UNIT I

Course: MBA18106DCE

Semester: Ist

Lecturer: Dr. Heena Farooq

 A Brief History of Computer

Blaise Pascal is usually credited for building the first digital computer in 1642. It added numbers
entered with dials and was made to help his father, a tax collector. The basic principle of his
calculator is still used today in water meters and modern-day odometers. Instead of having a
carriage wheel turn the gear, he made each ten-teeth wheel accessible to be turned directly by a
person's hand (later inventors added keys and a crank), with the result that when the wheels were
turned in the proper sequences, a series of numbers was entered and a cumulative sum was
obtained. The gear train supplied a mechanical answer equal to the answer that is obtained by
using arithmetic.

This first mechanical calculator, called the Pascaline, had several disadvantages. Although it did
offer a substantial improvement over manual calculations, only Pascal himself could repair the
device and it cost more than the people it replaced! In addition, the first signs of technophobia
emerged with mathematicians fearing the loss of their jobs due to progress. Contrary to Pascal,
Leibniz (1646-1716) successfully introduced a calculator onto the market. It is designed in 1673
but it takes until 1694 to complete. The calculator can add, subtract, multiply, and divide. Wheels
are placed at right angles which could be displaced by a special stepping mechanism. The speed
of calculation for multiplication or division was acceptable. But like the Pascaline, this calculator
required that the operator using the device had to understand how to turn the wheels and know the
way of performing calculations with the calculator.

Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a
programmable computer. Considered the "father of the computer", he conceptualized and invented
the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century. After working on his revolutionary
difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much
more general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible. A step towards automated computing
was the development of punched cards, which were first successfully used with computers in 1890
by Herman Hollerith and James Powers, who worked for the US. Census Bureau. They developed
devices that could read the information that had been punched into the cards automatically,
without human help. Because of this, reading errors were reduced dramatically, work flow
increased, and, most importantly, stacks of punched cards could be used as easily accessible
memory of almost unlimited size. Furthermore, different problems could be stored on different
stacks of cards and accessed when needed.

These advantages were seen by commercial companies and soon led to the development of
improved punch-card using computers created by International Business Machines (IBM),
Remington (yes, the same people that make shavers), Burroughs, and other corporations. These
computers used electromechanical devices in which electrical power provided mechanical motion -
- like turning the wheels of an adding machine. Such systems included features to:
✓ Feed in a specified number of cards automatically
✓ Add, multiply, and sort
✓ Feed out cards with punched results

The start of World War II produced a large need for computer capacity, especially for the
military. New weapons were made for which trajectory tables and other essential data were
needed. In 1942, John P. Eckert, John W. Mauchly, and their associates at the Moore school of
Electrical Engineering of University of Pennsylvania decided to build a high - speed electronic
computer to do the job. This machine became known as ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator
And Calculator)

The size of ENIAC’s numerical "word" was 10 decimal digits, and it could multiply two of these
numbers at a rate of 300 per second, by finding the value of each product from a multiplication
table stored in its memory. ENIAC was therefore about 1,000 times faster than the previous
generation of relay computers. ENIAC used 18,000 vacuum tubes, about 1,800 square feet of
floor space, and consumed about 180,000 watts of electrical power. It had punched card I/O, 1
multiplier, 1 divider/square rooter, and 20 adders using decimal ring counters, which served as
adders and also as quick-access (.0002 seconds) read-write register storage. The executable
instructions making up a program were embodied in the separate "units" of ENIAC, which were
plugged together to form a "route" for the flow of information.

Early in the 50’s two important engineering discoveries changed the image of the electronic -
computer field, from one of fast but unreliable hardware to an image of relatively high reliability
and even more capability. These discoveries were the magnetic core memory and the Transistor -
Circuit Element. These technical discoveries quickly found their way into new models of digital
computers. RAM capacities increased from 8,000 to 64,000 words in commercially available
machines by the 1960’s, with access times of 2 to 3 MS (Milliseconds). These machines were very
expensive to purchase or even to rent and were particularly expensive to operate because of the cost
of expanding programming. Such computers were mostly found in large computer centers operated
by industry, government, and private laboratories - staffed with many programmers and support
personnel. This situation led to modes of operation enabling the sharing of the high potential
available.

Many companies, such as Apple Computer and Radio Shack, introduced very successful PC’s in
the 1970's, encouraged in part by a fad in computer (video) games. In the 1980's some friction
occurred in the crowded PC field, with Apple and IBM keeping strong. In the manufacturing of
semiconductor chips, the Intel and Motorola Corporations were very competitive into the 1980s,
although Japanese firms were making strong economic advances, especially in the area of memory
chips. By the late 1980s, some personal computers were run by microprocessors that, handling 32
bits of data at a time, could process about 4,000,000 instructions per second.
What are computers?
The term computer has been borrowed from compute that means to calculate. Computer is an electronic
device which is capable of receiving information (data) in a particular form and of performing a sequence
of operations in accordance with a predetermined but variable set of procedural instructions (program) to
produce a result in the form of information or signals. Whereas initially computers were used to perform
arithmetic calculations at fast speed, now they are used in nearly every field.

