concise form of rows
and columns, equal in number.
a1 b1
For example  = is a determinant having 2 rows and 2 columns, hence it is of second order. The
a2 b2
numbers a1, b1, a2 , b2 are called the elements of the determinant. The value of the above determinant of
a1 b1 c1
third order is written as  = a 2 b 2 c 2 . It has three rows and three columns.
a 3 b3 c 3
The number of elements = 3 = 9. In general, the number of elements in a determinant of order n = n2.
2

a b a b
(ii) If A =  c d  , is a matrix then determinant of matrix A is written as |A| or det (A) = c d .
 
(iii) Only square matrices have determinants.
2. Minors - The determinant obtained by deleting the i-the row and j-th column passing through the element
aij is called the minor of element aij and is denoted by Mij.
3. Cofactors - The cofactor of element aij is (–1)1 + j times the determinant obtained by deleting the i-th row
and jth column passed through aij and is denoted by Cij i.e. Cij = (–1)1 + j Mij
4. Values of the determinant - The sum of the products of elements of any row (column) by the corresponding
co-factors is equal to the value of the determinant.
a11 b12 c13
a
let  = 21 b 22 c 23 , Then  = a c + a c + a c
11 11 12 12 13 13
a 31 a 32 a 33

5. Area of a Triangle - The area of the triangle whose vertices are (x1 , y1) , (x2 , y2) and (x3 , y3) is
x1 y1 1
1
= x y2 1
2 2
x 3 y3 1
(i) The area is positive, take only absolute value.
(ii) If the three points are collinear, the area of triangle is zero.
6. |AB| = |A| |B|
7. A square matrix is invertible if and only if A is non-singular.
8. Linear system of Equations -
Consistent System - The system of equation is said to be consistent if it has one or more then one
solutions.
 Inconsistent System - The system of equation is inconsistent if it has no solution
Consider the system of equation
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
 a1 b1 c1  x  d1 
     
a b 2 c 2  , X  y and B   d 2 
let A= 2  
 a 3 b 3 c3   z   d 3 
The given system of equation can be written as
 a1 b1 c1   x   d1 
     
 a 2 b2 c 2   y   d 2 
 a 3 b3 c3   z   d 3 
or AX = B
 X = A–1 B.
9. Consistence/Inconsistence of system of Equations
(a) For a non-homogeneous system of equation AX  0
(i) If |A|  0, AX = B has a unique solution.
(ii) If |A| = 0, and (adj A) B  0
then the system of equation is inconsistent.
(iii) If |A| = 0 and (adj A) B = 0, then the system of equation has infinitely many solutions.
(b) For the homogeneous system of equation AX = 0
(i) If |A|  0, the solution is x = 0, y = 0, z = 0. This is called the trivial solution.
(ii) If |A| = 0, the system has infinitely many solution. In such a case, we put one of the variables equal
to k. let z = k, then we find the value of x and y in terms of k.
10. Adjoint of a Determinant - The adjoint of a square matrix is the transpose of matrix cofactors. If Aij is the
cofactor of aij of det A or |aij|, the
T
 A11 A12 A13   A11 A 21 A31 
 A 23    A12
 A32 
adj A =  A 21 A 22 A 22
 A31 A32 A33   A13 A 23 A33 
1
11. Inverse of a matrix - Inverse of a matrix A, A–1 = adj A ; if |A|  0 i.e., matrix A is invertible or non-
A
singular.
12. If A is a square matrix, then A (adj A) = (adj A) A = |A| . I
13. (i) (AB)–1 = B–1 . A–1 (ii) A–1 = (A–1) T (iii) (A–1)–1 = A

CONNECTING CONCEPTS
1. The value of the determinant does not change when rows and columns are interchanged. The determinant
obtained by interchanging the rows and columns is called the transpose of the determinant and is denoted
by T. Thus  = T.
2. If all the elements of a row (column) are zero, then the value of the determinant is zero.
3. The interchange of any two rows of the determinant changes its sign.
Thus if * is the new determinant obtained on interchanging any two rows (columns), then
 = – *
 If i-th and j-th row are interchanged then this operation is denoted by Ri  Rj.
4. If all the elements of a row (column) of a determinant are multiplied by a non-zero constant, then the
determinant gets multiplied by the same constant. Thus if we apply Ri  pRi, i.e, each element of i-th row
is multiplied by p, then we get
1
* = p or  = * (P  0)
p
5. If all the elements of a row (column) are proportional (identical) to the elements of some other row (column)
then determinant is zero.
6. If each element of any row (column) is sum of two numbers, the determinant can be expressed as the sum
of two determinants of the same order eg.
a1  1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 1 b1 c1
a 2  2 b2 c2  a 2 b2 c2  2 b2 c2
a 3  3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 3 b3 c3
7. The value of a determinant remains unaltered under an operation of the form
Ri  Ri + pRj  similarly, for columns i.e., operation of the form Ci  Ci + pCj +q Ck; j, k  i
8. If a determinant  (x) becomes zero on putting x = , then (x – ) is a factor of  (x).
9. Determinant which have all elements equal to zero except the diagonal elements, is equal to the product of
the diagonal elements.
a 0 0
0 b 0 = abc
0 0 c
 3 MATRICES

