UNIT -4

MEMORY

4Nature of memory

Definition: Memory is the retention of information over time through encoding, storage
and retrieval.

Encoding: Getting information into memory is called encoding.

Storage: Retaining information over time and how it is represented in memory

Retrieval: Taking information out of storage

Memory encoding

How are memories encoded? Encoding is the way in which information is processed for
storage in memory. For example: When you are listening to a lecture, watching a movie
you are encoding information into memory. Some information gets into memory virtually
automatically, whereas getting other information in takes effort.

To begin the process of memory encoding, we have to attend to information. Focusing

on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring the others is called selective
attention. Attention is selective because the brain’s resources are limited. All though our
brains are efficient, they cannot attend to everything.

Divided attention also affects memory encoding. It occurs when a person attends to
several things simultaneously. Divided attention can be detrimental to encoding.
Multitasking, which in some cases involves dividing attention not just between two
activities but among three or more may be the ultimate in divided attention.

Sustained attention (also called vigilance) is the ability to maintain attention to a

selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time.

Levels of processing

This model of the encoding process, proposed by Fergus Craik and Robert Lokhart
[1972], states that encoding is a continuum from shallow to deep, with deeper
processing producing better memory.
Shallow processing: The sensory or physical features of stimuli are analyzed. For
instance, we might detect the lines, angles, and counters of printed word’s letters or detects
a sound’s frequency, duration, and loudness. This takes two forms: Structural
processing (appearance) which is when we encode only the physical qualities of
something. E.g. the typeface of a word or how the letters look. Phonemic processing
which is when we encode its sound.

Intermediate processing: The stimulus is recognized and given a label. For example, we
identify a four legged, barking object as a dog.

Deepest processing: Information is processed semantically, in terms of its meaning. At

this deepest level, we make associations, symbolic characteristics are used. For example:
We might associate the barking dog with a warning of danger or with a good time such as
playing fetch with a pet. The more associations, deeper the processing.

Elaboration:

Elaboration is the extensiveness of processing at any given level. Thinking of examples of

a concept is a good way to elaborate it. Self reference is another effective way to
elaborate information. For example, if the word ‘win’ is on a list of words to remember you
might think of last time you won a bicycle race. One reason elaboration produces good
memory is that it adds to the distinctiveness of the ‘memory codes’.

Imagery

One of the most powerful ways to make memory distinctive is to use mental imagery. For
many years, psychologists ignored the role of imagery in memory because behaviour is
believed it to be too mentalistic but the studies of Allan Pavio documented how imagery
can improve memory. According to Paivio’s dual code hypothesis, memory is stored in
one of two ways: as a verbal code [a word or a label] or as an image code. Pavio thinks
that the image code which is highly detailed and distinctive, produces better memory than
the verbal code because the memory for an image is stored both as an image code and
as a verbal code.
 Memory Storage

According to Richard Shiffrin and Richard Atkinson three separate memory systems are

Sensory memory

The memory system that holds information from the world in its original form for only an
instant not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory and other
senses. This storage function of the sensory channels is called the sensory registers.

Echoic memory refers to auditory sensory memory, which is retained for up to

several seconds.

Iconic memory refers to visual sensory memory which is retained only for about ¼ of
a second.

Short term memory

Short term memory is a limited capacity memory system in which information is usually
retained for only as long as 30 seconds unless strategies are used to retain it longer. The
limited capacity of short term memory was examined by George Miller [1956] in a classic
paper, “the Magical Number Seven, plus or minus Two”. Miller observed that on many
tasks individuals are limited in how much information they can keep track of without
external aids. Usually the limit is in the range of 7+_2 items. The most widely cited
example f the 7+_2 phenomenon involves memory span, which is the number digits an
individual can report back in order after a single presentation.

Chunking and rehearsal: Two ways to improve short term memory are chunking and
rehearsal. Chunking involves grouping, or packing, information that exceeds the 7+-2
memory span into higher order units that can be remembered as single units. Chunking is
a form of memory encoding: specifically, elaboration. It works by making large amounts of
information more manageable. Another way to improve short-term memory involves
rehearsal, the conscious repetition of information. Information stored in short-term
memory lasts half a minute or less without rehearsal. Just going over and over what is to
be remembered is called maintenance rehearsal. It does not necessarily succeed in
transferring it to LTM.

Working memory: British psychologist Alan Baddeley proposed the concept of working
memory, a three part system that temporarily holds information as people perform cognitive
tasks. Working memory is a kind of mental “workbench” on which information is
manipulated and assembled to help us comprehend language, make decisions, and solve
problems.

