MOTHER THERESA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
AICTE, Affiliated to JNTUA, Anantapuramu, Accridated by NAAC &Certified by ISO 9001:2015
Melumoi Post, PALAMANER – 517408, Chittoor Dist.,(A.P.)
Phone: 08579-268589 Cell: 9866888648 email: [email protected] Web: mtieat.com

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS LABORATORY MANUAL

2nd YEAR – EEE

(REGULATION R23 )

Academic Year: 2024-2025 Odd Semester

1
2
S.
DATE TITLE OF THE EXPERIMENT MARKS SIGN
No.

3
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

OBSERVATION TABLE

S.No V I1 I2 I3 I1 = I2 + I3
(Volts) (mA) (mA) (mA) ( mA)

4
EXP.NO:
DATE:

SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL

CIRCUIT PROBLEMS USING KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE AND CURRENT LAWS

AIM:

To verify (i) Kirchhoff’s current law (ii) Kirchhoff’s voltage law

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the apparatus Range Type Quantity

1 RPS

2 Resistor

3 Ammeter

4 Voltmeter

5 Bread board

6 Connecting wires

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
Matlab 7.1

KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW:

THEORY:
The law states, “The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to sum of
the currents leaving the same node”. Alternatively, the algebraic sum of currents
at a node is equal to zero.

5
THEORETICAL CALCULATION

S.No. V I1 I2 I3 I1 = I2 + I3
(Volts) (mA) (mA) (mA) ( mA)

MODEL CALCULATION:

6
The term node means a common point where the different elements are connected.
Assume negative sign for leaving current and positive sign for entering current.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the supply.
3. Set different values of voltages in the RPS.
4. Measure the corresponding values of branch currents I1, I2 and I3.
5. Enter the readings in the tabular column.
6. Find the theoretical values and compare with the practical values

FORMULA:

∑ Currents entering a node = ∑ Currents leaving the node

I1 = I2 + I3

7
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW:

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No. V V1 V2 V3 V =V1+ V2
Volts Volts Volts Volts +V3
Volts

8
KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW:
THEORY:
The law states, “The algebraic sum of the voltages in a closed circuit/mesh is
zero”.
The voltage rise is taken as positive and the voltage drop is taken as negative.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the supply.
3. Set different values of voltages in the RPS.
4. Measure the corresponding values of voltages (V1, V2 and V3) across resistors R1,
R2 and R3 respectively.
5. Enter the readings in the tabular column.
6. Find the theoretical values and compare with the practical values.

FORMULA:

∑ Voltages in a closed loop = 0

V-V1-V2-V3 = 0

9
THEORETICAL CALCULATION:

S.No. V V1 V2 V2 V =V1+ V2 + V3
Volts Volts Volts Volts Volts

MODEL CALCULATION:

10
SIMULATION PROCEDURE:

1. Open a new MATLAB/SIMULINK model

2. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure
3. Debug and run the circuit
4. For different input voltages, record the current and voltages and verify with
theoretical values.

11
SIMULATION CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW:

SIMULATION DIAGRAM FOR KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW:

12
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. State Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.

2. State Kirchhoff’s Current Law.
3. What is current division rule?
4. What is voltage division rule?
5. Give the equivalent resistance when ‘n’ number of resistances is connected in
series.
6. Give the equivalent resistance when ‘n’ number of resistances is connected in
parallel

RESULT:

Thus the Kirchhoff’s Current and Voltage laws are verified.

13
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR THEVENIN’S THEOREM:

TO FIND LOAD CURRENT:

14
EXP.NO:
DATE:
SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL
CIRCUIT PROBLEMS USING THEVENIN’S THEOREM

AIM:

To verify Thevenin’s theorem.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No no Name of the Components / Type/Range Quantity required

Equipment
1 Resistor
2 Dc power supply
3 Voltmeter
4 Ammeter
5 Wires
6 Bread board

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
Matlab 7.1

15
TO FIND Vth:

TO FIND Rth:

16
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:
STATEMENT:
Any two-terminal linear network, composed of voltage sources, current
sources, and resistors,
can be replaced by an equivalent two-terminal network consisting of an independent
voltage source in series with a resistor. The value of voltage source is equivalent to
the open circuit voltage (Vth) across two terminals of the network and the resistance
is equal to the equivalent resistance (R th) measured between the terminals with all
energy sources replaced by their internal resistances.
Rth

Circuit Vth

17
THEVENIN’S EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

OBSERVATION TABLE

Vth Current through

Rth
(Volts) Load Resistance
S. (Ω)
IL(mA)
No
Vdc Practical Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical Theoretical
Value Value Value Value Value Value

18
PROCEDURE:
1. Give connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Measure the current through RL in the ammeter.
3. Open circuit the output terminals by disconnecting load resistance RL.
4. Connect a voltmeter across AB and measure the open circuit voltage Vth.
5. To find Rth, replace the voltage source by short circuit.
6. Give connections as per the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit.
7. Measure the current through load resistance in Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit.
8. Verify Thevenin’s theorem by comparing the measured currents in Thevenin’s
Equivalent circuit with the values calculated theoretically.