Characteristics of a Computer:
The following are the characteristics of a typical computer:

Speed:
Present day computer operates at very high speed. A computer can perform several million instruction
(calculations) in one second. For example, it can add or multiply 2 lakh numbers in a second. There are
several different types of computers and they all have different speeds running from high to very-very
high. However, even the speed of the slowest personal computer (PC) is very high compare to that of a
human being, as far as arithmetic operations are concerned. Typically, the speed of computers is specified
in MIP (Million Instructions per Seconds) or MLFOPS (Million Floating-Point Operation Per Seconds).

Accuracy:
Computers perform with a very high degree of consistent accuracy. Now a day’s computer technology
stabilized, and the chances of a computer giving in accurate results are very rare. If we ask a computer to
perform a particular calculation, say, division of Two numbers a thousand times, it will perform each
division operation with the same accuracy. Sometimes computers do make mistakes. This may happen if
there is an undedicated flaw in the design of the computer (That is very rare now a days). Most of the times,
computers make mistakes if they are not programmed correctly. Computers can give inaccurate results if the
input data is inaccurate, e.g. if we try to divide a number by zero (0).

Diligence:
When human beings are required to work continuously for a few hours, they become tired and start losing
concentration. On the other hand, a computer can continue a work for hours (or even days) at the same speed
and accuracy. It does not show signs of tiredness or lack of concentration when may work continuously.
Unlike human beings, it does not complain or show lethargy or laziness when made to do the same task
repeatedly. Because of this property, computers are generally used in all such situations where the same or
similar task has to be repeated a number of times, e.g. preparing the salary slip for 10 thousand employees of
a company, or printing divide end checks for ten lakh shareholders of a large company.

Versatility:
Computers are very versatile. The same computer can be used for various applications. For instance, we can
use a Personal Computer (PC) to prepare a letter, prepare the balance sheet of a company, store a database of
employees, produce a professional-looking advertisement, send or receive fax messages, etc. for a computer
to perform a new job, all it needs is a program. (A program is a set of instructions that enables a computer to
do a particular task.) Thus, if we want a computer to perform a new task, all we need to write a new program
for that task.
It can store Data:
A computer can store a huge amount of data in its memory. We can store almost any type of data, such as a
letter, Picture, Sound, etc. in a computer. We can recall the stored data from the computer whenever we need
it. For instance, if we type a letter, we can save it. Then, if we want to send a single letter to another person,
we can recall that letter from the computer’s memory, modify it and then print a new letter.

Disadvantages:

It is Dumb:
A computer is dumb. It has no intelligence of its own. It cannot think or apply its judgment. It gets its power
from the program that it runs. It will do only what it is asked to do. It has to be hold what to do, and in what
sequence. Therefore, the program that the computer runs determines what task it will perform. Thus, if we
run a word processor program on a computer, it becomes a word processor and if we run a Desktop
Publishing (DTP) program, itt becomes a Desktop publisher. So, a computer does not take its own
decisions—it simply follows the programmer or the user.

It has No Emotions:
Computers are not living beings. Hence, they do not have any emotions. They do not have any heart or soul.
Human Beings often take some decisions based on emotions, taste, feelings, etc. in their daily life. On the
other hand, computers always take decisions based on a program that they run.

Applications of Computers:
The use of computers is increasing at such a rate that there is hardly any field where computers are not
used. The following list describes some of the applications of computers:

1. In offices and homes for preparing documents and to perform other data processing jobs.
2. To prepare salary slips and salary cheques in office and factories.
3. To maintain accounts and transfer funds in banks.
4. To store and retrieve large amount of information in offices.
5. To send and receive electronic mail / fax.
6. To search and retrieve information from other computers.
7. To reserve tickets in the transportation sectors, e.g. Railways, Air Lines, etc.
8. To regulate traffic lights on roads and to control machines and robots in factories.
9. To design automobiles, buildings and dams and to forecast weather.
10. To create animation / cartoon movies and compose music.
11. To control modern automobiles, trains, airplanes etc.
12. To control electronic appliances, such as air-conditioner, TVs, VCRs etc.
13. To On-line banking, buy and sell merchandise, shares, bonds, etc.
14. To control and simulate defense equipment for scientific and industrial research.
Data vs. Information
Data is a collection of facts and figures. Information is defined as processed data. There is a subtle
difference between data and information. Data are the details from which information is derived.
Individual pieces of data are rarely useful alone. For data to become information, data needs to be put into
context. Data can be any character, text, words, number, pictures, sound, or video and, if not put into
context, means little or nothing to a human. However, information is useful and usually formatted in a
manner that allows it to be understood by a human. What may be information for one person may be data
for another person. this is true when we see information flows in managerial hierarchy. For information to
be useful to the decision maker, it must have certain characteristics and meet certain criteria.
Some of the characteristics of good information are discussed as follows
i. Understandable: Since information is already in a summarized form, it must be understood by the receiver
so that he/she will interpret it correctly. He/she must be able to decode any abbreviations, shorthand
notations or any other acronyms contained in the information.
ii. Relevant: Information is good only if it is relevant. This means that it should be pertinent and meaningful
to the decision maker and should be in his area of responsibility.
iii. Complete: It should contain all the facts that are necessary for the decision maker to satisfactorily solve
the problem at hand using such information. Nothing important should be left out. Although information
cannot always be complete, every reasonable effort should be made to obtain it.
iv. Available: Information may be useless if it is not readily accessible in the desired form, when it is needed.
Advances in technology have made information more accessible today than ever before.
v. Reliable: The information should be counted on to be trustworthy. It should be accurate, consistent with
facts and verifiable. Inadequate or incorrect information generally leads to decisions of poor quality. For
example, sales figures that have not been adjusted for returns and refunds are not reliable.
vi. Concise: Too much information is a big burden on management and cannot be processed in time and
accurately due to “bounded rationality”. Bounded rationality determines the limits of the thinking process
which cannot sort out and process large amounts of information. Accordingly, information should be to
the point and just enough – no more, no less.
vii. Timely: Information must be delivered at the right time and the right place to the right person. Premature
information can become obsolete or be forgotten by the time it is actually needed. Similarly, some crucial
decisions can be delayed because proper and necessary information is not available in time, resulting in
missed opportunities. Accordingly, the time gap between collection of data and the presentation of the
proper information to the decision maker must be reduced as much as possible.
viii. Cost-effective: The information is not desirable if the solution is more costly than the problem. The cost
of gathering data and processing it into information must be weighed against the benefits derived from
usingsuch information.
Comparison

