CHAPTER ONE

Introduction to the study of modern chemistry

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 1

1
 Outlines
Introduction to the Modern Chemistry

Atomic theory

Atomic model

The atom in modern chemistry

Chemical formulas

Chemical equations and

reactions yields
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 2
 Introduction to Chemistry
• Chemistry is the science of the composition, structure,
properties and reactions of matter, especially of atomic and
molecular systems.

• We can define chemistry as the science of the composition

and structure of materials and of the changes that materials
undergo.

• All of the objects around you—the book, your pen or pencil,

and the things of nature such as rocks, water, and plant and
animal substances constitute the matter of the universe
3
• Chemistry is sometimes referred to as “the central science”
due to its interconnectedness with a vast array of other STEM
disciplines.

• Chemistry and the language of chemists play vital roles in

biology, medicine, materials science, forensics, environmental
science, and many other fields

• By Learning chemistry you will discover many different

examples of changes in the composition and structure of
matter, how to classify these changes, how they occurred and
the principles and laws involved
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 4
 1.1. Historical Development of Atomic theory
Atomic theory and Atomic model
• The History of Atomic Theory i.e. the history of the time
development of thought about what is an atom.
• How and why has the Atomic Theory changed over time?
• The atomic theory has changed over time as new technologies
have become available.
• A model is a representation of a system in the real world. It is
not necessarily a true picture of the exact structure of an atom.
• Because we can not see atoms, we use models to teach and
learn about atoms.
• An atomic model represents what the structure of an atom
could look like, based on what we know about how atoms
behave.
1. Leucippus: He invented the term "atom". He defined
the atom as a particle that is so small that it could not be
divided anymore.
• Matter was discontinuous and was made up of tiny
particles called atoms.

Leucippus' concept of the atom

• The truth is that Leucippus's ideas were direct opposition to those of other
thinkers, who argued that matter was continuous.
October 28, 2024 by Efa Kebeda 6
2. Aristotle: He believed that all matter is made up of four
basic elements: earth, air, water, and fire.
• Aristotle thought that various substances (e.g. a tree or a
stone differ from each other because they contain differe
nt proportions of the four basic elements.

October 28, 2024 by Efa Kebeda 7

3. Democritus: Democritus was Leucippus' student and he
built on Leucippus' ideas.
• He thought that if you take a piece of matter and divide it
and continue to divide it you will eventually come to a point
where you could not divide it any more
• This fundamental or basic unit was what Democritus called
an atom. Democritus called this the theory of the universe:
All matter consists of atoms, which are bits of matter too small
to be seen.
There is an empty space between atoms
Atoms are completely solid
Atoms have no internal structure
Each atom (of a different substance) is different in size, weight
and shape.
October 28, 2024 8
4. John Dalton (1766-1844)
• John Dalton was the first to adapt Democritus’ theory into the
first modern atomic model
• Dalton conducted his work around the time of the Industrial
Revolution.
• During this time there was new interest in the structure of
matter.
 Dalton defined the following terms:
 Element: one atom or a collection of atoms
 compound: consists of molecules; each molecule contains
more than one type of atom (more than one element).
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 9
• Dalton proposed a modern atomic theory based on
experimentation not on pure reason as the follows:
i. All matter is made of atoms.
ii. An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element
iii. Atoms of an element are identical.
iii. Atoms of different elements are distinctively different
iv. Atoms are rearranged in chemical reactions
v. Atoms of different elements combine in constant ratios to
form compounds.
vi. Atoms of one element cannot be changed into an atoms of
different elements.

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 10

 Drawbacks of Dalton's Atomic theory
An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element.
However, it is now known that atoms can further be subdivided
into sub-atomic particles like electrons, protons, and neutrons

Atoms of the same element are identical in all respects, having

the same size, shape and structure and mass.

Today, we know that atoms of the same element can have slightly
different masses. Such atoms are called isotopes.

Isotopes: Atoms of the same elements that have different mass

numbers.
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 11
Dalton’s atomic theory hypothesis supports (is in
agreement with) the following laws:
The Law of Definite Proportion: States that different samples of
the same compound always contain its constituent elements in the
same proportion by Mass Irrespective of sources of the compound!

Example: In the substance sodium chloride (NaCl), for instance,

the ratio of the mass of sodium to the mass of chlorine is always
23:35.5, regardless of the source of the salt.

 samples of carbon dioxide gas obtained from different

sources contain the same ratio by mass of carbon to oxygen.

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 12

The Law of Multiple Proportions: States that if two elements can
combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one
element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in
ratios of small whole numbers.
Example: H2O  2: 16 or 1: 8 H2O2  2:32 or 1: 16
The two masses of oxygen are simple whole numbers ratio,
8:16 1:2

Thus, the ratio of oxygen in carbon dioxide to

oxygen in carbon dioxide is 1:2

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 13

Law of Conservation of Mass: States that matter can be
neither created nor destroyed.

16 X + 8Y 8 X2Y

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 14

5. Sir Joseph Thomson (1856-1940)
• Thomson conducted his experiments with cathode ray tubes.
• Cathode ray tube: an electric current flows between two
electrodes in a vacuum tube
The current flows from the cathode to the anode.
• Thomson brought a magnet near the cathode
ray tube and noticed that it made the rays
the tube bend toward the positive pole of
the magnet.
• This showed that the particles which make
up these rays are negatively charged

• According to Thomson, this confirmed the existence of electrons.