Baddeley shows three components of working memory.

The phonological loop:the phonological loop is specialized to briefly store information

about the sounds of language. The phonological loop contains an acoustic code, which
decays in a few seconds, and a rehearsal function, which allows individuals to repeat the
words in the phonological loop.

Visuospatial working memory: it stores visual and spatial information, including visual
imagery. visuospatial working memory also has been called the visuospatial scratch pad.as
in the case of the phonological loop, the capacity of visuospatial working memory is limited.
The phonological loop and visuospatial memory function independently.

The central executive: This integrates information not only from the phonological loop and
visuospatial working memory but also from long term memory. In Baddeley’s view the
central executive plays important roles in attention, planning and organization. The central
executive acts much like a supervisor who monitors which information deserves attention
and which should be ignored. It also selects which strategies to use to process information
and solve problems.

Long term memory

Long term memory is a relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of
information for a long time. At the top level, it is divided into substructures of explicit
memory and implicit memory. In simple terms, explicit memory has to do with
remembering who, what, where, when, and why; implicit memory has to do with
remembering how. Explicit memory can be further subdivided into episodic and semantic
memory and distinguished as either retrospective or prospective memory. Implicit memory
includes the systems involved in procedural memory, priming, and classical conditioning.

Explicit memory: The conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts

or events and, at least in humans, information that can be verbally communicated.
 Episodic memory: The retention of information about the where and when of
life’s happenings.
Semantic memory: A person’s knowledge about the world.
Retrospective memory: Remembering information from the past is called
retrospective memory.
Prospective memory: This involves remembering information about doing
something in the future. It includes memory for intentions. Prospective memory
includes both timing-when we have to do something and content-what we have to
do.

Implicit memory: Memory in which behaviour is affected by prior experience without

that experience being consciously recollected.

 Procedural memory: Memory for skills

 Priming: A type of implicit memory; information that people already have in
storage is activated to help them remember new information better and faster.

4.4 Memory retrieval

Serial position effect: The tendency for items at the beginning and at the end of a list to
be recalled more readily than items in the middle of the list.

a. The primacy effect: The primacy effect refers to better recall for items at the
beginning of a list.
b.The recency effect: It refers to better recall for items at the end of the list.

Retrieval cues and retrieval task

Retrieval: The memory process of taking information out of storage.

Recall: a memory task in which the individual must retrieve previously learned
information.

Recognition: a memory task in which the individual only has to identify learned in which
the individual only has to identify learned items when they are presented.

Encoding specificity: Another consideration in understanding retrieval is the amount of

information present at the time of encoding or learning that can serve as a retrieval cue.
The more elaboration you use in encoding information, the better your memory of the
information will be.

Context and state: In many instances, people remember better when they attempt to
recall information in the same context in which they learned it, a process referred to as
context-dependent memory. This is believed to occur because they have encoded
features of the context in which they learned the information along with the information.
Such features can later act as retrieval cues.
 Similarly, internal states can influence memory. People tend to remember information
better when their psychological state or mood is similar at encoding and retrieval, a
process referred to as state-dependent memory.

Priming: priming is a form of implicit memory that is nonconscious.

Tip of the tongue phenomenon: it occurs when people are confident that they know
something but can’t quite pull it out of memory. The TOT state arises because a person
can retrieve some of the desired information but not all of it.

4.5 Forgetting

Encoding failure: encoding failure occurs when the information never entered into long-
term memory.

Retrieval failure: the causes of retrieval failure include the following problems:

Interference:

John A. Bergstrom was the first psychologist to study the interference theory of forgetting
in 1892-"Memories interfering with memories”. Forgetting is not caused by mere passage
of time, rather it is caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory.

According to interference theory, people forget not because

memories are lost from storage but because other information gets
in the way of what they want to remember.

Two types of interference:

Pro active interference: A disruption of memory that occurs when material

learned earlier interferes with the recall of material learnt later. Example: Pro means
‘forward’ in pro active interference old information has a forward influence by getting
in the way of new material learned. Eg:when new phone number interferes with
ability to remember old phone number.

Retroactive interference: A disruption of memory that occurs when material

learnt later interferes with the retrieval of information learnt earlier. Example: Retro
means ‘backward’. Here, new information has a backward influence by getting in the
way of material learnt earlier.