SIMULATION PROCEDURE:

1. Open a new MATLAB/SIMULINK model

2. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure
3. Debug and run the circuit
4. For different input voltages, record the current and voltages and verify with
theoretical values.

19
SIMULATION:
TO FIND LOAD CURRENT:

TO FIND Vth:

THEVENIN’S EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:

20
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is meant by a linear network?

2. State Thevenin’s Theorem.
3. How do you calculate thevenin’s resistance?

RESULT:

Thus the Thevenin’s theorem was verified.

21
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR NORTON’S THEOREM:

TO FIND NORTON’S CURRENT:

22
EXP.NO:
DATE:

SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL

CIRCUIT PROBLEMS USING NORTON’S THEOREM

AIM:
To verify Norton’s theorem.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No no Name of the Components / Type/Range Quantity required

Equipment
1 Resistor
2 Dc power supply
3 Voltmeter
4 Ammeter
5 Wires
6 Bread board

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
Matlab 7.1

NORTON’S THEOREM
STATEMENT:
Any two-terminal linear network, composed of voltage sources, current
sources, and resistors, can be replaced by an equivalent two-terminal network
consisting of an independent current source in parallel with a resistor. The value of the
current source is the short circuit current (IN) between the two terminals of the
network and the resistance is equal to the equivalent resistance (RN) measured
between the terminals with all energy sources replaced by their internal resistances.

23
TO FIND NORTON’S RESISTANCE:

NORTON’S EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:

24
 Circuit
IN RN

PROCEDURE:

1. Give connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Measure the current through RL in ammeter.
3. Short circuit A and B through an ammeter.
4. Measure the Norton current in the ammeter.
5. Find out the Norton’s Resistance viewed from the output terminals.
6. Give connections as per the Norton’s Equivalent circuit.
7. Measure the current through RL.
8. Verify Norton’s theorem by comparing currents in RL directly and that
obtained with the equivalent circuit.

SIMULATION PROCEDURE:

1. Open a new MATLAB/SIMULINK model

2. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure
3. Debug and run the circuit
4. For different input voltages, record the current and voltages and verify with
theoretical values.

25
TO FIND LOAD CURRENT:

TO FIND NORTON’S CURRENT:

26
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. How do you calculate Norton’s resistance?
2. State Norton’s Theorem.
3. Give the usefulness of Norton’s theorems.

RESULT:

Thus the Norton’s theorem was verified.

27
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH V1 ACTING INDEPENDENTLY:

28
EXP.NO:
DATE:
SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL
CIRCUIT PROBLEMS USING SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

AIM:
To verify superposition theorem.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Components /

Type/Range Quantity required
Equipment
1 Resistor
2 Dc power supply
3 Voltmeter
4 Ammeter
5 Wires
6 Bread board

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
Matlab 7.1

SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
STATEMENT:
In any linear, bilateral network energized by two or more sources, the
total response is equal to the algebraic sum of the responses caused by
individual sources acting alone while the other sources are replaced by their
internal resistances.
To replace the other sources by their internal resistances, the voltage
sources are short- circuited and the current sources open- circuited.

29
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH V2 ACTING INDEPENDENTLY:

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Experimental Values: Theoretical Values:

V1 V2 I3 V1 V2 I3
(Volts) (Volts) (mA) (Volts) (Volts) (mA)

30
FORMULAE :

I3’ + I 3’’ = I3

PROCEDURE :

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram given in Fig. 1.

2. Switch on the supply.
3. Note the readings of three Ammeters.
4. One of the voltage source V1 is connected and the other voltage source V2 is
short circuited as given in Fig.2.
5. Note the three ammeter readings.
6. Now short circuit the voltage source V1 and connect the voltage source V2
as given in the circuit diagram of Fig. 3.
7. Note the three ammeter readings.
8. Algebraically add the currents in steps (5) and (7) above to compare with
the current in step (3) to verify the theorem.
9. Verify with theoretical values.

31
SIMULATION DIAGRAM FOR SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH V1 ACTING INDEPENDENTLY:

32
SIMULATION PROCEDURE:

1. Open a new MATLAB/SIMULINK model

2. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure
3. Debug and run the circuit
4. For different input voltages, record the current and voltages and verify with
theoretical values.