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 15

 Thomson’s conclusion:
Because the cathode ray is attracted by the plate bearing
positive charges and repelled by the plate bearing negative
charges, it must consist of negatively charged particles
These negatively charged particles are electrons!
 The rays were called cathode rays because they originated at
the negative electrode (cathode) and moved to the positive
electrode (anode).
• Using what he had discovered, Thomson predicted what an
atom should look like. These are the key points to Thomson’
Atomic Model:
 Because of its design this model is known as the
plum pudding model
 Each atom is a sphere filled with positively charged
‘fluid’.
plum pudding  electrons, are the negatively charged particles
16
suspended in this ‘fluid’.
J. J. Thomson, used a cathode ray tube and his knowledge of
electromagnetic theory to determine the ratio of electric
charge to the mass of an individual electron. The number he
came up with is -1.76 x 108 C/g, where C stands for coulomb,
which is the unit of electric charge.
In a series of experiments carried out between 1908 and
1917, R. A. Millikan, an American physicist, found the charge of
an electron to be -1.6022 X 10-19 C. From these data he
calculated the mass of an electron:

17
 Radioactivity
 Near the turn of the 20th century, French scientists discovered
radioactivity, the emission of particles and/or radiation from
atoms of certain elements
 Marie Curie, suggested the name radioactivity to describe the
spontaneous emission of particles and/or radiation.
Consequently, any element that spontaneously emits radiation is
said to be radioactive.
 Further investigation revealed that three types of rays are
produced by the decay, or breakdown, of radioactive substances
such as uranium. Three types of rays are produced by the decay,
or breakdown, of radioactive substances
18
Alpha (α) rays- consist of positively charged particles, called α-
particles, and deflected by the positively charged plate.
Beta (β) rays, or β- particle are electrons and are deflected by the
negatively charged plate.
Gamma (γ) rays have no charge and are not affected by an external
electric or magnetic field
α- rays are positively charged
and are drawn to the
γ- rays have no charges, their
negatively charged plate
path is unaffected by an
external electric field.

β- rays consist of negatively

charge particles(electrons) and
attracted by the positively
charged plate. By: Efa Kebeda 19
6. Ernest Rutherford (1871 -1937)
• Rutherford bombarded a thin sheet of gold foil
(whose atoms are heavy) with tiny fast moving
particles (helium nuclei).
• Conclusion: Most of the gold atom must be AIR. If it was dense
then the particles would have been reflected off the gold foil.
 Rutherford's Conclusions:
a. Most of the atom is empty space.
b. The atom's mass is concentrated in a very small nucleus with
a strong positive charge.
c. A thick cloud of very light electrons surrounds the nucleus.
d. The nucleus is very dense
Rutherford’s Claim to Fame: He was the first to suggest the
existence of POSITIVELY charged PROTONS in a positively
charged NUCLEUS. 20
Rutherford’s Atomic Model (The Planetary Model)

1. The nucleus of the atom is a dense mass

of positively charged particles.
2. The electrons orbit the nucleus
3. Rutherford stated that the atom was like a
mini solar system and that the electrons
orbited the nucleus in a wide orbit. That is
why it is known as the planetary model.

• A problem raised was: Why are the negatively charged

particles not attracted by the positively charged nucleus
 7. Niels Bohr (1885-1962)
• Niels Bohr agreed with the planetary model of the atom, but
also knew that it had a few changes.
• He was able to answer why the electrons did not collapse into
the nucleus.
1. Electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits that
have a set size and energy.
2. The lower the energy of the electron,
the lower the orbit.
3. The electrons will fill the lower energy
level first, If that energy level is fill (or
at capacity), a new energy level will
begin
4. Radiation is when an electron moves
from one level to another.
8. James Chadwick (1891 -1974)
• Chadwick’s : He discovered the neutron
Neutrons: like protons, neutrons are also in the nucleus.
 Neutrons are neutral; they have no charge.
Neutrons help to hold the nucleus together.
Neutrons

By: Efa Kebeda 23

 8. Erwin Schrödinger
• Erwin Schrödinger used Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle to
come up with the atomic model that we still use today
• Schrödinger’s Atomic Model (The Cloud Model)
i. An electron does not travel in an exact orbit
ii. We can predict where it will probably be
iii. We cannot say for certain where it is, but only where it ought
to be.
iv. The type of probability orbit is dependent on the energy level
described by Bohr
 Indivisible Electron Nucleus Orbit Electron
Cloud
Greek X

Dalton X

Thomson X

Rutherford X X

Bohr X X X

Wave X X X

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 25

 Summary of Atom
• The smallest part of an element is called an
atom
• Each atom (of an element) is different in
structure from other atoms (of other elements)
• An atom can be divided in smaller subatomic
particles: Protons, Electrons and Neutrons
• The nucleus is the centre of an atom. It contains protons and
neutrons.
• Electrons orbit the nucleus
• As we move down in the periodic table, an electron and proton is
added.

October 28, 2024 by Efa Kebeda 26

• Electrons occupy a certain energy
level (of a certain size)
• Once the energy level is full, a new
level begins

• Within each of these levels are specials types of orbitals.