KEY CONCEPT INVOLVED

1. Matrices - A system of mn numbers (real or complex) arranged in a rectangular array of m rows and n
columns is called a matrix of order m × n. An m × n matrix (to be read as ‘m by n’ matrix)
An m × n matrix is written as
 a11 a12 ........ a1n 
 
a 21 a 22 ........ a 2n 
A   ........  
 
   ........  
a m1 a m2 ........ a mn 
The numbers a11, a12 etc are called the elements or entries of the matrix. If A is a matrix of order m × n, then
we shall write A = [aij]m × n where, aij represent the number in the i-th row and j-th column.
2. Row Matrix - A single row matrix is called a row matrix or a row vector. e.g. the matrix [a11, a12, ...... a1n] is
a row matrix.
 a11 
 
 a 21 
3. Column Matrix - A single column matrix is called a column matrix or a column vector. e.g. the matrix   
 
is a m × 1 column matrix. a m1 

4. Order of a Matrix - A matrix having m rows and n columns is of the order m × n. i.e. consisting of m rows
and n columns is denoted by A = [aij]m × n.
5. Square Matrix - If m = n, i.e. if the number of rows and columns of a matrix are equal, say n, then it is called
a square matrix of order n.
6. Null or Zero Matrix - If all the elements of a matrix are equal to zero, then it is called a null matrix and is
denoted by Om × n or 0.
7. Diagonal Matrix - A square matrix, in which all its elements are zero except those in the leading diagonal is
called a diagonal matrix, thus in a diagonal matrix, aij = 0, if i  j, e.g. the diagonal matrices of order 2 and 3
K 0 0 
 K1 0   1 
are   ,  0 K2 0 
 0 K 2 
0 0 K 3 
8. Scalar Matrix - A square matrix in which all the diagonal element are equal and all other elements equal to
zero is called a scalar matrix.
K 0 0 
i.e. in a scalar matrix aij = k for i = j and aij = 0 for i  j. Thus  0 K 0  is a scalar matrix.
 