33
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH V2 ACTING INDEPENDENTLY:

VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:

Practical:

S.No. I3 I3’ I3’’ I3= I3’ +I3’’

(mA) (mA) (mA) (mA)

34
Theoretical:
S.No. I3 I3’ I3’’ I3= I3’ +I3’’
(mA) (mA) (mA) (mA)

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. State Superposition Theorem.
2. What is meant by a linear system?
3. Give the usefulness of Superposition Theorem.
4. How will you apply Superposition Theorem to a linear circuit containing
both dependent and independent sources?
5. State the limitations of Superposition theorem.

RESULT:
Thus the Superposition theorem was verified.

35
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM:

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No. RL (kΩ) IL (mA) P = I2RL (mW)

Practical Theoretical Practical Theoretical
Value Value Value Value

36
EXP.NO:
DATE:
SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL
CIRCUIT PROBLEMS USING MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

AIM:
To verify maximum power transfer theorem.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Components /

Type/Range Quantity required
Equipment
1 Resistor
2 Dc power supply
3 Voltmeter
4 Ammeter
5 Wires
6 Bread board

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
Matlab 7.1

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM:

THEORY:

The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that maximum power is

delivered from a source to a load when the load resistance is equal to source
resistance.

37
SIMULATION DIAGRAM FOR MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
THEOREM:

MODEL GRAPH:

MODEL CALCULATION:

38
PROCEDURE:

1. Find the Load current for the minimum position of the Rheostat theoretically.
2. Select the ammeter Range.
3. Give connections as per the circuit diagram.
4. Measure the load current by gradually increasing RL .
5. Enter the readings in the tabular column.
6. Calculate the power delivered in RL.
7. Plot the curve between RL and power.
8. Check whether the power is maximum at a value of load resistance that equals
source resistance.
9. Verify the maximum power transfer theorem.

SIMULATION PROCEDURE:

1. Open a new MATLAB/SIMULINK model

2. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure
3. Debug and run the circuit
4. For different input voltages, record the current and voltages and verify with
theoretical values.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define Power. What is the unit of Power?

2. State Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

RESULT:

Thus the Maximum power transfer theorem was verified.

39
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF GENERAL PURPOSE CRO:

40
EXP NO.:
DATE:
STUDY OF ANALOG AND DIGITAL OSCILLOSCOPES AND
MEASUREMENT OF SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGE, FREQUENCY AND POWER
FACTOR
AIM:
The aim of the experiment is to understand the operation of cathode ray
oscilloscope (CRO) and to become familiar with its usage, also to perform an
experiment using function generator to measure amplitude, time period, frequency &
power factor of the time varying signals using a calibrated cathode ray oscilloscope.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Components/Equipment Qty

1. CRO 1
2. Function generator 2
3. Probes 2

THEORY:
The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) provides a visual presentation of any
waveform applied to the input terminal. The oscilloscope consists of the
following major subsystems.
 Cathode ray tube (CRT)
 Vertical amplifier
 Horizontal amplifier
 Sweep Generator
 Trigger circuit
 Associated power supply
It can be employed to measure quantities such as peak voltage, frequency,
phase difference, pulse width, delay time, rise time, and fall time.

41
S.No Type of Time Amplitude Theoretical Practical
wave period (T) Frequency Frequency
1.

2.

3.

42
CATHODE RAY TUBE:
The CRT is the heart of the CRO providing visual display of an input signal
waveform. A CRT contains four basic parts:
 An electron gun to provide a stream of electrons.
 Focusing and accelerating elements to produce a well define beam
of electrons.
 Horizontal and vertical deflecting plates to control the path of the
electron beam.
 An evacuated glass envelope with a phosphorescent which glows
visibly when struck by electron beam.
A Cathode containing an oxide coating is heated indirectly by a filament resulting
in the release of electrons from the cathode surface. The control grid which has a
negative potential, controls the electron flow from the cathode and thus control the
number of electron directed to the screen. Once the electron passes the control grid,
they are focused into a tight beam and accelerated to a higher velocity by focusing and
accelerating anodes. The high velocity and well defined electron beam then passed
through two sets of deflection plates.
The First set of plates is oriented to deflect the electron beam vertically. The angle
of the vertical deflection is determined by the voltage polarity applied to the deflection
plates. The electron beam is also being deflected horizontally by a voltage applied to
the horizontal deflection plates. The tube sensitivity to deflecting voltages can be
expressed in two ways that are deflection factor and deflection sensitivity.
The deflected beam is then further accelerated by very high voltages applied to the
tube with the beam finally striking a phosphorescent material on the inside face of the
tube. The phosphor glows when struck by the energetic electrons.
CONTROL GRID:
Regulates the number of electrons that reach the anode and hence the
brightness of the spot on the screen.