Data Information

Data is raw, unorganized facts that When data is processed,

Meaning need to be processed. Data can be organized, structured or presented
something simple and seemingly in a given context so as to make it
random and useless until it is useful, it is called information.
organized.
Each student's test score is one The average score of a class or of
Example piece of data. the entire school is information
that can be derived from the given
data.

"Data" comes from a singular "Information" is an older word

Etymology Latin word, datum, which that dates back to the 1300s and
originally means "something has Old French and Middle
given." Its early usage dates back English origins. It has always
to the 1600s. Over time "data" has referred to "the act of informing, "
become the plural of datum. usually in regard to education,
instruction, or knowledge
communication

Basic Functions of Computer

All computer system performs the below five functions.
Input
Computers receive data from outside There are a number of devices that are used to receive data and
instructions from the outside world. The keyboard on your PC is one of the most commonly used input
devices.

Storage
When you enter data or instruction in computer, these are stored somewhere in the computer system.
Because a computer cannot process or analyze all input data instantaneously, it has to store the data. The
computer will get the data / instructions from the storage unit when it has to process it. It may also have to
store data to do additional processing later.

Processing
Computers process (analyze) the input data available in its storage unit in order to get some useful output.
Outputting
After the computer has processed the input data it provides useful information (result) for the user.

Control
All computers have a control unit that controls the manner and sequence of operations.

Components of Computer System

Input unit
Computer need to receive data and instruction in order to solve any problem. We need to put the data and
instruction into the computers. The Input Unit consists of one or more Input devices. There are a number
of devices that perform the function of input devices. The keyboard of our computer is one of the most
commonly used input devices. Regardless of the type of input device used in a computer system, all input
device performs the following functions.
➢ Accept data and instruction from the outside word
➢ Convert it to a form that the computer can understand.
➢ Supply the converted data to the computer system for further processing.

Storage units
The storage unit of the computer holds the data and instructions that we enter through the input unit before
these are processed. It preserves the intermediate and final results before these are sent to the output
devices. It is also used to preserve the data for later use: e.g. we may like to save letter we type today for
printing after one week. The various storage devices used in computer system are classified into two
categories-primary and secondary.

✓ Primary Storage
The primary storage also called the primary memory, store and provides information very fast. This is
generally used to hold the program being currently executed in the computer, the data being received from
the input unit and the intermediate and final results of the program. The primary storage generally loses its
content when we switch off the computer. Therefore, if we need to preserve the results or the input data, we
have to transfer it to the secondary storage. The cost of primary storage is more compared to the secondary
storage. Therefore, most computers have limited primary storage. Most of the computers use
‘semiconductor memory’ as primary storage.

✓ Secondary Storage
On the other hand, the secondary storage (Memory) used Databases, etc. The program that we want to run on
the computer is first Transferred to the primary memory before it can run. Similarly, after running the
Program, if we need to save the result, we will transfer them to the secondary Storage. The secondary
memory is slower and cheaper than the primary memory. Some of the commonly used secondary memory
devices are floppy diskette, zip diskette, hard disk and magnetic tape.
Output Unit
The output unit of a computer provides the information and results of a computation to the outside world.
As we know, computers do not work in the decimal system, thy work in the binary system. Therefore, if
required, the output unit also converts the binary data into a form that users can understand. Printer and
Video Display Unit (VDU, also called display screen) are commonly used output devices. Other
commonly used output devices are floppy disk drive, hard disk drive and magnetic tape drive in the earlier
generation computers, paper tape punch units and card punch units were also used as output devices.

Arithmetic-Logic Unit
All calculations are performed in the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) of the computer. ALU also does
calculations and takes decisions. Whenever calculation has to be done, the control unit transfers the
required data from the storage unit to ALU. The ALU can perform basic operations such as additions,
subtractions, multiplications, division, etc. the ALU can also do logical operations: e.g. it can check if the
number “a” is less than, equal to or greater than the number “b”. After the ALU has performed the
calculation or the logical operation, the result is transfer to the storage unit.

Control Unit
The control unit controls all other units in the computer. The input unit does not know when to receive data
and where to put the data in the storage unit after receiving it. It is the control unit that gives the necessary
instructions to the input unit. Similarly, the control unit instructs the input unit where to store the data after
receiving it from the user. In the same way, it controls the flow of data and instructions from the storage
unit to ALU. It also controls the flow of the result from ALU to the storage unit. The control unit also
controls what should be sent to the output unit and when. In brief, the control unit is the central nervous
system of the computer that controls and synchronizes it’s working.