 0 0 K 
 9. Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix - A square matrix in which all its diagonal elements are equal to 1 and all
other elements equal to zero is called a unit matrix or identity matrix.
1 0 0
1 0  
e.g. a unit or identity matrix of order 2 and 3 are   and 0 1 0 respectively..
 0 1  0 0 1
10. Upper triangular Matrix - A square matrix A whose elements aij = 0 for i > j is called an upper triangular
matrix.
11. Lower triangular Matrix - A square matrix A whose elements aij = 0 for i < j is called a lower triangular
matrix.
12. Equal Matrices - Two matrices A and B are said to be equal, written as A = B if
(i) they are of the same order i.e. have the same number of rows and columns, and
(ii) the elements in the corresponding places of the two matrices are the same.
13. Transpose of a matrix - Let A be a m × n matrix then the matrix of order n × m obtained by changing its rows
into columns and columns into rows is called the transpose of A and is denoted by A or AT.
14. Negative of Matrix - Let A = [aij]m × n be a matrix. Then the negative of the matrix A is defined as the matrix
[–aij]m ×n and is denoted by –A.
15. Symmetric Matrix - a square matrix A is said to be symmetric if A = A
Thus a square matrix A = [aij] is symmetric if A = [aij] is symmetric if aij = – aji for all values of i and j.
16. Skew-Symmetric Matrix - A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if A = – A Thus a square matrix
A = [aij] is skew-symmetric if aij = – aji for all values of i and j.
In particular aii = – aii  2aii = 0  aii = 0 i.e. all diagonal elements of a skew-symmetric matrix are o.
17. For any square matrix A with real number entries, A + A is a symetric matrix and A – A is a skew symetric
matrix.
18. Any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symetric and a skew symetric matrix.
1 1 1
If A be a square matrix, then we can write A  (A  A)  (A  A) , here (A  A) is symetric matrix
2 2 2
1
and (A A ) is skew symetric matrix.
2
19. Addition of Matrices - Let there be two matrices A and B of the same order m × n. then the sum denoted
by A + B is defined to be the matrix of order m × n obtained by adding the corresponding elements of
A and B.
Thus if A = [aij]m × n and B = [bij]m × n then A + B = [aij + bij]m × n
20. Scalar Multiplication of a Matrix - Let A = [aij]m × n be a matrix and K is a scalar. Then the matrix obtained
by multiplying each element of matrix A by K is called the scalar multiplication of matrix A by K and is
denoted by KA or AK.
21. Multiplication of Matrices - Product of two matrices exists only if number of column of first matrix is equal
to the number of rows of the second. Let A be m × n and B be n × p matrices. Then the product of matrices
A and B denated by A.B is the matrix of order m × p whose (i, j)th element is obtained by adding the
products of corresponding elements of ith row of A and jth column of B.
22. Elementary Row Operations - The operations known as elementary row operations on a matrix are-
(i) The interchange of any two rows of a matrix. (The notations Ri Rj is used for the interchange of
the i-th and j-th rows.)
(ii) The multiplication of every element of a row by a non-zero element (constant).
(The notations K.Ri is used for the multiplication of every element of i-th row by a constant K.
(iii) The addition of the elements of a row, the product of the corresponding elements of any other row by
any non-zero constant. (The notation Ri + K.Rj is generally used for addition to the elements of
i-th row to the element of j-th row multiplied by the constant K (K  0))
23. Invertible matrices - If A is a square matrix of order m, and if there exists another square matrix B of the
same order m, such that AB = BA = I, then B is called the Inverse matrix of A and it is denoted by A–1. In
that care A is said to be invertible.
24. If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order, then (AB)–1 = B–1. A–1.
25. Inverse of a matrix by elementry operations - Let X, A and B be matrices of, the same order such that X =
AB. In order to apply a sequence of elementry row operations on the matrix equation X = AB, we will apply
these row operations simultaneously on X and on the first matrix A of the product AB on RHS.
Similarly, in order to apply a sequence of elementry column operations on the matrix equation X = AB, we
will apply, these operations simultaneously on X and on the second matrix B of the product AB on RHS.
In view of the above discussion, we conclude that if A is a matrix such that A–1 exists, then to find A–1
using elementry row operations, write A = IA and apply a sequence of row operation on A = IA till we get,
I =BA. The matrix B will be the inverse of A. Similarly, if we with to find A–1 using column operations, then,
write A = AI on A = IA till we get, I = BA. The matrix and apply a sequence of column operations on A = AI
till we get, I = AB.
Remark - In case, after applying one or more elementry row (column) operations on A = IA (A = AI). If we
obtain all zero in one or more rows of the matrix A on L.H.S., that A–1 does not exist.

CONNECTING CONCEPTS
1. The elements aij of a matrix for which i = j are called the diagonal elements of a matrix and the line along
which all these elements lie is called the principal diagonal or the diagonal of the matrix.
2. Properties of transpose of the matrices-
(i) (A + B) = A + B
(ii) (KA) = KA, where K is constant
(iii) (AB) = BA
(iv) A
3. Properties of Matrix addition-
(i) Matrix Addition is Commutative - If A and B be two m × n matrices, then A + B = B + A
(ii) Matrix Addition is Associative - If A, B and C be three m × n matrices, then
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
4. Properties of Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar-
(i) If K1 and K2 are scalars and A be a matrix, then (K1 + K2) A = K1 A + K2 A.
(ii) If K1 and K2 are scalars and A be a matrix, then K1 (K2 A) = (K1 K2) A.
(iii) If A and B are two matrices of the same order and K, a scalar, then K (A + B) = KA + KB.
(iv) If K1 and K2 are two scalars and A is any matrix then (K1 + K2) A = K1 A + K2 A.
(v) If A is any matrix and K be a scalar.
then (–K) A = – (KA) = K (–A).
5. Properties of Matrix Multiplication -
(i) Associative law for Multiplication - If A, B and C be three matrices of order m × n and n × p and
p × q, respectively, then (AB) C = A (BC).
(ii) Distributive Law - If A, B, C be three matrices of order m × n, n × p and n × q respectively.
then A  (B + C) = A  B + A  C
(iii) Matrix Multiplication is not commutative.
i.e. A B BA
(iv) The existence of multiplicative Identity : For every square matrix A, there exists an identity matrix of
same order such that IA = AI = A.
6. If A be any n × n square matrix, then
A  (Adj A) = (Adj A)  A = |A|. In
where In is an n × n unit matrix
7. (i) Only square matrix can have inverse
(ii) The matrix B = A–1, will also be a square matrix of same order A.
(iii) The square matrix A is said to be invertible if A–1 exists.
8. Every invertible matrix possesses a unique inverse.