• These depend on the energy level Each orbital can contain two
electrons

October 28, 2024 by Efa Kebeda 27

 Atomic number, Mass number and Isotopes
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
• Each element has a characteristic atomic number (the same
atomic number for all atoms of the same element)
• The number of electrons equals the atomic number in a
neutral atom
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons (mass number) in their nuclei
Mass Number A
Atomic Number Z X Element Symbol
(Short hand representation of
an element)
1 2 3
1H 1H (D) 1H (T) 28
 AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS (= Atomic Weight)
• Most elements occur naturally as mixtures of isotopes.
• The atomic mass of an element is a weighted average mass of the
atoms in a naturally occurring sample of the element
• The percent abundance is calculated for the weighted average by
the following steps:
– Step 1) Change each percent abundance into a decimal weight.
– Step 2) Multiply each atom’s mass by its decimal weight to get
the contribution for each isotope.
– Step 3) Add all the contributions together to get the average
atomic mass.
• Units are amu, atomic mass unit. 29
• Example: Rubidium has two common isotopes, 85-Rb and
87-Rb. If the abundance of 85-Rb is 72.2% and the abundance
of 87Rb is 27.8%, what is the average atomic mass of
rubidium?
Isotope % abundance Fraction of mass
abundance
85-Rb 72.2% 0.722 85 amu

87-Rb 27.8% 0.278 87 amu

• Average Atomic Mass =

(0.722× 85) amu + (0.278 × 87) amu = 85.556 amu

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 30

 Molecules and Ions

A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a definite

arrangement held together by chemical forces

H2 H2O CH4
NH3
A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms

H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO, NO

diatomic elements

A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms

O3, H2O, NH3, CH4 31
 IONS
• If an atom gains or loses one or more electrons, it acquires a
net electric charge and becomes an ion.
• An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net positive
or negative charge.
cation – ion with a positive charge
• If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons it becomes a
cation.
11 protons 11 protons
Na Na+ 10 electrons
11 electrons
• anion – ion with a negative charge
• If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons it
becomes an anion.
17 protons
Cl 17 protons Cl- 18 electrons
October 28, 2024
17 electrons
By: Efa Kebeda 32
A monatomic ion contains only one atom
Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-
A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom
OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-
Common Ions Shown on the Periodic Table

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 33

 14
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 6 C ?
6 protons,
8 (14 - 6) neutrons,
6 electrons
27 3+
How many protons and electrons are in 13 Al ?
13 protons,
10 (13 – 3) electrons
78 2-
How many protons and electrons are in 34 Se ?

34 protons,
36 (34 + 2) electrons
 Chemical Formulas
 Chemical formulas: are short hand representation of
molecules/compounds.
 Used to express the composition of molecules and ionic
compounds in terms of chemical symbols.
Composition we mean not only the elements present but also the
ratios in which the atoms are combined.
A chemical formula gives the numbers and types of atoms that are
found in a substance.
For example, the formula for sodium chloride: NaCl tells us that the
compound is composed of the elements sodium, Na, and chlorine, Cl,
in a one-to-one ratio
 Types of Chemical Formulas
• There are several types of chemical formulas for a
compound:
– Empirical formula
• The simplest whole number ratio of elements in a
compound
• Ionic compounds are always shown as empirical
formulas.
– Molecular Formula
• The actual numbers of atoms in a molecule.
– Structural Formula
• Show the relative arrangements of atoms in a molecule

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 36

• The structural formula for a compound gives the same
information as its molecular formula (the types and numbers
of atoms in the molecule)

• structural formula, which shows how atoms are bonded to

one another in a molecule.

• Two standard types of molecular models (structural formula)

are currently in use: ball-and-stick models and space-filling
models

• In ball and-stick model kits, the atoms are wooden or plastic

balls with holes in them and Sticks are used to represent
37
chemical bonds. By: Efa Kebeda
• Ball-and-stick models show the three-dimensional arrangement of
atoms clearly, and they are fairly easy to construct.
• However, the balls are not proportional to the size of atoms.
Furthermore, the sticks greatly exaggerate the space between
atoms in a molecule.
• In space-filling models, atoms are represented balls held together;
so that the bonds are not visible.
• Space-filling models are more accurate because they show the
variation in atomic size.
• Their drawbacks are that they are time-consuming to put together
and they do not show the three-dimensional positions of atoms
very well.
By: Efa Kebeda 38
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 39
• Molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms of each
element in the smallest unit of a substance.
• Molecular formula is the regular and actual formula of a
molecules.
• 𝐻2 is the molecular formula for hydrogen, 𝑂2 is oxygen, 𝑂3 is
ozone, and 𝐻2 O is water.
• The subscript numeral indicates the number of atoms of an
element present.
• For example, The molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide
indicates that each hydrogen peroxide molecule consists of two
hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms.
• The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in this molecule is 2:2
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 40
• Empirical formula tells us which elements are present and the
simplest whole-number ratio of their atoms but not necessarily the
actual number of atoms in a given molecule
• As an example, consider the compound hydrazine (𝑁2 𝐻4 ), The
empirical formula of hydrazine is 𝑁𝐻2 ; Although the ratio of
nitrogen to hydrogen is 1:2
• In both the molecular formula (𝑁2 𝐻4 ) and the empirical formula
(𝑁𝐻2 ) only the molecular formula tells us the actual number of N
atoms (two) and H atoms (four) present in a hydrazine molecule.
• Empirical formulas are the simplest chemical formulas; they are
written by reducing the subscripts in the molecular formulas to the
smallest possible whole numbers. 41
• If we know the molecular formula, we also know the empirical
formula, but the reverse is not true.
• How many atoms of each elements are in a compound
• For example in a compound acetylene (𝐶2 𝐻2 )
2carbon and 2 hydrogen atoms are exists
 glucose (𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 ): 6carbon, 12 hydrogen and 6 oxygen atoms are
exists
• Empirical formula is the simplest or more reduced ratio of an atoms
in compounds
2𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛
Eg. For acetylene (𝐶2 𝐻2 ); in MF, to obtain EF we divided
2ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛
both by smallest number; so by 2 here (1 carbon and 1 hydrogen
atoms ) exist in empirical formula as (CH)
 glucose (𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 ): we divided all by 6 to obtain empirical formula
C𝐻2 𝑂 is EF for Glucose
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 42
• If the ratio of atoms in the molecular formula can’t be simplified
any more the empirical formula is the same as molecular formula.