Central Processing Unit

The control unit and ALU of the computer are together known as the central processing unit (CPU). In
most modern computers, a single IC does the job of controlling all units of the computer. The same IC
also contains the ALU. The CPU is like a computer’s brain:
➢ It performs all calculations.
➢ It takes all Decisions.
➢ It controls all units of the computer.

CPU (Central processing Unit. Alternately referred to as a processor, central processor, or microprocessor)
is a
✓ Set of electronic circuitries that executes program instructions
✓ Converts data into information
✓ Acts as Control center i.e. it controls all the devices connected to system. Because of this function it
is called as Brain of Computer System

The three components of the CPU are following,

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit
2. Control Unit
3. Registers
 Figure: CPU Components
ALU (arithmetic logic unit): Performs calculations, logical operations and comparisons.

Register ✓ Small, permanent storage locations within the CPU used for a particular purpose
✓ Manipulated directly by the Control Unit
✓ Wired for specific function
✓ Size in bits or bytes (not MB like memory)
✓ Can hold data, an address or an instruction
Special-Purpose Registers
✓ Program Counter Register (PC): Also called instruction pointer. It contains the memory
address of instruction that is being executed by CPU. After execution of instruction, it
points to address of memory location where next instruction to be executed is stored and
these steps are repeated till all the instructions of the program are executed.
✓ Instruction Register (IR): Stores instruction fetched from memory
✓ Memory Address Register (MAR)
✓ Memory Data Register (MDR)
✓ Status Registers: Status of CPU and currently executing program.
✓ Flags (one-bit Boolean variable) to track condition like arithmetic carry and overflow,
power failure, internal computer error
Register Operations
✓ Stores values from other locations (registers and memory)
✓ Addition and subtraction
✓ Shift or rotate data
✓ Test contents for conditions such as zero or positive Control unit
✓ Part of the CPU that generates control signals and controls all operations of computer
✓ Moves data to and from CPU registers and other hardware components (no change in data)
✓ Accesses program instructions and issues commands to the ALU
✓ Directs the computer system to execute program instructions
✓ Communicates with other parts of the hardware through exchange of control signals
 Computer Memory
Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing data and instructions temporarily and
permanently.

Memory is primarily of three types

• Cache Memory
• Primary Memory/Main Memory
• Secondary Memory

1. Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high-speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data
and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access
them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows:
• Cache memory is faster than main memory.
• It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
• It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
• It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:
• Cache memory has limited capacity.
• It is very expensive.

2. Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently
working. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM. It has limited capacity. It is
generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The
data and instructions required to be processed reside in main memory RAM (Random Access
Memory) is called primary storage since it is used directly by the CPU for processing data
and program instructions. RAM is volatile or temporary storage (once the power is turned off,
the contents are lost).

Characteristics of Main Memory

• These are semiconductor memories
• It is known as main memory.
• Usually volatile memory.
• Data is lost in case power is switched off.
• It is working memory of the computer.
• Faster than secondary memories.
• A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Types of Primary Memory

A. RAM – Random Access Memory
a. Dynamic RAM
b. Static RAM
B. ROM – Read Only Memory
a. PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory
b. EPROM – Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
c. EEPROM – Electronic Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
A. RAM – Random Access Memory
The Read and write (R/W) memory of a computer is called RAM. The User can write information
to it and read information from it. With RAM any location can be reached in a fixed (and short)
amount of time after specifying its address. The RAM is a volatile memory, it means information
written to it can be accessed as long as power is on. As soon as the power is off, it cannot be
accessed. RAM holds data and processing instructions temporarily until the CPU needs it. RAM is
considered “random access” because we can access any memory cell directly if we know the row
and column that intersect at that cell. RAM is made in electronic chips made of so-called
semiconductor material, just like processors and many other types of chips. In RAM, transistors
make up the individual storage cells which can each “remember” an amount of data, for example, 1
or 4 bits – as long as the PC is switched on. Physically, RAM consists of small electronic chips
which are mounted in modules (small printed circuit boards). The modules are installed in the PC’s
motherboard using sockets – there are typically 2, 3 or 4 of these.
There are two basic types of RAM:
(i) Dynamic Ram
(ii) Static RAM

a. Dynamic RAM: loses its stored information in a very short time (for milli sec.) even when
power supply is on. D-RAM’s are cheaper. Dynamic Memory Cell, represents a single bit of data.
The capacitor holds the bit of information – a 0 or a 1. The transistor acts as a switch that lets the
control circuitry on the memory chip read the capacitor or change its state. A capacitor is like a
small bucket that is able to store electrons. To store a 1 in the memory cell, the bucket is filled with
electrons. To store a 0, it is emptied. The problem with the capacitor’s bucket is that it has a leak. In
a matter of a few milliseconds a full bucket becomes empty. Therefore, for dynamic memory to
work, either the CPU or the Memory Controller has to come along and recharge all of the capacitors
holding it before they discharge. To do this, the memory controller reads the memory and then
writes it right back. This refresh operation happens automatically thousands of times per second.
This refresh operation is where dynamic RAM gets its name. Dynamic RAM has to be dynamically
refreshed all of the time or it forgets what it is holding. The downside of all of this refreshing is that
it takes time and slows down the memory.

