UNIT – I

TYPES OF CAMERAS FOR PHOTOGRAPHY

DIGITAL SLR CAMERAS

DSLR (or digital single lens reflex) cameras take photos to the next level of image quality. This
more “serious” type of camera is best known for delivering remarkably sharp and spectacular
images. It produces beautiful background bokeh, and even high resolution videos with the help
of their advanced sensors, manual settings, and wide range of interchangeable lenses.

Today, professional photographers and videographers from around the world mostly use DSLRs
(now alternatively known as hybrid single reflex lens cameras or HDSLR) for commercial
purposes. Many of Canon’s and Nikon’s DSLR cameras are being used for capturing hi-res
images for magazines and billboards, and even full HD 1080p videos at up to 60fps for television
shows and movies.

1
MIRRORLESS CAMERAS

Mirrorless cameras are the latest in professional cameras. They are basically more compact
DSLRs without the internal mirror that reflects light onto the sensor.

What’s interesting about mirrorless cameras is that they are now capable of capturing incredible,
high-resolution images with even faster shutter speeds and record ultra HD videos that only the
most expensive, higher-end DSLRs can produce.

Overall, it’s a combination of two popular types of digital cameras—a point-and-shoot for its
compact size and somewhat simpler controls, and a DSLR for its interchangeable lenses and
impressive output.

2
MEDIUM FORMAT CAMERAS

This section will focus on the digital version of medium format cameras, which, in general,
have sensor sizes that are smaller than film medium format. However, medium format sensor
size is larger than a full frame sensor, which generally translates to higher quality images.

Medium format cameras also produce shallower depth of field, produce smaller equivalent focal
length, and have more dynamic range when compared to a full frame camera. For example, on
the Fuji GFX 100S medium format digital camera there is a crop or magnification factor of
approximately 0.8. Therefore, a 100mm lens for that camera would be equivalent to 80mm on a
full frame sensor. Similarly, if the aperture was set to f/4, the full frame equivalent would be
about 3.2.

3
COMPACT DIGITAL / POINT AND SHOOT CAMERAS

Compact digital cameras literally allow anyone to capture beautiful images by simply pointing
the camera at the subject and clicking the shutter. Also known as a point-and-shoot camera, it is
the most user-friendly of all camera types. It is smaller and lighter, and doesn’t require film or
extra lenses. It also does all the hard work of automatically adjusting its settings to deliver well-
exposed photos every time. You won’t have the freedom of adjusting the settings to your liking.
However, with a good artistic eye and a knack for composition, you should have no problem
producing great photos.

4
BRIDGE CAMERAS

In general, a bridge camera is “somewhere between” a point and shoot and an interchangeable
lens camera. It has a large zoom range, a viewfinder, and allows for some manual control of
settings. It’s ideal for someone who has “graduated” from a point and shoots but isn’t ready yet
to invest in an interchangeable lens camera (ILC) system or doesn’t want the inconvenience of
carrying around and changing multiple lenses.

5
ACTION CAMERAS

We’ve definitely seen the abundance and rising popularity of action cameras in the past few
years. Common action cameras like the GoPro can fit in the palm of your hand, but they’re some
of the most durable and versatile types of digital cameras that offer very high-resolution output.

A wide range of accessories like waterproof housing and mounts allow the user to attach action
cameras to helmets, bicycles, and even drones, which enable hands-free shooting in different
types of situations. This opens up a whole new world of photographic possibilities. This type of
camera allows you to capture impressive wide-angle photos and videos with sound from almost
any angle and environment. Take them underwater or on top of a mountain.

6
360 CAMERAS

The 360-degree camera takes half dome to full-circle panoramic photos and videos using back-
to-back lenses. Like action cameras, some of them are also water resistant and mountable on
many surfaces, such as on top of cars, helmets, or drones. Above all, they take the most realistic
pictures and videos with stunning panoramic views that you can truly immerse yourself in,
virtual reality style.

It’s a very good camera choice for taking vacation photos that you can proudly show off to your
loved ones and on social media. After all, we still can’t get enough of this new Google
Streetview-style photography and videography. However, because of its non-traditional output,
images cannot be printed unless they are cropped as a rectangular panoramic frame.