Decay and transience:

Another possible reason for forgetting is the passage of time. Decay is the
disintegration of the neuro chemical memory trace that was
formed when something new was learned. Memory researcher Daniel
Schater refers to the forgetting that occurs with the passage of time as transience.
Displacement Theory

Describes how forgetting works in short-term memory. STM has a limited capacity of
information, up to about 5 or 9 items at a time. Once the memory is full, new info will
replace the old one. The old info which is displaced is forgotten in STM.

Consolidation Theory

Theorised by George Muller and Alfons Pilzecker in 1900. Memory

consolidation is the critical process of stabilizing a memory and
making it less susceptible to disruptions. Once it is consolidated,
memory is moved from short term to a more permanent long-term storage,
becoming much more resistant to forgetting. According to this theory forgetting
occurs due to lack of consolidation of memory. Evidence suggests that damage to
the hippocampus leads to impairment of the consolidation. Aging can also impair the
ability to consolidate information.

Motivated forgetting

a) Suppression: conscious forgetting

b) Repression: unconscious forgetting (Freudian)

One form of motivated forgetting is repression. Sigmund Freud stated the principle
underlying motivated forgetting is repression. Repression refers to the
tendency of people to have difficulty retrieving anxiety-provoking or
threatening information, and what is associated with that
information, from long term memory. People sometimes deliberately forget
something because it is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering is intolerable. This
type of forgetting may be a consequence of the sort of personal emotional trauma that
occurs in victims of rape or physical abuse, in war veterans, or in survivors of
earthquakes. These emotional traumas may haunt people for many years unless they
can put the details out of their minds. Even when people have not experienced trauma,
they may use motivated forgetting to protect themselves from memories of painful,
stressful, and unpleasant circumstances.

Biological Amnesias

This is a profound memory problem with no loss of consciousness. The causes of

amnesia have traditionally been divided into the "organic" or the "functional". Organic
causes include damage to the brain, through physical injury, neurological disease or the
use of certain (generally sedative) drugs. Functional causes are psychological factors,
such as mental disorder, posttraumatic stress or, in psychoanalytic terms, defense
mechanisms. Amnesia may also appear as spontaneous episodes, in the case of
transient global amnesia.

Anterograde amnesia: Inability to encode and store new information.

A person may find themselves constantly forgetting information, people or events
after a few seconds or minutes, because the data does not transfer successfully
from their conscious short-term memory into permanent long-term memory (or
possibly vice versa).

Retrograde amnesia, which involves memory loss for a segment of the past but not
for new events. The person may be able to memorize new things that occur after the
onset of amnesia (unlike in anterograde amnesia), but is unable to recall some or all
of their life or identity prior to the onset.
This type frequently occurs when the brain is assaulted by an electrical shock or a
physical blow such as head injury. The key differences between the two types of
amnesia are whether the forgotten information is old or new and how the amnesia
affects the person’s ability to acquire new memories. Sometimes, individuals with
amnesia have both types.

Memory and study strategies

Use mnemonic strategies: Mnemonics (the initial “m” is silent) are clues of any kind
that help us remember something, usually by causing us to associate the information we
want to remember with a visual image, a sentence, or a word.
Common types of mnemonic devices include:

1.Visual images - a microphone to remember the name “Mike,” a rose for

“Rosie.” Use positive, pleasant images, because the brain often blocks out
unpleasant ones, and make them vivid, colorful, and three-dimensional —
they’ll be easier to remember.
2. Sentences in which the first letter of each word is part of or represents the
initial of what you want to remember. Millions of musicians, for example, first
memorized the lines of the treble staff with the sentence “Every good boy
does fine” (or “deserves favor”), representing the notes E, G, B, D, and F.
Medical students often learn groups of nerves, bones, and other anatomical
features using nonsense sentences.
3. Acronyms, which are initials that creates pronounceable words. The
spaces between the lines on the treble staff, for example, are F, A, C, and E:
FACE.
4. Rhymes and alliteration: remember learning “30 days hath September,
April, June, and November”? A hefty guy named Robert can be remembered
as “Big Bob” and a smiley coworker as “Perky Pat” (though it might be best to
keep such names to yourself).
 5. Jokes or even off-color associations using facts, figures, and names you
need to recall, because funny or peculiar things are easier to remember than
mundane images.
6. “Chunking” information; that is, arranging a long list in smaller units or
categories that are easier to remember. If you can reel off your Social Security
number without looking at it, that’s probably because it’s arranged in groups of
3, 2, and 4 digits, not a string of 9.
7. “Method of loci”: This is an ancient and effective way of remembering a
lot of material, such as a speech. You associate each part of what you have to
remember with a landmark in a route you know well, such as your commute to
work.