b. Static RAM: uses a completely different technology. S-RAM retains stored information only as
long as the power supply is on. Static RAM’s are costlier and consume more power. They have
higher speed than D-RAMs. They store information in Hip-Hope. In static RAM, a form of flipflop
holds each bit of memory. A flip-flop for a memory cell takes four or six transistors along with
some wiring, but never has to be refreshed. This makes static RAM significantly faster than
dynamic RAM. However, because it has more parts, a static memory cell takes up a lot more space
on a chip than a dynamic memory cell. Therefore, we get less memory per chip, and that makes
static RAM a lot more expensive. Static RAM is fast and expensive, and dynamic RAM is less
expensive and slower. Static RAM is used to create the CPU’s speed sensitive cache, while dynamic
RAM forms the larger system RAM space. Some other RAMS are:

(a) EDO (Extended Data Output) RAM: In an EDO RAMs, any memory location can be
accessed. Stores 256 bytes of data information into latches. The latches hold next 256 bytes of
information so that in most programs, which are sequentially executed, the data are available
without wait states.
(b) SDRAM (Synchronous DRAMS), SGRAMs (Synchronous Graphic RAMs): These RAM
chips use the same clock rate as CPU uses. They transfer data when the CPU expects them to be
ready.
(c) DDR-SDRAM (Double Data Rate – SDRAM): This RAM transfers data on both edges of
the clock. Therefore, the transfer rate of the data becomes doubles.
 B. ROM – Read Only Memory
It is a permanent memory. The instructions can only be read by the computer. The instructions
related to system operations are stored here. These instructions are written by the manufacturer and
cannot be edited by the user. When the system is turned ON, ROM instructions are instantly
executed and used in operation of all I/O devices.
There are 3 types of ROM
a. PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory
It is a non-volatile memory. Instructions can be written once by the programmer and then
subsequently read.
b. EPROM – Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
It is an improvement over the PROM chips. Instructions can be rewritten by the programmer
using special techniques. The instructions are erased using UV light and rewritten. To change the
instructions, the chip has to be removed from the machine and then put back after the changes
have been made.
c. EEPROM – Electronic Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
It is advancement over EPROM, and the chip need not be taken out from the machine. Instead
the programming is done using software. These chips are used in Point-of-sale (POS) terminals
to record price related information and can be updated as and when needed. However, they are
expensive compared to the normal ROM chips.

3. Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non- volatile. This is also called Mass
Storage and Auxiliary Memory. This memory is slower than the Main memory as it involves
mechanical motion techniques during storage and retrieval of data. This memory is larger in size
than Main memory but the processor is unable to access it directly due to its offline link with the
processor. This means that the data from secondary storage must be loaded into RAM before the
processor starts processing it. The main memory links the secondary memory to the processor. It
is slower than main memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU
directly does not access these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines.

Characteristic of Secondary Memory

➢ These are magnetic and optical memories
➢ It is known as backup memory.
➢ It is non-volatile memory.
➢ Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
➢ It is used for storage of data in a computer.
➢ Computer may run without secondary memory.
➢ Slower than primary memories.

Important characteristics of secondary storage include:

✓ Media or medium: the actual physical material that holds the data
✓ Capacity: how much the particular storage medium can store, typically measured in MB,
GB, and TB
✓ Access time: the amount of time to read and/or write data and programs to the storage
medium
a. Floppy Disks
✓ Floppy disks (also called floppies, diskettes, disks or flexible disks) are portable, flexible
and removable storage media.
✓ They use flat circular pieces of Mylar plastic coated with a magnetic material that rotate within a
jacket.
✓ Data is stored as electromagnetic charges by the presence or absence of these charges, using
the ASCII or EBCDIC binary codes.

b. Hard Disks
✓ Hard disks use a thicker, rigid metallic platter for the base medium.
✓ Hard disks store and retrieve information much faster and have a greater capacity.
✓ Read/Write heads are very sensitive and ride a 0.000001 (one 1 millionth) inch cushion
of air above the disk.
✓ A “head crash” occurs if the R/W head makes contact with the surface or particles on
the surface (human hair, dust, fingerprint) of the disk, and it’s a disaster.

c. Optical Disks
✓ Optical disks can hold close to 17 GB of data – enough to store over several million
typewritten pages or a medium sized library on a single disk.
✓ Optical disks use reflected light rather than magnetized spots.
✓ Binary 1s are represented by flat areas called “lands” and 0s are represented by bumpy
areas called “pits” on the disk surface.
✓ The disk is read by a laser that projects a tiny beam of light on these areas. The amount
of reflected light determines whether the area represents a 1 or 0.
✓ Unlike hard disks that have concentric tracks, optical disks have a single spiral track that is
divided into equally sized sectors for storing data.
✓ The most common sized optical disk is 4 ½ inches, and data is stored on these disks in
different formats.

d. Compact Disc (CD)

✓ One of the most widely used optical formats
✓ Typically store 650 MB to 1 GB (1,000 MB) on one side of a CD
✓ Rotational speed determines how fast data can be transferred to the CPU
✓ 24X (24 speed) CD can transfer data at 3.6 MB per second

✓ 32X (32 speed) CD can transfer data at 4.8 MB per second

I. CD-ROM (Compact Disc – Read Only Memory)

➢ is similar to a commercial music CD
➢ RO means it cannot be written over by the user
➢ Typically used to deliver large databases, references, or software applications