7
FILM CAMERAS

Film cameras may seem outdated in our new digital world, but they are by no means obsolete.

There are many types of film cameras and they provide more artistic output than ever before.
Much to the delight of film photography enthusiasts, there is still classic 35mm film cameras
being sold today with improved bodies and enhanced capabilities.

The younger generation has learned to love film cameras, thanks to the birth
of instant and lomography cameras, which produces (and sometimes prints out) vintage-style
photos with vignettes and Instagram-style “filters” with every click of the shutter. Rangefinder
cameras, which manually measure subject distance, have been improved while retaining the
vintage body and analog settings.

8
INSTANT CAMERAS

In recent years, instant film has made a strong resurgence. There are a variety of reasons why
you should consider purchasing an instant camera. The biggest benefit of an instant camera is it
allows you to give a physical copy (print) of the image to anyone right after taking the picture.
This feature alone has changed the way many photographers approach their craft, such as event
or wedding photography. Instant cameras also appeal to the casual photographer who might want
to handout keepsakes at a family gathering or when out with friends.

With the recent concentration on social media privacy and growing mistrust for on-line digital
distribution of images, an instant camera seems to have found a home with the younger
generation of photographers who prefer to keep physical versions of the images over digital
ones.

9
SMARTPHONE CAMERAS

We all know the adage that the best camera is the one you have with you. This saying isn’t truer
than for the Smartphone cameras. Arguably, the most significant advances in digital photography
in recent years have been in Smartphone cameras. According to many online sources, images
taken with Smartphone cameras vastly outnumber those taken by any other format.

Computational photography allows for sought after features such as simulated shallow depth
field, automatic blending of files to produce noise free images, and easy removal of unwanted
elements from photos. The latest generation of cameras on iPhones and Android devices allow
for incredible zooming capabilities, RAW image capture, and 8K video, just to name a few
features.

10
RUGGED CAMERAS

What exactly makes a camera “rugged”? Most people will likely mention a camera that is
waterproof or freeze-proof or one that can survive a drop from a certain height. So, it all depends
on your definition of “rugged”. For the purposes of simplicity and fairness, let’s only include
cameras that are waterproof and can withstand a few tumbles.

If you read reviews, one of the best rugged cameras is the Olympus Tough TG-6 is frequently at
the top of the list. It’s reasonably priced waterproofs (50 feet /15 meter), dust proof, shock proof
(7 feet / 2.1 meter), crush proof (100 kgf), freeze proof (14 degree Fahrenheit / -10 degree
Celsius), and has an anti-fog coating.

11
CAMERA VIEW-FINDER

Viewfinder, camera component that shows the photographer the area of the subject that will be
included in a photograph. In modern cameras it usually is part of a direct visual- or range-finder
focusing system and may also be used to display exposure settings or meter information.

Modern viewfinders are variations on two types: reflex and direct optical. In the single-lens
reflex camera, the camera lens itself serves as the finder in conjunction with a ground-glass
focusing screen to which the image is reflected by a mirror. The image is viewed on the screen
through a pentaprism that corrects the lateral reversal of the image as it appears on the screen. At
the moment of exposure, the mirror moves out of the way, leaving a clear path to the film.

In a twin-lens reflex camera, the finder has a lens of its own, essentially a duplicate of
the aperture lens, placed above it and reflecting the image by a mirror to a ground-glass screen.

12
The image is not inverted but is laterally reversed. The focusing mechanism of the viewfinder
regulates the main lens as well.

The direct-optical viewfinder most commonly used, the bright-line viewfinder, is essentially an
inverted Galilean telescope system with an optically projected rectangle outlining the frame area.
The viewed image is neither inverted nor reversed.

With direct-optical and twin-lens reflex viewfinder systems, a slight error known as parallax is
introduced by the slightly different viewpoints of finder and camera lenses. The error can be
reduced by positioning the finder as close to the camera lens as possible or by making the finder
field smaller so that the camera field includes it.

CAMERA MONITOR

Video assist is a system used in filmmaking which allows filmmakers to view and distribute a
video version of a take immediately after it is filmed.