43
FOCUSING ANODE:
Ensures that electrons leaving the cathode in slightly different directions are
focused down to a narrow beam and all arrive at the same spot on the screen.
ELECTOR GUN:
Cathode, control grid, focusing anode, and accelerating anode.
DEFLECTING PLATES:
Electric fields between the first pair of plates deflect the electrons horizontally
and an electric field between the second pair deflects them vertically. If no deflecting
fields are present, the electrons travel in a straight line from the hole in the
accelerating anode to the center of the screen, where they produce a bright spot. In
general purpose oscilloscope, amplifier circuits are needed to increase the input signal
to the voltage level required to operate the tube because the signals measured using
CRO are typically small. There are amplifier sections for both vertical and horizontal
deflection of the beam.
VERTICAL AMPLIFIER:
Amplify the signal at its input prior to the signal being applied to the vertical
deflection plates.
HORIZONTAL AMPLIFIER:
Amplify the signal at its input prior to the signal being applied to the horizontal
deflection plates.
SWEEP GENERATOR:
Develop a voltage at the horizontal deflection plate that increases linearly with
time.
OPERATION:
The four main parts of the oscilloscope CRT are designed to create and direct
an electron beam to a screen to form an image. The oscilloscope links to a circuit that
directly connects to the vertical deflection plates while the horizontal plates have
linearly increasing charge to form a plot of the circuit voltage over time. In an
operating cycle, the heater gives electrons in the cathode enough energy to escape.
The electrons are attracted to the accelerating anode and pulled through a control grid
that regulates the number of electrons in the beam, a focusing anode that controls the

44
width of the beam, and the accelerating anode itself. The vertical and horizontal
deflection plates create electric field that bend the beam of electrons. The electrons
finally hit the fluorescent screen which absorbs the energy from the electron beam and
emits it in the form of light to display an image at the end of the glass tube.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Do not leave a ‘bright spot’ on the screen for any length of time.
2. Do not apply signals that exceed the scopes voltage rating.
3. Do not try make accurate measurements on signals whose frequency is
outside the scope’s frequency specifications.
4. Be aware that the scope’s input circuitry can cause loading effects on
the circuitry under test-use correct probe for the work.
PRODEDURE:
1. Measurement of Voltage Using CRO : A voltage can be measured by noting
the Y deflection produced by the voltage; using this deflection in conjunction with the
Y-gain setting, the voltage can be calculated as follows : V = ( no. of boxes in cm. ) x
( selected Volts/cm scale )
2 .Measurement of Current and Resistance Using a CRO: Using the general
method, a correctly calibrated CRO can be used in conjunction with a known value of
resistance R to determine the current I flowing through the resistor.
3 Measurement of Frequency Using a CRO: A simple method of determining
the frequency of a signal is to estimate its periodic time from the trace on the screen of
a CRT. However this method has limited accuracy, and should only be used where
other methods are not available. To calculate the frequency of the observed signal, one
has to measure the period, i.e. the time taken for 1 complete cycle, using the calibrated
sweep scale. The period could be calculated by T = (no. of squares in cm) x (selected
Time/cm scale) Once the period T is known, the frequency is given by f (Hz)=
1/T(sec)

45
4. Measurement of Phase: The calibrated time scales can be used to calculate the
phase shift between two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency. If a dual trace or
beam CRO is available to display the two signals simultaneously (one of the signals is
used for synchronization), both of the signals will appear in proper time perspective
and the amount of time difference between the waveforms can be measured. This, in
turn can be utilized to calculate the phase angle θ, between the two signals.
Referring to the fig below the phase shift can be calculated by the formula;

θ°=

MEASUREMENT OF PF:
The power factor is calculated by the formula
pf=VICOS θ.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is a CRO?
2. How can we measure the voltage using a CRO?
3. Explain the different parts of the CRO
4. Explain the operation of a CRO.

RESULT:
Thus the Analog and digital oscilloscopes were studied and measurement
of sinusoidal voltage, frequency and power factor was done.

46
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR RC TRANSIENT:

MODEL GRAPH:

47
EXP NO. :
DATE :

SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION OF R-C ELECTRIC

CIRCUIT TRANSIENTS
AIM:

To find the time constant of series R-C electric circuits

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

PSpice Lite

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name of the Range/Type Quantity

Components/Equipment required
1 Resistor 100 Ώ 1
2 Function generator - 1
3 Voltmeter (0-30)V MI 1
4 Decade capacitance box - 1
5 Wires Single strand Few nos
6 Bread board 1

THEORY:
RC CIRCUIT:
Consider a series RC circuit as shown. The switch is in open state initially.
There is no charge on condenser and no voltage across it. At instant t=0, switch is
closed.
Immediately after closing a switch, the capacitor acts as a short circuit, so
current at the time of switching is high. The voltage across capacitor is zero at t= 0 + as
capacitor acts as a short circuit, and the current is maximum given by,
i = V/R Amps