• Some examples are water (𝐻2 O), ammonia (N𝐻3 ), carbon dioxide
(C𝑂2 ), and methane (C𝐻4 ).
Many different compounds can all have the same Empirical
formula.
• Molecular formula Empirical formula
𝐶2 𝐻4
• 𝐶3 𝐻6
• 𝐶4 𝐻8 C𝐻2
• 𝐶5 𝐻10
• 𝐶6 𝐻12
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 43
 Calculating Empirical Formulas
• To calculate the Empirical Formula for a given molecule or
compound we follow the below steps:
Step 1: If you are not given mass in grams for each element,
convert the data you are given to grams of each element.
 This may involve simple unit conversions. For example, you
may be given pounds or milligrams, which you convert to
grams using unit analysis.
 Sometimes you are given the percentage of each element in
the compound. Assume that you have 100 g of compound,
and change the numbers for the percentages to grams.
Step 2: Convert grams of each element to moles by dividing
by the atomic mass of the element.
𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑔)
n=
𝑀𝑤 𝑔
𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 44
 Step 3: Divide each mole value by the smallest and round
your answers to whole numbers or common mixed
fractions.
 Step 4: If you have a fraction after the last step, multiply all
the mole values by the denominator of the fraction.
 Step 5: The resulting mole values correspond to the
subscripts in the empirical formula.

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 45

October 28, 2024 46
• For example 1: An oxide of aluminum is formed by the
reaction of 4.151 g of aluminum with 3.692 g of oxygen.
Calculate the empirical formula. (Mw of Al is 27g/mol and
Mw of oxygen is 16g/mol)
• Step 1: mass in gram; 4.151 g of aluminum
3.692 g of oxygen.
• Step 2: Convert mass to mole
𝑚 4.151𝑔
for Al ( n=  )= 0.153 mole of aluminum
𝑀𝑤 27𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑚 3.692𝑔
For oxygen ( n=  )= 0.2308 mole of oxygen
𝑀𝑤 16𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
• Step 3: Dividing each element by smallest amount of moles.
0.153 mole
 For Aluminum; = 1.00
0.153 mole
0.2308 mole
 For Oxygen ; = 1.50
0.153 mole
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 47
• Step 4: multiply each fraction mole value by denominator of
the fraction to form whole number values
 For Aluminum; 1.00 × 2 = 2mole
 For Oxygen ; 1.50 × 2= 3mole
• Step 4: Use the whole numbers obtained as subscript for the
corresponding element in simplest whole number
Thus the Empirical for is 𝑨𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟑

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 48

• Example 2: If an ionic compound composed of 35.172% of
potassium, 35.982% of oxygen and 28.846% sulfur; What is
the empirical formula for this compound? (Mw= 39g/mole,
16g/mole and 32g/ mole for K, O and S respectively)
• Step 1: Convert the mass in to gram by assuming 100g of
compound
Potassium, 35.172% → 35.172g
oxygen 35.982% → 35.982g
sulfur 28.846% → 28.846g
• Step 2: Convert the mass in gram to mole
𝑚 35.172g
Potassium (n=  ) = 0.90 mole of K
𝑀𝑤 39 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑚 35.982g
Oxygen (n=  ) = 2.249 mole O
𝑀𝑤 16 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑚 28.846 g
Sulfur (n=  ) = 0.90 mole of S
𝑀𝑤 32 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 49

• Step 3: Divide each mole value by the smallest and round your
answers to whole numbers
0.90 mole
 Potassium = 1.00
0.90 mole
2.249mole
 Oxygen = 2.50
0.90 mole
0.90 mole
 Sulfur = 1.00
0.90 mole
• Step 4: multiply each fraction mole value by denominator of the
fraction to form whole number values
 Potassium 1.00 × 2 = 2
 Oxygen 2.50 × 2 =5
 Sulfur 1.00 × 2= 2
Step 5: The resulting mole values correspond to the subscripts in
the empirical formula.
𝑲𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝑶𝟓 is the empirical formula
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 50
When a 2.00 g sample of iron metal is heated in air, it reacts with
oxygen to achieve a final mass of 2.573 g. Determine the empirical
formula.
Fe = 2.000 g O = 2.573 g – 2.000 g = 0.5730 g

2.000 g Fe 1 mol Fe = 0.03581 mol Fe

55.85 g Fe

0.573 g O 1 mol O
= 0.03581 mol O , 1 : 1 FeO
16.00 g

Practice Question: Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) contains 40.92% C,

4.58% H, and 54.50% O by mass. What is the empirical formula of
ascorbic acid? By: Efa Kebeda 51
 Calculating Molecular Formulas
• In order to obtain the Molecular Formula:
1st: If necessary, calculate the empirical formula of the
compound from the data given.
2nd: Divide the given molecular mass by the empirical formula
mass.