Originally a small device, called the video tap, was installed inside a movie camera that allows
(with the addition of a monitor) the director to see approximately the same view as the camera
operator, and thus ensure that the film is being shot and framed as desired. This is done by using

13
a small charge-coupled device (CCD) (similar to ones in consumer camcorders) inside
the viewfinder. On modern film cameras, the assist is fed off a beam splitter, which splits the
beam between the optical viewfinder and the video tap. The light enters through the lens, and hits
the rotating mirror shutter, which bounces the light to the horizontal ground glass. The beam
splitter is directly over the ground glass and turns the light again 90 degrees, and projects it onto
the chip of the video assist camera—through its own lens system. The chip, together with its
electronics, lens system and mounting hardware, is the video tap, and was commonly called
video assist until the video assist industry grew large.

On steadicam and remote head or crane operation, the viewfinder and beam splitter is often
removed because it's not needed. Then the full image is projected onto the video tap, making the
image twice as bright and hence better quality (lower noise). In these cases, even the camera
operator uses a video monitor to operate the camera.

Though the quality of the film video assist feed can vary greatly based on both the camera and
the assist, it is always used as a guide and nothing more. Because the assist has its own controls
for exposure, contrast, focus and color correction, it is not possible to use it to learn anything
more than the frame lines. The video assist camera is usually significantly lower in resolution
than the film camera as well, so critical focus is still usually determined by distance from the lens
to the subject via a tape measure.

CAMERA TRIPODS

In photography, a tripod is a portable device used to support, stabilize and elevate a camera,
a flash unit, or other videographic or observational/measuring equipment. All photographic
tripods have three legs and a mounting head to couple with a camera. The mounting head usually
includes a thumbscrew that mates to a female-threaded receptacle on the camera, as well as a
mechanism to be able to rotate and tilt the camera when it is mounted on the tripod. Tripod legs
are usually made to telescope, in order to save space when not in use. Tripods are usually made
from aluminum, carbon fiber, steel, wood or plastic.

14
Tripods can both elevate and stabilize cameras. Tripod stands each have three legs, as well as
mounting heads for the cameras. You can use tripods in either motion or still photography to
prevent camera movement. They're particularly necessary for slow-speed exposures, since
cameras can shake while the shutters are open, resulting in blurry images.

TRIPOD HEAD

This part of a camera tripod connects the camera to the support, enabling you to either swivel or
lock the device in place. Modular tripod heads are usable with a wide range of tripods. On the
other hand, integrated heads are built directly into the tripods, usually at a lower overall cost.

There are three main types of tripod heads for still photography, the most common of which is
the pan-tilt head. This typically has two handles, allowing vertical and horizontal movement. In
contrast, a ball head only has one control that loosens or tightens the grip, allowing flexibility

15
and smooth operation. The third kind is a gimbal head, used specifically for heavy, long lenses,
such as those that are 300mm+.

Types of Camera Tripods

Photo tripods vary extensively in price, functionality, and features. Professional studio
photographers usually prefer heavier standing studio tripods, while nature photographers likely
seek light and reliable travel tripods. For those just starting out in photography, monopods are
the best fitting options, as they're extremely simple to operate. Mini tripods allow desktop setup
for indoor shots with smaller cameras.

Be sure to visit B&H Photo and Video to get all the photography gear you need for your next
project, and to find the best tripods and general tripod accessories to fit your situation and ensure
you get perfect shots.

CAMERA MONOPOD

Also known as a unipod, this one-legged support is also a collapsible pole. This photography
accessory steadies a mounted camera by eliminating vertical motion. Leaning it against solid

16
objects, such as a wall, turns the single-leg pole into a makeshift bipod that also dampens
shakiness in the horizontal axis. Stabilizing cameras in this way eliminates blurry shots. The best
monopods for video capture also reduce jerkiness in footage. By serving as a stable platform, a
unipod makes it easier to shoot sharp images and videos at slow shutter speeds and with long-
focus lenses.

MICROPHONE

A microphone, colloquially called a mic or mike (/maɪk/) is a transducer that converts sound into
an electrical signal. Microphones are used in many applications such as telephones, hearing
aids, public address systems for concert halls and public events, motion picture production, live
and recorded audio engineering, sound recording, two-way radios, megaphones,
and radio and television broadcasting. They are also used in computers for recording
voice, speech recognition, VoIP, and for other purposes such as ultrasonic sensors or knock
sensors.