48
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No. Frequency Time Voltage across
(Hz) (s) the capacitor VC
(v)

MODEL CALCULATION:

49
This current is maximum at t=0+ which is charging current. As the capacitor starts
charging, the voltage across capacitor V C starts increasing and charging current starts
decreasing. After some time, when the capacitor charges to V volts, it achieves steady
state. In steady state it acts as an open circuit and current will be zero finally.
Charging current and voltage in capacitor are given as below,
t
V t
I RCC e
in
VC  (1 e ) RC
R
Vin

1
VC  Vin (1  e )

The term RC in equation of VC or IC is called Time constant and denoted by ,

measured in seconds.
When, t = RC =  then,
VC = 0.632Vin
So time constant of series RC circuit is defined as time required by the
capacitor voltage to rise from zero to 0.632 of its final steady state value during
charging.
Thus, time constant of RC circuit can be defined as time seconds, during which
voltage across capacitor (stating from zero) would reach its final steady state value if
its rate of change was maintained constant at its initial value throughout charging
period.

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Vary the frequency by using function generator.
3. For different frequencies tabulate the value of voltage across the capacitor .
4. Calculate the time period.
5. Plot the graph for time period Vs voltage across the capacitor.

50
SIMULATION DIAGRAM:

51
SIMULATION PROCEDURE:

1. Open a new PSpice CAPTURE project.

2. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
3. Create simulation profile and run the model

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Differentiate steady state and transient state.

2. What is meant by transient response?
3. Define the time constant of a RL Circuit.
4. Define the time constant of a RC Circuit.
5. What is meant by forced response?

RESULT:

Thus the transient responses of RC circuit are found practically.

52
SIMULATION CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OUTPUT WAVEFORM:

Case (i):

53
EXP NO.:

DATE :

SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION OF FREQUENCY

RESPONSE OF RLC ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

AIM:

To simulate and find the frequency response of RLC electric circuits.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

PSpice Lite

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name of the Range/Type Quantity

Components/Equipment required
1 Resistor 1000 Ώ 1
2 Function generator - 1
3 Voltmeter (0-30)V MI 1
4 Decade capacitance box - 1
5 Decade Inductance box - 1
6 Wires Single strand Few nos
7 Bread board 1

THEORY:

RLC CIRCUIT:

Consider a series RLC circuit as shown. The switch is in open state initially.
There is no charge on condenser and no voltage across it. At instant t=0, switch is
closed.
Immediately after closing a switch, the capacitor acts as a short circuit, so
current at the time of switching is high. The voltage across capacitor is zero at t= 0 + as
capacitor acts as a short circuit, and the current is maximum given by,
i = V/R Amps

54
OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No. Frequency Time Voltage across
(Hz) (s) the capacitor VC
(v)

MODEL CALCULATION:

55
This current is maximum at t=0+ which is charging current. As the capacitor starts
charging, the voltage across capacitor V C starts increasing and charging current starts
decreasing. After some time, when the capacitor charges to V volts, it achieves steady
state. In steady state it acts as an open circuit and current will be zero finally.
Laplace transform of current flowing through the circuit is,
V/L
I(s)=
R 1
s2 + s+
L LC
Case (i):
 R2 1
If >
 2L
  LC
The roots are real and distinct. The current is over damped.

Case (ii):
2
If  R  = 1
 2L
  LC
The roots are equal. The current is critically damped.

Case (iii):
2
If  R  < 1
 2L
  LC
The roots become complex conjugate. The current is oscillatory in nature.

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram

2. Vary the frequency by using function generator
3. For different frequencies tabulate the value of voltage across the capacitor
4. Calculate the time period
5. Plot the graph for time period Vs voltage across the capacitor.

56
Case (ii):

Case (iii):

57
SIMULATION PROCEDURE:

4. Open a new PSpice CAPTURE project.

5. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
6. Create simulation profile and run the model

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by transient response?

2. Define the time constant of a RL Circuit.
3. Define the time constant of a RC Circuit.
4. What is meant by forced response?

RESULT:

Thus the transient responses of RLC circuit are found practically.

58
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR SERIES RESONANCE:

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No. Frequency in Hz Output Current in mA

MODEL CALCULATION:

59
EXP NO.:
DATE :

DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF SERIES RESONANCE CIRCUIT

AIM:

To plot the current Vs frequencies graph of series resonant circuits and hence
measure their bandwidth, resonant frequency and Q factor.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
PSpice 9.1 Lite

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No. Name of the Type Range Quantity
Components/Equipment required
1 Function Generator - - 1
2 Resistor - 100 Ω 1
3 Decade Inductance Box - - 1
4 Decade Capacitance Box - - 1
5 Ammeter MI (0-30) mA 1
6 Connecting Wires Single - Few nos
strand

THEORY:
A circuit is said to be in resonance when applied voltage V and current I
are in phase with each other. Thus at resonance condition, the equivalent complex
impedance of the circuit consists of only resistance (R) and hence current is
maximum. Since V and I are in phase, the power factor is unity.