3rd: Multiply each of the subscripts in the empirical formula by n

to get the molecular formula.

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 52

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 53
Example 1: A white powder is analyzed and found to have an
empirical formula of P2O5. The compound has a molar mass of
283.88g/mole. What is the compound’s molecular formula?
Step1: calculate the empirical formula mass P2O5
P = 2 x 30.97 g = 61.94g/mole
O = 5 x 16.00g = 80.00 g/mole
141.94 g/mole
Step2: Divide the given molecular mass by the empirical
formula mass.
283.88g/mole
n= =2
141.94 g/mole
Step3: Multiply each of the subscripts in the empirical formula
by 2 to get the molecular formula.
(P2O5)2 P4O10
October 28, 2024 → 54
By: Efa Kebeda
Eg 2: A compound with an empirical formula of C2OH4 and a
molar mass of 88 grams per mole. What is the molecular
formula of this compound?
Step 1: Molar Mass Step 2: Divide MM by
C= 2×12g/mole = 24g/mole Empirical Formula Mass:

O = 1× 16g/mole= 16g/mole
88 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
H = 4 × 1g/mole = 4g/mole n= 𝑔 =2
44𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
44 g/mole

Step 3: Multiply the empirical

formula by 2
(C2OH4)2 C 4𝑶 𝟐 H 8

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 55

 practice Question 1: What are the empirical and molecular
formulas of caffeine that contains by mass composition of 49.5%
C, 5.15% H, 28.9% N and 16.5 % O and the molecular mass is
about 194 g/mol?
practice Question 2: Nitrogen and oxygen form an extensive
series of oxides with the general formula NxOy. One of them is a
blue solid that comes apart, reversibly, in the gas phase. It
contains 36.84% N. What is the empirical formula of this oxide?
practice Question 3: An unknown compound was found to have a
percent composition as follows: 47.0 % potassium, 14.5 %
carbon, and 38.5 % oxygen. What is its empirical formula? If the
true molar mass of the compound is 166.22 g/mol, what is its
molecular formula?

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 56

 Percent Composition
• A compound is a pure substance made up of different elements.
So, it consists of atoms of different elements.

• When the percentage is expressed by mass, it is called mass

percentage composition (or percentage composition).

• It tells the mass percentage of each element present in a

compound.
Part
Percent = x 100%
Whole
• to Calculate Percentage Composition we need the molecular
formula and the molar mass of each element present in a compound

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 57

• Example 1: What is the percent composition of Hydrogen and
oxygen in the water with molecular formula H2O?
• Molar mass of the compound (H2O)
𝑀𝐻2𝑂 = 2× 𝑀𝐻 + 1 × 𝑀𝑂 = 2 ×1g/mole + 1 ×16g/mole
= 18g/mole
• The percentage composition of hydrogen in water is calculated as
follows:
2∗𝑀𝐻
• %composition of H= × 100%;
𝑀𝐻2𝑂
2∗1𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
× 100% =11.1 %
1∗18𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
1∗𝑀𝑂
• %composition of O= × 100%;
𝑀𝐻2𝑂
1∗16𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
× 100% = 88.9%
1∗18𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
• Note: Sum of % composition of each element is always equal to
100 %. 58
• Example 2: calculate the % composition by mass of Cu and Br
for the compound copper (II) bromide CuBr2
• Molar mass of the compound (CuBr2)
𝑀CuBr = 1× 𝑀Cu + 2 × 𝑀Br =63.55+ 2*80= 223.5g/mole
2 2
𝑀 63.55𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
%composition of Cu= Cu × 100% = × 100%
𝑀
CuBr2 223.5g/mole
= 28.45%
Similarly, for bromine,

Practice Question: What is the percent composition of

Potassium, manganese and Oxygen in KMnO4? (Mw= 39, 54.9
and 16 g/mole for K, Mn and O respectively ) 59
By: Efa Kebeda
 Formula of Ionic Compounds
• The formulas of ionic compounds are usually the same as their
empirical formulas.
• For example, a solid sample of sodium chloride (NaCl) consists of
equal numbers of Na: and Cl; ions arranged in a three-dimensional
network
• In order for ionic compounds to be electrically neutral, the sum of
the charges on the cation and anion in each formula unit must be
zero.
• If the charges on the cation and anion are numerically different, we
apply the following rule to make the formula electrically neutral:

By: Efa Kebeda 60

• The subscript of the cation is numerically equal to the charge on
the anion, and the subscript of the anion is numerically equal to
the charge on the cation.
• If the charges are numerically equal, then no subscripts are
necessary.
• This rule follows from the fact that because the formulas of most
ionic compounds are empirical formulas, the subscripts must
always be reduced to the smallest ratio
• For example: Potassium Bromide: The potassium cation 𝐾 : and
the bromine anion 𝐵𝑟 ; combine to form the ionic compound
potassium bromide. The sum of the charges is +1+(-1)= 0
• Therefore, the formula for Potassium Bromide is KBr
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 61
• Zinc Iodide: The zinc cation 𝑍𝑛2: and the iodine anion 𝐼 ; combine
to form zinc iodide. The sum of the charges of one 𝑍𝑛2: ion and
one 𝐼 ; ion is +2+(-1)= +1; To make the charges add up to zero we
multiply the -1 charge of the anion by 2 and add the subscript “2”
to the symbol for iodine.
• Therefore, the formula for zinc iodide is 𝑍𝑛𝐼2 .

2 x (+3) = +6 3 x (-2) = -6
Al2O3
Al3+ O2-

1 x (+2) = +2 1 x (-2) = -2

Na2CO3
October 28, 2024
Na+ CO32-
By: Efa Kebeda
 Nomenclature of Ionic Compounds
• Ionic compounds are made up of cations (positive ions) and anions
(negative ions).
• Metal cations take their names from the elements.
For example,

• Many ionic compounds are binary compounds, or compounds

formed from just two elements.
• For binary ionic compounds the first element named is the metal
cation, followed by the nonmetallic anion.
• The anion is named by taking the first part of the element name and
adding “-ide.”
Eg. NaCl is sodium chloride, Potassium bromide (KBr), zinc iodide
(𝑍𝑛𝐼2 ), By: Efa Kebeda 63
• Certain metals, especially the transition metals, can form
more than one type of cation.
• For designating different cations of the same element is to use
Roman numerals.
• The Roman numeral I is used for one positive charge, II for two
positive charges, and so on
• Example, manganese (Mn) atoms can assume several different
positive charges:

• These compound names are pronounced “manganese-two

oxide,” “manganese-three oxide,” and “manganese-four
oxide.”

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 64

 Nomenclature of Molecular Compounds
• Unlike ionic compounds, molecular compounds contain
discrete molecular units.
• They are usually composed of nonmetallic elements
• Many molecular compounds are binary compounds.
• Naming binary molecular compounds is similar to naming
binary ionic compounds.
• We place the name of the first element in the formula first,
and the second element is named by adding “-ide” to the root
of the element name.

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 65

• It is quite common for one pair of elements to form several
different compounds.
• In these cases, confusion in naming the compounds is avoided by
the use of Greek prefixes to denote the number of atoms of each
element present

• These guidelines are helpful when you are naming compounds

with prefixes:
The prefix “mono-” may be omitted for the first element.
For example, PCl3 is named phosphorus tri-chloride, not
mono phosphorus tri-chloride
For oxides, the ending “a” in the prefix is sometimes omitted.
For example, 𝑁2 𝑂4 may be called dinitrogen tetroxide rather
than dinitrogen tetraoxide.
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 66
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 67
 Chemical Reactions
• Chemical reaction-a process in which a substance (or substances)
is changed into one or more new substances.
• A chemical reaction is in which the bonds are broken within
reactant molecules, and new bonds are formed within product
molecules in order to form a new substance.
• Chemical reactions are processes in which the atoms of one or
more substances are rearranged to form different chemical
compounds.
• How to tell if a chemical reaction has occurred:
√ Temperature change √ Color change
√ Formation of precipitate √ formation of gas/bubbles
October 28, 2024 68
By: Efa Kebeda
 Basic Concepts of Chemical Reactions
• A Chemical Reaction is a process that occurs when two or more
molecules interact to form a new product(s).
• Compounds that interact to produce new compounds are called
reactants whereas the newly formed compounds are called
products.
• A reaction can take place between two atoms or ions or molecules,
and they form a new bond and no atom is destroyed or created but
a new product is formed from reactants.
• The rate of reaction depends on and is affected by factors like
pressure, temperature, the concentration of reactants.
• Chemical reactions play an integral role in different industries,
customs and even in our daily life; for example, rusting of iron,
pottery, fermentation of wine and so on. 69
By: Efa Kebeda
 Chemical Equations
• A chemical equation- uses chemical symbols to show what
happens during a chemical reaction.
• A symbolic representation of a chemical reaction using
chemical formula is chemical equation
• e.g. When gaseous hydrogen 𝐻2 and oxygen 𝑂2 are mixed

starting materials in substance formed as a result of a

a chemical reaction chemical reaction

• In a chemical reaction the atoms of the reactants rearrange to

give new substances. Chemical bonds are broken and new
chemical bonds made.
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 70
 Balancing Chemical equation
• Balancing chemical equations involves the addition of
stoichiometric coefficients to the reactants and products.
• This is important because a chemical equation must obey the law of
conservation of mass and the law of constant proportions, i.e. the
same number of atoms of each element must exist on the reactant
side and the product side of the equation.
• It provides a ratio between the reacting species and the products
formed in the reaction.
• Two quick and easy methods of balancing a chemical equation.
• The first method is the traditional balancing method and the
second one is the algebraic balancing method. 71
By: Efa Kebeda
The Traditional Balancing Method
• In order to illustrate this method:
Step 1: Write the unbalanced equation must be obtained from
the chemical formulae of the reactants and the products
• eg. The chemical formula of propane is C3H8. It burns with
oxygen (O2) to form carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O)
• The unbalanced chemical equation can be written as
C3H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Step 2: The total number of atoms of each element on the reactant
side and the product side must be compared.