UNIT-5

THINKING

Thinking or cognition (from a Latin word meaning “to know”) can be defined as mental
activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand
information and communicating information to others.

CONCEPT FORMATION

Concepts: concepts are ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or
activities.

People use concepts to think about objects or events without having to think about all the
specific examples of the category. For example, a person can think about “fruit” without
thinking about every kind of fruit there is in the world, which would take far more effort and
time.

Concepts not only contain the important features of the objects or events people want to
think about, but also they allow the identification of new objects and events that may fit the
concept. For example, dogs come in all shapes, sizes, colours, and lengths of fur. Yet most
people have no trouble recognizing dogs as dogs, even though they may never before have
seen that particular breed of dog.

NATURE OF CONCEPTS:
1. Superordinate concept: The most general form of a type of concept, such as “animal” or
“fruit”. They display a high degree of generality and provide only very abstract information.

2. Basic level type: An example of a type of concept around which other similar concepts
are organized, such as “dog”, “cat”, or “pear”.

3. Subordinate concept: The most specific category of a concept, such as one’s pet dog or a
pear in one’s hand. Subordinate level categories display low degree of generality.

4. Formal concepts: Concepts that are defined by specific rules or features.

Ex. very strict science and mathematics are full of these. For a shape to be a square it must
be 2D with four equal sides and four equal angles equalling 360 degrees.

5. Natural concepts: Concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world.
Ex.- a whale might be considered a fish because it shares in many of the same qualities of
that of a fish, but is actually a mammal.

6. Prototypes: An example of a concept that closely matches the defining characteristics of

a concept. They are typical, highly representative examples of a concept. Ex- if someone
were to say "fruit" many people would visualize an apple, pear, or orange; not so likely
would they picture a guava, papaya.

PROBLEM SOLVING

Process of cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in
certain ways.

Steps in problem solving:

Preparation  Production  Judgement

1. PREPARATION:

a) Identifying the Problem: While it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the
problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly
identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient or
even useless.

Kinds of problems:
Arrangement Problems: These kinds of problems require that a group of elements be
rearranged or recombined in a way that will satisfy a certain criterion. Eg: jigsaw puzzles and
anagrams.

Problems of inducing structure: A person must identify the relationships that exist among
the elements presented and construct a new relationship among them. it requires people to
discover the relations among numbers, words, symbols, or ideas. In such problem, it is
necessary to determine not only the relationships among the elements, but the structure
and size of the elements involved. Eg: (14-24-34-44-54-64)

Transformation problems: It consists of an initial state, a goal state, and a series of methods
for changing the initial state into the goal state.

b) Defining the Problem: After the problem has been identified, it is important to fully
define the problem so that it can be solved.
A well defined problem: Both the nature of the problem itself and the information
needed to solve it are available and clear. Eg: Mathematical equation.
An ill-defined problem: The specific nature of the problem be unclear, but the
information required to solve the problem could be even less obvious.
Eg: How to bring peace to the Middle East.

2. PRODUCTION: GENERATING SOLUTIONS

a) Heuristics: A heuristic or “rule of thumb” is a mental shortcut that may lead to a

solution. An educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down
possible solutions for a problem. This method is faster that using an algorithm, but
has a lower success rate. trying to find guava juice in the grocery store, instead of
searching row after row (algorithm approach) you go to were you think it would be
(like the organic food aisle or the fruit juice aisle).
b) Means-end-analysis: A heuristic in which the difference between starting situation
and the goal is determined and then steps are taken to reduce that difference. So
you create a new sub-goal.
c) Trial and error: Problem solving method in which one possible solution after another
is tried until a successful one is found.
d) Algorithm: A rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem.
Very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving for solving certain types of
problems.
e) Availability heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability
in memory. Ex: after columbine (school shooting) we thought the likelihood of school
shootings were going to rise but actually decreased
f) Working-forward approach: In the working-forward approach, as the name implies,
the problem solver tries to solve the problem from beginning to end.
g) Working-backward approach: In the problem solver starts at the end and works
toward the beginning.
h) Forming subgoals: A heuristic; break problem into smaller, more manageable pieces;
example: When you've reached a subgoal, you've solved part of the problem.
 i) Insight: When the solution to a problem seems to come suddenly to mind, it is called
insight.