The complex impedance

Z = R + j (XL – XC)
Where XL = L

60
PSpice SIMULATION:

OUTPUT WAVWFORM:

MATLAB SIMULATION:

61
XC = 1/C

At resonance, XL= XC and hence Z= R

BANDWIDTH OF A RESONANCE CIRCUIT:
Bandwidth of a circuit is given by the band of frequencies which lies between
two points on either side of resonance frequency, where current falls through 1/1.414
of the maximum value of resonance. Narrow is the bandwidth, higher the selectivity
of the circuit.
As shown in the model graph, the bandwidth AB is given by f 2 – f1. f1 is the
lower cut off frequency and f2 is the upper cut off frequency.
Q - FACTOR:
In the case of a RLC series circuit, Q-factor is defined as the voltage
magnification in the circuit at resonance. At resonance, current is maximum. Io= V/R.
The applied voltage V = IoR
Voltage magnification = VL/V = IoXL
In the case of resonance, high Q factor means not only high voltage, but also higher
sensitivity of tuning circuit. Q factor can be increased by having a coil of large
inductance, not of smaller ohmic resistance.

Q = L / R
FORMULAE USED:
1
Resonant frequency = Hz
2 LC
fr
Bandwidth BW = f2 – f1
fr
Quality Factor =
BW
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Vary the frequency and note down the corresponding meter reading.
3. Draw the current Vs frequency curve and measure the bandwidth,
resonant frequency and Q factor.

62
MODEL GRAPH FOR SERIES RESONANCE
Current in mA

Imax

A B

0.707Imax

f1 fr f2

Frequency in Hz

PLOT OF MAGNITUDE & PHASE ANGLE OF CURRENT FOR VARIOUS

FREQUENCIES:

63
SIMULATION PROCEDURE:

1. Open a new MATLAB/SIMULINK model or PSpice CAPTURE project.

2. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
3. Debug and run the circuit.
4. By double clicking the power gui plot the value of current for the
different values of frequencies (for MATLAB Simulink).
5. For PSpice CAPTURE run the model create simulation profile and run
the model.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define Bandwidth.
2. Define Quality factor.
3. What is meant by selectivity?
4. Give the significance of Q- factor.
5. What is meant by resonance?
6. What are the characteristics of a series resonant circuit?
7. What will be the power factor of the circuit at resonance?

RESULT:

Thus the current Vs frequency graphs of series and parallel resonant circuits
were plotted and the bandwidth, resonant frequency and Q factor were measured.
They were found to be
(a) Series resonance
Resonant frequency =
Bandwidth =
Q- Factor =

64
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR PARALLEL RESONANCE:

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No. Frequency in Output

MODEL GRAPH FOR PARALLEL RESONANCE:

Current in mA

Imin

fr
Frequency in Hz

65
EXP NO. :
DATE :
DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUITS

AIM:
To plot the magnitude & phase angle of current for various frequencies for the
given RLC parallel circuit.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

Matlab 7.1 or PSpice 9.1 Lite

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name of the Type Range Quantity

Components/Equipment required

1 Function Generator - - 1
2 Resistor - 100 Ω 1
3 Decade Inductance Box - - 1
4 Decade Capacitance Box - - 1
5 Ammeter MI (0-30) mA 1
6 Connecting Wires Single - Few nos
strand

THEORY:
A circuit is said to be in resonance when applied voltage V and current I are in
phase with each other. Thus at resonance condition, the equivalent complex
impedance of the circuit consists of only resistance (R) and hence current is
maximum. Since V and I are in phase, the power factor is unity.

The complex impedance

Z = R + j (XL – XC)
Where XL = L
XC = 1/C
At resonance, XL= XC and hence Z= R

66
PSpice SIMULATION:

OUTPUT WAVEFORM:

67
BANDWIDTH OF A RESONANCE CIRCUIT:
Bandwidth of a circuit is given by the band of frequencies which lies between
two points on either side of resonance frequency, where current falls through 1/1.414
of the maximum value of resonance. Narrow is the bandwidth, higher the selectivity
of the circuit. As shown in the model graph, the bandwidth AB is given by f 2 – f1. f1 is
the lower cut off frequency and f2 is the upper cut off frequency.
Q - FACTOR:
In the case of a RLC series circuit, Q-factor is defined as the voltage
magnification in the circuit at resonance. At resonance, current is maximum. Io= V/R.
The applied voltage V = IoR
Voltage magnification = VL/V = IoXL
In the case of resonance, high Q factor means not only high voltage, but also higher
sensitivity of tuning circuit. Q factor can be increased by having a coil of large
inductance, not of smaller ohmic resistance.