October 28, 2024 72

• Step 3: Now, stoichiometric coefficients are added to
molecules containing an element which has a different
number of atoms in the reactant side and the product side.
• The coefficient must balance the number of atoms on each
side.

• Step 4: Step 3 is repeated until all the number of atoms of the

reacting elements are equal on the reactant and product side.

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 73

• Now that the hydrogen atoms are balanced, the next element
to be balanced is oxygen.
• There are 10 oxygen atoms on the product side, implying that
the reactant side must also contain 10 oxygen atoms.

• Step 5: Once all the individual elements are balanced, the

total number of atoms of each element on the reactant and
product side are compared once again.
• If there are no inequalities, the chemical equation is said to
be balanced.
• Therefore, the balanced chemical equation is
C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O.
October 28, 2024 74
By: Efa Kebeda
The Algebraic Balancing Method
• This method of balancing chemical equations involves assigning
algebraic variables as stoichiometric coefficients to each species in
the unbalanced chemical equation.
• In order to better explain this method, the reaction between
glucose and oxygen that yields carbon dioxide and water has been
considered as an example.
Step 1: Write the unbalanced chemical equation must be obtained by
writing the chemical formulae of the reactants and the products.
• The unbalanced chemical equation is
C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Step 2: Now, algebraic variables are assigned to each species (as
stoichiometric coefficients) in the unbalanced chemical equation. In
this example, the equation can be written as follows.
aC6H12O6 + bO2 → cCO2 + dH2O
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 75
 aC6H12O6 + bO2 → cCO2 + dH2O
The equation for Carbon
• On the reactant side, ‘a’ molecules of C6H12O6 will contain ‘6a’
carbon atoms.
• On the product side, ‘c’ molecules of CO2 will contain ‘c’ carbon
atoms.
Therefore, the following equation can be formulated for carbon: 6a = c
The equation for Hydrogen
The equation for Hydrogen
• The species that contain hydrogen in this equation are C6H12O6 and H2
• ‘a’ molecules of C6H12O6 contains ‘12a’ hydrogen atoms whereas ‘d’
H2O molecules will contain ‘2d’ hydrogen atoms.
• Therefore, the equation for hydrogen becomes 12a = 2d.
• Simplifying this equation (by dividing both sides by 2), the equation
becomes: 6a = d
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 76
 The equation for Oxygen
• Every species in this chemical equation contains oxygen.
Therefore, the following relations can be made to obtain the
equation for oxygen:
• Therefore, the equation for oxygen can be written as:
6a + 2b = 2c+ d
• Step 3: The equations for each element are listed together to
form a system of equations. In this example, the system of
equations is as follows:
6a = c
6a = d
6a + 2b = 2c+ d
Let a=1, 6a = c; c=6 6a=d; d=6
6a+2b=2c+d 6*1+2b= 2*6+6; 2b+6=12+6
18-6=2b; b=6
C6H12O6 + 6OBy:2 Efa→Kebeda
6CO2 + 6H2O 77
 Reaction Yield
• In chemistry, yield, also referred to as reaction yield, is a measure
of the quantity of moles of a product formed in relation to the
reactant consumed,
• It obtained in a chemical reaction, usually expressed as a
percentage.
• It is the amount of product obtained in a chemical reaction.
 Limiting Reactant-The reactant used up first in a reaction. It is the
reactant run out first
 Determines maximum amount of product to be formed.
• Limiting reagents are the substances that are completely
consumed in the completion of a chemical reaction.
• They are also referred to as limiting agents or limiting reactants.
• The limiting reagent depends on the mole ratio, not on the
masses of the reactants present.
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 78
• Excess reactants- are the reactants present in quantities greater
than necessary to react with the quantity of the limiting reagent
• The excess reactant is the reactant in a chemical reaction with a
greater amount than necessary to react completely with the
limiting reactant.
• It is the reactant (s) that remain after a chemical reaction has
reached equilibrium.
• Example: Consider the reaction along with stoichiometric amounts

• If we use stoichiometric amounts then 4g amounts of hydrogen

and 32 g of oxygen, we get 36g of water.
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 79
 How to find limiting reactant
• To determine the limiting reactant following steps should be
taken
Step 1: Get the number of moles of reacting substances from
the given amounts of reactants.
Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of the required product
from molar amounts of all reactants.
Step 3: Choose the reactant that produces the least amount of
product. This is known as a limiting reactant.