Several types of microphone are used today, which employ different methods to convert the air
pressure variations of a sound wave to an electrical signal. The most common are the dynamic

17
microphone, which uses a coil of wire suspended in a magnetic field; the condenser microphone,
which uses the vibrating diaphragm as a capacitor plate; and the contact microphone, which uses
a crystal of piezoelectric material. Microphones typically need to be connected to
a preamplifier before the signal can be recorded or reproduced.

SOUND RECORDING

Sound recording and reproduction is the electrical, mechanical, electronic, or digital inscription
and re-creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound
effects. The two main classes of sound recording technology are analog recording and digital
recording.

Sound recording is the transcription of invisible vibrations in air onto a storage medium such as a
phonograph disc. The process is reversed in sound reproduction, and the variations stored on the
medium are transformed back into sound waves.

18
Acoustic analog recording is achieved by a microphone diaphragm that senses changes
in atmospheric pressure caused by acoustic sound waves and records them as a mechanical
representation of the sound waves on a medium such as a phonograph record (in which a stylus
cuts grooves on a record). In magnetic tape recording, the sound waves vibrate the microphone
diaphragm and are converted into a varying electric current, which is then converted to a
varying magnetic field by an electromagnet, which makes a representation of the sound as
magnetized areas on a plastic tape with a magnetic coating on it. Analog sound reproduction is
the reverse process, with a bigger loudspeaker diaphragm causing changes to atmospheric
pressure to form acoustic sound waves.

Digital recording and reproduction converts the analog sound signal picked up by the
microphone to a digital form by the process of sampling. This lets the audio data be stored
and transmitted by a wider variety of media. Digital recording stores audio as a series of binary
numbers (zeros and ones) representing samples of the amplitude of the audio signal at equal time
intervals, at a sample rate high enough to convey all sounds capable of being heard. A digital
audio signal must be reconverted to analog form during playback before it is amplified and
connected to a loudspeaker to produce sound.

Prior to the development of sound recording, there were mechanical systems, such as wind-
up music boxes and, later, player pianos, for encoding and reproducing instrumental music.

RESOLUTION

Image resolution is the detail an image holds. The term applies to digital images, film images,
and other types of images. "Higher resolution" means more image detail. Image resolution can be
measured in various ways. Resolution quantifies how close lines can be to each other and still
be visibly resolved. Resolution units can be tied to physical sizes (e.g. lines per mm, lines per
inch), to the overall size of a picture (lines per picture height, also known simply as lines, TV
lines, or TVL), or to angular sub tense. Instead of single lines, line pairs are often used composed
of a dark line and an adjacent light line; for example, a resolution of 10 lines per millimeter
means 5 dark lines alternating with 5 light lines, or 5 line pairs per millimeter (5
LP/mm). Photographic lens and film resolution are most often quoted in line pairs per millimeter.

19
ASPECT RATIO

The aspect ratio of a geometric shape is the ratio of its sizes in different dimensions. For
example, the aspect ratio of a rectangle is the ratio of its longer side to its shorter side—the ratio
of width to height, when the rectangle is oriented as a "landscape".

20
The aspect ratio is most often expressed as two integer numbers separated by a colon (x: y), less
commonly as a simple or decimal fraction. The values x and y do not represent actual widths and
heights but, rather, the proportion between width and height. As an example, 8:5, 16:10,
1.6:1, 8⁄5 and 1.6 are all ways of representing the same aspect ratio.

In objects of more than two dimensions, such as hyper rectangles, the aspect ratio can still be
defined as the ratio of the longest side to the shortest side.

Individual usage needs will determine the best product for your situation. One thing to consider
is the ease and speed of ball head adjustment and camera release. These tiny moments of time
make all the difference to your photos.

Another key factor is weight. There's always a bit of a trade-off between sturdiness and
portability. Easier to transport, lightweight carbon fiber tripods may vibrate with wind. One last
vital consideration—the feet of the tripod. Standard rubber feet work well for indoors and out.
However, if you're seeking to shoot in harsher conditions, such as rain or ice, definitely consider
metal spikes.