II. CD-R (Compact Disc – Recordable)

➢ write once, read many times but cannot be written on or erased
➢ CD-R drives also known as CD burners typically use these to archive data or
record music
 III. CD-RW (Compact Disc – Rewritable)
➢ write many times, read many times
➢ Used to create and edit multimedia presentations
➢ Typically cost a little more than CD-R

e. Digital Versatile/Video Disc (DVD)

✓ A newer format similar to CDs except that more data can be packed in same space and
is replacing CD optical disks
✓ DVDs can store 4.7 GB to 17 GB on a single disk (17 times the capacity of a single CD)

I. DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disc - Read Only Memory)

➢ Written at manufacturing plant, read many
➢ Provide over 2 hrs of high-quality video and sound and typically used for video
distribution

II. DVD-R (DVD Recordable)

➢ Write once, read many
➢ Tend to cost more than CD writable disks
➢ Used for archiving data and writing video files

III. DVD+RW (DVD Rewriteable) DVD-RAM

➢ Write many, read many
➢ Still working on setting a standard format

Main Memory Storage Units:

Sr.No. Unit Description

1 Bit (Binary Digit) A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active
state of a component in an electric circuit respectively.

2 Nibble A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

3 Byte A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit which
can represent a data item or a character.

4 Word
A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits
processed as a unit which varies from computer to computer but is
fixed for each computer. The length of a computer word is called
word-size or word length and it may be as small as 8 bits or may
be as long as 96 bits. A computer stores the information in the
form of computer words.
 Block Diagram of Computer
Mainly computer system consists of three parts, that are central processing unit (CPU), Input
Devices, and Output Devices. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is divided into two parts
again: arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the control unit (CU). The set of instruction is in the
form of raw data.
A large amount of data is stored in the computer memory with the help of primary and
secondary storage devices. The CPU is like the heart/brain of the computer. The user does not
get the desired output, without the necessary option taken by the CPU. The Central processing
unit (CPU) is responsible for the processing of all the instructions which are given by the user
to the computer system.

Fig: Block Diagram of the computer.

The data is entered through input devices such as the keyboard, mouse, etc. This set of
instruction is processed by the CPU after getting the input by the user, and then the computer
system produces the output. The computer can show the output with the help of output devices
to the user, such as monitor, printer, etc.

• CPU (Central Processing Unit)

• Control Unit
• ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
• Storage Unit
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The computer system is nothing without the Central processing Unit so, it is also known as the
brain or heart of computer. The CPU is an electronic hardware device which can perform
different types of operations such as arithmetic and logical operation.

The CPU contains two parts: the arithmetic logic unit, control unit and storage unit which are
explained briefly below:

2. Control Unit

The control unit (CU) controls all the activities or operations which are performed inside the
computer system. It receives instructions or information directly from the main memory of the
computer.

When the control unit receives an instruction set or information, it converts the instruction set
to control signals then; these signals are sent to the central processor for further processing.
The control unit understands which operation to execute, accurately, and in which order.

3. Arithmetic and Logical Unit

The arithmetic and logical unit is the combinational digital electronic circuit that can perform
arithmetic operations on integer binary numbers. It presents the arithmetic and logical
operation. The outputs of ALU will change asynchronously in response to the input. The basic
arithmetic and bitwise logic functions are supported by ALU.

4. Storage Unit
The information or set of guidelines are stored in the storage unit of the computer system. The
storage unit provides the space to store the data or instruction of processed data. The
information or data is saved or hold in computer memory or storage device. The data storage
is the core function and fundamental of the computer components.
Components of Computer System
The hardware and software exist on the computer. The information which is stored through
the device is known as computer software. The hardware components of the computer system
are related to electronic and mechanical parts, and the software component is related to data
and computer programs. Many elements are connected to the main circuit board of the
computer system called a “motherboard.”

• Processor.
• Main Memory.
• Secondary Memory.
• Input Devices.
• Output Devices.

Processor
The processor is an electric circuitry within the computer system. The Central processing unit
is the central processor or main processor of the computer system. The processor carries out
the instructions of the computer program with the help of basic arithmetic and logic,
input/output operations.

Main Memory
The Random-Access Memory is the main memory of the computer system, which is known as
RAM. The main memory can store the operating system software, application software, and
other information. The Ram is one of the fastest memories, and it allows the data to be readable
and writeable.
Secondary memory
We can store the data and programs on a long-term basis in the secondary memory. The hard
disks and the optical disks are the common secondary devices. It is slow and cheap memory as
compare to primary memory. This memory is not connected to the processor directly.

It has a large capacity to store the data. The data and programs on the hard disk are organized
into files, and the file is the collection of data on the disk. The secondary storage is direct access
by the CPU; that’s why it is different from the primary storage.

The hard disk is about 100 times the capacity of the main memory. The main difference
between primary and secondary storage is speed and capacity. There are several large blocks
of data which are copied from the hard disk into the main memory.

Input Devices
The user provides the set of instruction or information to the computer system with the help of
input devices such as the keyboard, mouse, scanner, etc. The data representation to the
computer system is in the form of binary language after that the processor processes the
converted data. The input unit implements the data which is instructed by the user to the system.

We can enter the data from the outside world into the primary storage as the input through input
devices. The input devices are the medium of communication between the outside world and
the computer system. There are some important features of input devices which are given
below:

1. These devices convert the data or instruction into the machine-readable form for further
processing.
2. The input device performs like the connection between the outside world and our
computer system.
3. The keyboard and mouse are common examples of input devices.
4. When the whole procedure is finished, we get the desired output from the output devices
such as monitor, printer, etc.
Output Devices
The output devices produce or generate the desired result according to our input, such as a
printer, monitor, etc. These devices convert the data into a human-readable form from binary
code.