October 28, 2024 80

By: Efa Kebeda
Problem Question 1: NH3 gas can be prepared by heating
together two solids, NH4Cl and Ca(OH)2. If a mixture containing
100 g of each solid is heated, then
a) Calculate the number of grams of NH3 produced
b) Calculate the excess amount of reagent left unreacted
Write the balanced chemical equation
2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 —-> CaCl2 + 2NH3 + 2H2O

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 81

a) Number of grams of NH3 produced
given mass of NH4Cl = 100g
Molar mass of NH4Cl = 14+1×4+35.5 = 53.5 g/mol
Thus, Number of moles of NH4Cl= 100/53.5 = 1.87 moles
Given mass of Ca(OH)2 = 100 g
Molar mass of Ca(OH)2 = 40 + 2(16+1) = 74 g/mol
Number of moles of Ca(OH)2 = 100/74 = 1.35 moles
Compare NH4Cl and NH3 according to a balanced chemical equation.
– NH4Cl : NH3
2 moles : 2 moles
Therefore 1.87 moles: 2/2 x 1.87 = 1.87 moles
Compare Ca(OH)2 and NH3 according to the balanced chemical equation
– Ca(OH)2 : NH3
1 mole : 2 moles
Therefore, 1.35 moles: 2 x 1.35= 2.70 moles

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 82

• Since NH4Cl produces the least amount of NH3, hence NH4Cl is the
limiting reactant.
• Thus no. of moles of NH3 produced= 1.87 moles
Molar mass of NH3 = 14+1 x3 = 17 g/mol
• Hence the amount of NH3 produced = No. of moles x Molar mass
of NH3 as given below.
• Amount of NH3 produced = 1.87 x 17 = 31.79 g
b) Amount of reagent left unreacted
• Compare NH4Cl and Ca(OH)2 according to a balanced chemical
equation.
– NH4Cl : Ca(OH)2
2 moles : 1 mole
1.87 moles : 1×1.87/2 = 0.935 moles
• Moles of Ca(OH)2 taken = 1.35 moles
• Therefore unreacted moles = 1.35 – 0.935 = 0.415 moles
• Thus mass of Ca(OH)2 left = 0.415 x 74 = 30.71 g
October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 83
Q2: The food we eat degraded in our bodies to provide energy for
growth and function. A general overall equation for this very complex
process represents the degradation of glucose (𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 ) to carbon
dioxide (𝐶𝑂2 ) and water (𝐻2 O)
If 856g of 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 is consumed , what is the mass of 𝐶𝑂2 produced ?
Step 1: write the balanced chemical equation
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Step 2: calculate the mole of (𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 )
𝑚 856g
𝑛𝐺𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 = , = 4.75 mole
𝑀𝑤 180𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Step 3: by using mole ration find the mole of 𝐶𝑂2
– 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 : 𝐶𝑂2
1 moles : 6 moles
4.75 mole 𝑥
= , X= 28.50mole of 𝐶𝑂2
1𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 6𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Step 4: convert the mole of 𝐶𝑂2 to mass, m= n * Mw
28.50 mole × 44g/mole = 1.25 × 103 g of 𝐶𝑂2
October 28, 2024 84
By: Efa Kebeda
Practice Question: Methanol (CH3OH) burns in air according to
the equation:

• If 209 g of methanol are used up in a combustion process,

what is the mass of H2O produced?

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 85

• Theoretical yield- is the quantity of a product obtained from the
complete conversion of the limiting reactant in a chemical
reaction.
• It is the amount of product resulting from a perfect (theoretical)
chemical reaction, and thus not the same as the amount you'll
actually get from a reaction in the lab.
• The actual yield- is the quantity of a product that is obtained from
a chemical reaction.
• In contrast, the calculated or theoretical yield is the amount of
product that could be obtained from a reaction if all of the reactant
converted to product.
• Theoretical yield is based on the limiting reactant.
• Percent yield- represents the ratio between what is experimentally
obtained and what is theoretically calculated, multiplied by 100%.

October 28, 2024 86

By: Efa Kebeda
• Example: What is the % yield of H2O if 138 g H2O is
produced from 16 g H2 and excess O2?
Step 1: write the balanced chemical equation
2H2 + O2  2H2O
Step 2: determine actual and theoretical yield. Actual is given,
theoretical is calculated:
1 mol H 2 mol H2O 18.02 g H2O
g H2O= 16 g H2 X 2 x
x = 144 g
2.02 g H2 2 mol H2 1 mol H2O

Step 3: Calculate % yield

actual 138 g H2O
% yield = x 100% = = 96.7%
theoretical 144 g H2O

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 87

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 88
 Practice Question
1: Calculate the number of grams of 𝐴𝑙2 𝑆3 , which can be prepared by
the reaction of 20 g of Al and 20g of sulfur. How much non-limiting
reactant is in excess?
2: 11g of carbon is reacted with 32 g of oxygen to give CO2 . Which is
the limiting reactant?
3: phosphorus reacts with bromine to from phosphorous tri-bromide.
If 35g of bromine are reacted and 27.9 g of 𝑃𝐵𝑟3 are formed, what is
the % yield
4: Silver nitrate reacts with Magnesium chloride and magnesium
nitrate. If 305g of silver nitrate are reacted in an excess of Magnesium
chloride producing 23.7g of magnesium nitrate, what is % yield?
5: when heated, Lithium reacts with nitrogen to form lithium nitride
6Li (s) + 𝑁2 (g) 2𝐿𝑖3 N (s)
i. What is the theoretical yield of 𝐿𝑖3 N in grams when 12.3g of Li
are heated with 33.6g of 𝑁2 ?
ii. If the actual yield of 𝐿𝑖3 N is 5.89g, what is % yield of reaction?

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 89

Q6

Q7. Assume the reaction given below:

October 28, 2024 By: Efa Kebeda 90