Q = L / R
FORMULAE USED:
1
Resonant frequency fr = Hz
2 LC

Bandwidth BW = f2 – f1
fr
Quality Factor =
BW
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Vary the frequency and note down the corresponding meter reading.
3. Draw the current Vs frequency curve and measure the bandwidth,
resonant frequency and Q factor.

68
MATLAB SIMULATION:

PLOT OF MAGNITUDE & PHASE ANGLE OF CURRENT FOR VARIOUS

FREQUENCIES:

69
SIMULATION PROCEDURE:

1. Open a new MATLAB/SIMULINK model or PSpice CAPTURE project.

2. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
3. Debug and run the circuit.
4. By double clicking the power gui plot the value of current for the
different values of frequencies (for MATLAB Simulink).
5. For PSpice CAPTURE run the model create simulation profile and run
the model

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define Bandwidth.
2. Define Quality factor.
3. What is meant by selectivity?
4. Give the significance of Q- factor.
5. What is meant by resonance?
6. What are the characteristics of a parallel resonant circuit?
7. What will be the power factor of the circuit at resonance?

RESULT:

Thus the current Vs frequency graphs of series and parallel resonant circuits
were plotted and the bandwidth, resonant frequency and Q factor were measured.
They were found to be
(a) Parallel resonance
Resonant frequency =
Bandwidth =
Q- Factor =

70
SIMULATTION DIAGRAM:
3 Φ BALANCED STAR CONNECTED NETWORK:

71
EXP NO.:
DATE :

SIMULATION OF THREE PHASE BALANCED AND UNBALANCED STAR,

DELTA NETWORKS CIRCUITS
AIM:
To simulate three phase balanced and unbalanced star, delta networks circuits.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
Matlab 7.1
THEORY:
BALANCED THREE- PHASE CIRCUIT:
Balanced phase voltages are equal in magnitude and are out of phase with each
other by 120°.The phase sequence is the time order in which the voltages pass through
their respective maximum values. A balanced load is one in which the phase
impedances are equal in magnitude and in phase.

POSSIBLE LOAD CONFIGURATIONS:

Four possible connections between source and load:
1. Y-Y connection (Y-connected source with a Y-connected load)
2. Y-∆ connection (Y-connected source with a ∆-connected load)
3. ∆-∆ connection
4. ∆-Y connection

UNBALANCED THREE- PHASE CIRCUIT:

An unbalanced system is due to unbalanced voltage sources or an unbalanced
load. To calculate power in an unbalanced three-phase system requires that we find
the power in each phase. The total power is not simply three times the power in one
phase but the sum of the powers in the three phases.

72
3 Φ UNBALANCED DELTA CONNECTED NETWORK:

73
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What do you meant by balanced circuit?

2. List the possible load configuration?
3. What is mean by unbalanced circuit?

RESULT:
Thus the three phase balanced and unbalanced star, delta network circuits were
simulated and verified.

74
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

75
 EXP NO.:
DATE :
SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF MILLMAN’S
THEOREM

AIM:

To verify millman’s theorem.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
SLNO NAME OF ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY
1. Resistor
2. Dc power supply
3. Voltmeter
4. Ammeter
Wires
5.
6 Bread board

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:
Matlab 7.1

MILLMAN’S THEOREM:

STATEMENT:

The utility of this theorem is that, any number of parallel voltage sources can be reduced to one
equivalent one. When a number of voltage sources (V1,V2,........Vn) are in parallel having internal
resistances(R1,R2,.........Rn) respectively, the arrangement can be replaced by a single equivalent
voltage source V in series with an equivalent series resistance R.

76
OBSERVATION TABLE:

PRACTICAL THEORETICAL
S.NO V1 V2
VL1 VL1

MODEL CALCULATION:

77
 PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown Fig-1 and Note down the reading of voltmeter as VL1 .
2. Connect the equivalent circuit as shown in Fig-2 , by
calculating 3. Veq=(V1G1 +V2G2)/ (G1 + G2) and R eq= 1/
(G1+G2)
4. Note down the reading of the voltmeter as VL2.
5. If V L1 = V L2, the Milliman’s Theorem is verified.
6. Verify with theoretical values.