The computer system is linked or connected to the outside world with the help of output
devices. The primary examples of output devices are a printer, projector, etc. These devices
have various features which are given below:

1. These devices receive or accept the data in the binary form.

2. The output devices convert the binary code into the human-readable form.
3. These devices produce the converted result and show to the user.
 Classification or Types of Computer

A device, which is used to accept raw data from us, processes them as per our
instructions and produces results in the form of information, is known as Computer.
Also, we say computer system is a general-purpose machine that processes data
according to a set of instructions that are stored internally. The instructions can be
stored temporarily or permanently in the Computer System. The computers are
categorized according to following:
1. According to Data Representation:

(a) Digital Computers – Digital Computers take input in the form of numbers,
letters and special characters, store it and process it and give the output in the form
of numbers letters and special characters. Such computers always process data
(including text, sound, graphics and video) into a digital value (in O’s and 1’s) data
flows in the form of pulses.
Digital Computers have the capabilities of adding, subtracting, multiplying. dividing
and comparing. These computers provide highly accurate result. For example:
(i) Desk Calculators, (ii) Electronic Computers

(b) Analog Computers – Analog Computers do not operate on digital data.

Instead, they operate on data presented to them in the form of continuously
variable quantities like temperature, pressure, revolutions and the like.
They react in a pre-defined way to changes in the specified quantities. Analog
computer is faster than the digit computer but can give an accuracy of not more than
99%. These computers are suitable for use as controlling devices in factories,
military weaponry, aerospace systems and the like. For example: (i) Speedometer
(ii) Voltmeters (ii) Pressure Gauges (iv) Slide Rules (v) Flight Simulators for
training pilots (vi) Wall Clock.

(c) Hybrid Computers – Hybrid Computers combine the features (capabilities) of

both the digital and analog computers. They are suitable where digital processing is
necessary in respect of data collected in the analog form. Both analog &hybrid are
special purpose computers.
For example, in a hospital intensive care unit (I.C.U) measures a patient’s heart
function, temperature & other vital signs. These measurements are in analog form.
These measurements may then be converted into number (Digital form) & supplied
to a digital device which may send as immediate signal to a nurse’s station if any
abnormal reading is detected.

2. According to Purpose:

(a) General Purpose – General purpose computers are the computers that can be
used for all general needs of all environments and users. These computers can be
used for various applications, ranging from scientific as well as business purpose
applications. Even though such computers are versatile, they generally lack in speed
and efficiency. For example, the computer that we use in our schools, colleges
offices and homes are general purpose computers.

(b) Specific Purpose – This is the second type of computer as per purpose. These
computers are designed to handle a specific problem or to perform a single specific
task. A set of instructions for the specific task is built into the machine. Hence, these
computers are not versatile. However, being designed for specific tasks, they can
provide the result very quickly and efficiently. For example, airline reservations,
satellite tracking, air traffic control, medical diagnostics, weather forecasting etc.
are special purpose of computers.

3. According to Use:

There are two types of computer according to use namely Scientific computer and
Business computer.

4. According to Size:

(a) Super Computer – The fastest and most powerful type of computer.
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications
that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations. For example, weather
forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers include
animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and
petroleum exploration.
 (b) Mainframe Computer – A very large and expensive computer capable of
supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. In the hierarchy
that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches, for example) at the bottom and
moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below supercomputers. In
some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they
support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single
program faster than a mainframe.

The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a

supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as
possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs
concurrently.

(c) Mini Computer – A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie
between workstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between
large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the
distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a
minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from 4 to about
200 users simultaneously.

(d) Micro Computer or Personal Computer – is a small size computer.

• Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a
desk.
• Laptop Computer: a portable computer completes with an integrated screen
and keyboard. It is generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger
than a notebook computer.
• Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer.
Palmtops have no keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output
device.
•
(e) Workstations – A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context,
workstation is just a generic term for a user’s machine (client machine) in contrast
to a “server” or “mainframe.”
 Generation of Computers

First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very
expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, the first
computers generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First
generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest level programming
language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only
solve one problem at a time, and it could take days or weeks to setup a new
problem. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was
displayed on printouts. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-
generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer
delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers. The

transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until
the late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing
computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy efficient and more
reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still
generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast
improvement over the vacuum tube. Second generation computers still relied on
punched cards for input and printouts for output. Second generation computers
moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages,
which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High level
programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early
versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that
stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to
magnetic core technology.

Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation
of computers. Transistors were compressed and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation
computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating
system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time
with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time
became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than
their predecessors.

Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of

integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation
filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip,
developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer—from the central
processing unit and memory to input/output controls—on a single chip. In 1981
IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced
the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers
and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use
microprocessors. As these small computers became more powerful, they could be
linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the
Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the
mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in

development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that
are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping
to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and
nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The
goal of fifth generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
 Input and Output Devices of Computer.

Input Devices:
A device that can be used to insert data into a computer system is called as input
device. It allows people to supply information to computers without any input
devices, a computer would only be a display device and not allow users to interact
with it.