LCD

Most digital cameras are built with optical viewfinders, though most also have prominent liquid-
crystal display (LCD) preview screens that are frequently used as convenient viewfinders in
casual photography. Some digital cameras feature an electronic viewfinder, which is a separate
LCD that accurately reproduces the image gathered through the lens and also displays essential
camera settings.

21
22
REFERENCE QUESTIONS
1. Explain the following types of Cameras for Photography
Digital SLR Cameras - Mirrorless Cameras - Medium Format Cameras

2. Explain the following types of Cameras for Photography

Compact Digital/Point and Shoot Cameras - Bridge Cameras - Action Cameras

360 Cameras

3. Explain the following types of Cameras for Photography

Film Cameras - Instant Cameras - Smartphone Cameras - Rugged Cameras

4. Elaborate the Camera View Finder and Camera Monitor

5. Discuss in detail about Camera Tripods and Monopods.

6. Describe the operations of Microphone and Sound Recording

7. Write in brief about the Resolution

8. Explain the concept of Aspect Ratio

9. How to Choose a Camera Tripod

10. Define the term LCD

23
 UNIT – II

COMPOSITION

The term composition means "putting together". It can be thought of as the organization of
the elements of art according to the principles of art. Composition can apply to any work of art,
from music through writing and into photography, which is arranged using conscious thought.

In the visual arts, composition is often used interchangeably with various terms such as design,
form, visual ordering, or formal structure, depending on the context. In graphic design for press
and desktop publishing, composition is commonly referred to as page layout.

The composition of a picture is different from its subject (what is depicted), whether a moment
from a story, a person or a place. Many subjects, for example Saint George and the Dragon, are
often portrayed in art, but using a great range of compositions even though the two figures are
typically the only ones shown.

24
HAND-HELD CAMERA

Hand-held camera or hand-held shooting is a filmmaking and video production technique in

which a camera is held in the camera operator's hands as opposed to being mounted on
a tripod or other base. Hand-held cameras are used because they are conveniently sized for travel
and because they allow greater freedom of motion during filming. Newsreel camera operators
frequently gathered images using a hand-held camera. Virtually all modern video cameras are
small enough for hand-held use, but many professional video cameras are designed specifically
for hand-held use such as for electronic news-gathering (ENG) and electronic field production
(EFP).

Hand-held camera shots often result in a shaky image, unlike the stable image from a tripod-
mounted camera. Purposeful use of this technique is called shaky camera and can be heightened
by the camera operator during filming, or artificially simulated in post-production. To prevent
shaky shots, a number of image stabilization technologies have been used on hand-held cameras

25
including optical, digital and mechanical methods. The Steadicam, which is not considered to be
a "hand-held" camera, uses a stabilizing mount to make smoother shots.

FRAME RATE

Frame rate (expressed in frames per second or FPS) is the frequency (rate) at which
consecutive images (frames) are captured or displayed. The term applies equally
to film and video cameras, computer graphics, and motion capture systems. Frame rate may also
be called the frame frequency, and be expressed in hertz. Frame rate in electronic camera
specifications may refer to the maximal possible rate, where, in practice, other settings (such as
exposure time) may reduce the frequency to a lower number. Frame rate up-conversion is the
process of increasing the temporal resolution of a video sequence by synthesizing one or more
intermediate frames between two consecutive frames. A low frame rate causes aliasing, yields
abrupt motion artifacts, and degrades the video quality. Consequently, the temporal resolution is
an important factor affecting video quality. Algorithms for FRC are widely used in applications,
including visual quality enhancement, video compression and slow-motion video generation.

26
EXPOSURE

In photography, exposure is the amount of light per unit area (the image
plane's illuminance times the exposure time) reaching a frame of photographic film or the surface
of an electronic image sensor, as determined by shutter speed, lens F-number, and
scene luminance. Exposure is measured in lux seconds, and can be computed from exposure
value (EV) and scene luminance in a specified region.

An "exposure" is a single shutter cycle. For example, a long exposure refers to a single, long
shutter cycle to gather enough dim light, whereas a multiple exposure involves a series of shutter
cycles, effectively layering a series of photographs in one image. The accumulated photometric
exposure (Hv) is the same so long as the total exposure time is the same.