3. JUDGMENT

a) Monitoring Progress: Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as

they work towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward reaching
their goal, they will re-evaluate their approach or look for new strategies.
b) Evaluating the Results: After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate
the results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem. This
evaluation might be immediate, such as checking the results of a math problem to
ensure the answer is correct, or it can be delayed, such as evaluating the success of a
therapy program after several months of treatment.

OBSTACLES IN PROBLEM SOLVING

FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS: A block to problem solving that comes from thinking about
objects in terms of only their typical functions. (Literally, fixed on the function).
MENTAL SETS: The tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that
have worked for them in the past. Solutions that have worked in the past tend to be the
ones people try first, and people are often hesitant or even unable to think of other
possibilities.
CONFIRMATION BIAS: The tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while
ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs. This is similar to a mental set, except
that what is “set” is a belief rather than a method of solving problems.
Eg: Believers in ESP (telepathy) tend to remember only the few studies that seem to
support their beliefs and the psychotic predictions that worked out white at the same
time neglecting to take into account all the studies that disprove ESP and the psychotic
predictions that failed to come true. They remember only that confirms their bias toward
a belief in the existence of ESP.

REASONING
Reasoning is cognitive activity in which we transform information in order to reach
specific conclusions.
INDUCTIVE REASONING: inductive reasoning is reasoning from specific to the general.
That is, it consists of drawing conclusions about all members of a category based on
observing only some members.
For example, in a literature class after reading a few of Shakespeare’s plays, you might
draw some likely conclusions about his general ways of using language. Psychological
research is often inductive as well, studying a sample of participants in order to draw
conclusions about the population from which the sample is drawn. However, than an
inductive conclusion is never entirely certain-that is, it may be inconclusive. And although
an inductive conclusion may be a likely possibility, there is always a chance that is wrong,
perhaps because the specific sample does not perfectly represent its general population.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING: reasoning from the general to the specific. When you learn a
general rule and then understand how it applies in some situations but not in others, you
are engaging in deductive reasoning. When psychologists and other scientists use theories
 and intuitions to make predictions and then evaluate their predictions by making further
observations, deductive reasoning is at work.
Deductive reasoning is always certain in the sense that, if the initial rules or assumptions
are true, then the conclusion will follow directly as a matter of logic. For example, if you
know the general rules that dogs bark and cats meow (and if they are always true), you
can deduce whether your neighbour’s strange looking pet is a dog or a cat on the basis of
the specific sound it makes.
When psychologists develop a hypothesis from a theory, the hypothesis is a specific,
logical extension of the general theory. And if the theory is true, then the hypothesis will
be true as well.

SYLLOGISTIC REASONING: Formal reasoning in which people draw a conclusion from

a set of assumptions.
A major technique for studying syllogistic reasoning involves asking people to evaluate a
series of statements that present a series of two assumptions, or premises, that are used to
derive a conclusion. Syllogisms are deductive arguments that are written in the form:
A is B
C is A
Therefore, C is B

For example:

All men are mortal.

Socrates is a man
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

CREATIVITY

It is the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behaviour in new ways.

CONVERGENT THINKING: Type of thinking in which a problem is seen as having only one
answer and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous
knowledge and logic. Ex: "What is a pencil used for?" answer: “only to write”.

DIVERGENT THINKING: A thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up
with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point. It is the reverse of convergent
thinking. People diverge from the original point, coming up with many different ideas or
possibilities are less prone to some of the barriers to problem solving, such as functional
fixedness. ex.- "What is a pencil used for?" infinite answers: poking holes, a weapon, a
walking stick for a Barbie doll, etc.
Stimulating divergent thinking
Brainstorming: Generate as many ideas as possible in a short period of time, without
judging each idea’s merits until all ideas are recorded.
Keeping a Journal : Carry a journal to write down ideas as they occur or a recorder to
capture those same ideas and thoughts.
Freewriting: Write down or record everything that comes to mind about a topic without
revising or proofreading until all of the information is written or recorded in some way.
Organize it later.
Mind or Subject Mapping : Start with a central idea and draw a “map” with lines from the
centre to other related ideas, forming a visual representation of the concepts and their
connections.

According to Csikszentmihalyi (1997),

1. Creative people usually have a broad range of knowledge about a lot of subjects and are
good at using mental imagery.
2. Creative people aren’t afraid to be different—they are more open to new experiences
than many people, and they tend to have more vivid dreams and daydreams than others do.
3. Creative people value their independence.
4. Creative people are often unconventional in their work, but not otherwise.