Examples of input devices include keyboards, mouse, scanners, digital cameras and
Light pen, joysticks, Touch-screen, OMR, OBR, OCR.

1. Keyboard
Most common and very popular input device is keyboard. The keyboard helps in
inputting the data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of
traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for
performing some additional functions. Keyboard is of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102
keys, but now 104 keys or 108 keys keyboard is also available for Windows and
Internet.

2. Mouse
Mouse is most popular Pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device. It
is a small palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of
mouse and sends corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the buttons. Generally,
it has two buttons called left and right button and scroll bar is present at the middle.
Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used
to enter text into the computer.

Advantages
• Easy to use
• Not very expensive
• Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

3. Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used
when some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard
disc of the computer for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the
source which are then converted into the digital form that can be stored on the disc.
These images can be edited before they are printed.
4. Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The
lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The Joystick can be moved in all four
directions. The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in
Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

5. Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed
menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an
optical system placed in a small tube. When light pen’s tip is moved over the monitor
screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen
location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

6. Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques
to be processed every day. The bank’s code number and cheque number are printed
on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material
that are machine readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character
Recognition (MICR). The main advantage of MICR is that it is fast and less error
prone.

7. Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically
character by character, converts them into a machine-readable code and stores the
text on the system memory.

8. Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light
and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the
books etc. It may be a hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.
Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value
which is then fed to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.

9. Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made
by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and
marked. It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having
multiple choice questions.
10. Touch screen
Touch screen is an input device. Touch screen technology is the direct manipulation
type gesture-based technology. Direct manipulation is the ability to manipulate
digital world inside a screen without the use of command-line-commands. A device
which works on touch screen technology is coined as Touch screen. A touch screen
is an electronic visual display capable of ‘detecting’ and effectively ‘locating’ a
touch over its display area. It is sensitive to the touch of a human finger, hand,
pointed finger nail and passive objects like stylus. Users can simply move things on
the screen, scroll them, make them bigger and many more.

Output Devices:
A device which is used to display result from a computer is called as output device.
It allows people to receive information from computers. An output device is any
peripheral that receives or displays output from a computer. The picture shows an
inkjet printer, an output device that can make a hard copy of anything being
displayed on a monitor. Output device is electronic equipment connected to a
computer and used to transfer data out of the computer in the form of text, images,
sounds or print.

Examples of output devices include: Plotters, LCD, Plasma Display, Printers, etc.

1. Plotters
A plotter is a printer that interprets commands from a computer to make line
drawings on paper with one or more automated pens. Unlike a regular printer, the
plotter can draw continuous point-to-point lines directly from vector graphics files
or commands. There are a number of different types of plotters: a drum plotter draws
on paper wrapped around a drum which turns to produce one direction of the plot,
while the pens move to provide the other direction; a flatbed plotter draws on paper
placed on a flat surface; and an electrostatic plotter draws on negatively charged
paper with positively charged toner. Plotters were the first type of printer that could
print with colour and render graphics and full-size engineering drawings. As a rule,
plotters are much more expensive than printers. They are most frequently used for
CAE (computer-aided engineering) applications, such as CAD (computer-aided
design) and CAM (computer-aided manufacturing).

2. Monitors
Monitor commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU) is the main output device
of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a
rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of the pixels.

There are three kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 ➢ Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
➢ Liquid Cristal Display (LCD)
➢ Plasma Display

3. Printers
Printer is the most important output device, which is used to print information on
paper. There are two types of printers

➢ Impact Printers
➢ Non-Impact Printers

A. Impact Printers
The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon and onto the paper
are called impact printers.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are following

• Very low consumable costs

• Impact printers are very noisy
• Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
• There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types

➢ Character printers
➢ Line printers

a. Character Printers:
Character Printers are printers which print one character at a time.

These are of further two types

➢ Dot Matrix Printer (DMP)

➢ Daisy Wheel

i) Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printer is Dot Matrix Printer because of its
ease of printing features and economical price. Each character printed is in form of
pattern of Dot’s and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9)
which comes out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages
• Inexpensive
 • Widely Used
• Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
• Slow Speed
• Poor Quality

ii) Daisy Wheel

A daisy-wheel printer works on the same principle as a ball-head typewriter. The
daisy wheel is a disk made of plastic or metal on which characters stand out in
relief along the outer edge. To print a character, the printer rotates the disk until
the desired letter is facing the paper.

b. Line Printers
Line printers are printers which print one line at a time. These are of further two
types:

➢ Drum Printer
➢ Chain Printer
i) Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape so it called drum printer. The surface of drum is
divided into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper
width of 132 characters, Drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on
track.

Advantages
• Very high speed
Disadvantages
• Very expensive
• Characters fonts cannot be changed

ii) Chain Printer

In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it called Chain Printers. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, 96 characters.

Advantages
• Character fonts can easily be changed.
• Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages
• Noisy
• Do not have the ability to print any shape of characters.
B. Non-impact Printers
The printers that print the characters without striking against the ribbon and onto the
paper, are called Non-impact Printers. These printers print a complete page at a time,
also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types

➢ Laser Printers
➢ Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

• Faster than impact printers.
• High quality.
• Support many fonts and different character size.

a. Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produces the dots
needed to form the characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages
• Very high speed.
• Very high-quality output.
• Give good graphics quality.
• Support many fonts and different character size.

Disadvantage
• Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.

b. Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new
technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet
printers produce high quality output with presentable features.