SIMULATION PROCEDURE:
1. Open a new MATLAB/SIMULINK model
2. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure
3. Debug and run the circuit
4. For different input voltages, record the voltage and verify with theoretical values.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. State Millman’s theorem.
2. Is it possible to apply both theorems to ac as well as dc circuit?
3. Is Millman’s is applicable for unilateral and bilateral networks?
4. State application of Millman’s theorem

RESULT:
Thus the Millman’s theorem was verified.
78
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

79
EXP NO.:
DATE :
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF POWER IN THREE PHASE
CIRCUITS BY TWO-WATT METER METHOD
AIM:
To determine the power in three-phase balanced and unbalanced circuit using
two-watt meter method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
SLNO NAME OF ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY
1. 3-phase Auto transformer 20 Amp. 440v 50 Hz 1
2. Ammeter MI(0-10A) 1
3. Voltmeter MI(0-600V) 1
4. Wattmeter 250v, 5A 2
3- phase Load or 3- phase
5. 415V, 5H.P 1
induction motor
6 Connecting wires - Few

THEORY:
Two wattmeter method can be employed to measure power in a 3 - phase,3 wire
star or delta connected balance or unbalanced load. In this method, the current coils of
the watt meters are connected in any two lines say R and Y and potential coil of each
watt meters is joined across the same line and third line i.e. B. Then the sum of the
power measured by two watt meters W1 and W2 is equal to the power absorbed By
the 3- phase load

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the Voltmeter, Ammeter and Watt meters to the load through
3ф Auto transformer as shown fig and set up the Autotransformer to Zero position.
2. Switch on the 3ф A.C. supply and adjust the autotransformer till a
suitable voltage.

80
 OBSERVATION TABLE:
Voltmeter Ammeter Total Reactive Power
Wattmeter reading (watts)
S. reading reading power P power factor
VL IL Q
No

W1 W1 W2 W2
(V) (A) (watts) (watts)
observe Actu Obser actua l

d al ved

MODEL CALCULATION:

81
 3. Note down the readings of watt meters, voltmeter& ammeter
4. Vary the voltage by Autotransformer and note down the Various readings.
5. Now after the observation switch off and disconnect all the Equipment
or remove the lead wire.

FORMULAE USED:
1. Total power or Real power P = √3VLILCOSф =W1actual+W2actual
2. Reactive power of load= Q=√3(W1actual-W2actual)
3. tan ф= [√3(W1actual-W2actual)]/[ W1actual+W2actual]
4. Power factor=cos ф
PRECAUTION & SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Proper currents and voltage range must be selected before putting
the instruments in the circuit.
2. If any Wattmeter reads backward, reverse its pressure coil connection and the
reading as negative.
3. As the supply voltage Fluctuates it is not possible to observe the
readings correctly.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the various types of wattmeter?
2. How many coils are there in wattmeter?
3. What is meant by real power?
4. What is meant by apparent power?

RESULT:
The power measured in the 3-phase circuit and there corresponding power
factors are in observation table.

82
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR TWO- PORT NETWORK

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No V1 V2 I1 I2 Z11 Z12 Z22 Z21

(Volts) (Volts) (Amps) (Amps) (Ohms) (Ohms) (Ohms) (Ohms)

80
EXP NO.:
DATE :

DETERMINATION OF TWO PORT NETWORK PARAMETERS

AIM:
To determine the two port parameters for the given electric circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Name of the
S.NO Range Type Quantity
Apparatus/Component
1 Ammeter MC
2 Power Supply
3 Voltmeter MC

4 Connecting wires

5 Resistors

6 Breadboard

THEORY:
1 2

Linear Network

1’ 2’

The terminal pair where the signal enters the network is called as the INPUT
PORT and the terminal pair where it leaves the network is called as the OUTPUT
PORT. V1& I1 are measured at the Input terminals and V2 & I2 are measured at the
Output terminals. The two port network parameters express the inter relationship
between V1, I1,V2 and I2 They are Z- parameters, Y- parameters, H-parameters, ABCD
parameters and image parameters.

81
MODEL CALCULATION:

82
The Impedance parameters are also called as Z parameters.
V1 = Z11I1 + Z12I2 …………..……. (i)
V2 = Z21I1 + Z22I2 …………..……. (ii)
where, Z11, Z12, Z22 and Z21 are constants of the network called Z parameters.
When I2=0, (Open circuit the output terminal)

Z11=V1/I1 ….……………... (iii)

Z21=V2/I1 ..……………....... (iv)
When I1=0, ( Open circuit the Input terminal)
Z12=V1/I2 ….……………... (v)
Z22=V2/I2 ….……………... (vi)

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Open circuit the output terminal (2,2’).
3. Vary the power supply to a fixed value and note down the ammeter
and voltmeter readings.
4. Open circuit the Input terminal (1,1’).
5. Vary the power supply to a fixed value and note down the ammeter
and voltmeter readings.
6. Tabulate the readings and calculate the Z parameters.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by a two-port network?
2. Give the use of two-port network model.
3. What are impedance parameters?
4. What are admittance parameters?
5. What are hybrid parameters?
6. What are ABCD parameters? Mention their significance.

RESULT:
Thus the two port parameters are measured for the given electric circuit.

83
84