27
CAMERA FILTERS

In photography and cinematography, a filter is a camera accessory consisting of an optical

filter that can be inserted into the optical path. The filter can be of a square or oblong shape and
mounted in a holder accessory, or, more commonly, a glass or plastic disk in a metal or plastic
ring frame, which can be screwed into the front of or clipped onto the camera lens.

Filters modify the images recorded. Sometimes they are used to make only subtle changes to
images; other times the image would simply not be possible without them. In monochrome
photography, coloured filters affect the relative brightness of different colours; red lipstick may
be rendered as anything from almost white to almost black with different filters. Others change
the colour balance of images, so that photographs under incandescent lighting show colours as
they are perceived, rather than with a reddish tinge. There are filters that distort the image in a
desired way, diffusing an otherwise sharp image, adding a starry effect, etc. Linear and circular
polarising filters reduce oblique reflections from non-metallic surfaces.

28
Many filters absorb part of the light available, necessitating longer exposure. As the filter is in
the optical path, any imperfections – non-flat or non-parallel surfaces, reflections (minimised by
optical coating), scratches, dirt – affect the image.

There is no universal or reliably standard naming or labelling system for filters. The Wratten
numbers adopted in the early twentieth century by Kodak, then a dominant force in film
photography, are used by several manufacturers, but the degree of correspondence between the
filters and the number labels is only approximate. Most colour correction filters are somewhat
more accurately identified by a code of the form CCaab, e.g. CC50Y – CC for colour
correction, aa = 50 for the strength of the filter (50%), and b = Y for yellow.

Optical filters are used in various areas of science, including in particular astronomy;
photographic filters are roughly the same as "optical" filters, but in practice optical filters often
need far more accurately controlled optical properties and precisely defined transmission
curves than filters only made for general photography. Photographic filters sell in larger
quantities, at correspondingly lower prices, than many laboratory filters. The article on optical
filters has information relevant to photographic filters, particularly special-purpose photographic
filters like color enhancing filters and high-quality photographic filters, like sharp cut-off UV
filters.

In digital photography the majority of filters used with film cameras have been rendered
redundant by digital filters applied either in-camera or during post processing. Exceptions
include the ultraviolet (UV) filter typically used to protect the front surface of the lens, the
neutral density (ND) filter, the polarising filter, color-enhancing filters, and the infra red (IR)
filter. The neutral density filter permits effects requiring wide apertures or long exposures to be
applied to brightly lit scenes, while the graduated neutral density filter is useful in situations
where the scene's dynamic range exceeds the capability of the sensor. Not using optical filters in
front of the lens has the advantage of avoiding the reduction of image quality caused by the
presence of an extra optical element in the light path and may be necessary to
avoid vignetting when using wide-angle lenses.

29
MATTE BOX

In photography and videography, a matte box is a device attached to the end of a lens in order to
prevent light leakage. It performs and mounts essentially the same as a lens hood, but usually
includes adjustable fins called French flags.

Another purpose of a matte box is to hold filters in place in front of the lens. Some are supported
by two rods that run the length of the camera, while others are supported by the lens itself. A
matte box may have a bellows, a rigid sunshade, or both. If both, the bellows is positioned within
the rigid sunshade, having a mask which may be adjusted forward or backward to suit the angle
of view of the camera system.

CAMERA MOVEMENT

In intentional camera movement (ICM), a camera is moved during the exposure for a creative or
artistic effect. This causes the image points to move across the recording medium, producing an
apparent streaking in the resulting image.
30
The process involves the selection of an aperture and the use of filters to achieve a
suitable shutter speed. Proponent’s experiment both with the duration of the exposure and the
direction and amount of camera movement while the shutter is open. Generally exposures of
1/20 to 1/2 second give the best results and an optimum seems to be 1/8 of a second to retain the
shape of the subject, but strip away surface detail. The effect depends significantly on the
direction that the camera is moved in relation to the subject as well as the speed of the
movement.

If light levels are high, the use of neutral density filters will reduce the light entering the lens,
thus enabling the exposure to be extended. A polarising filter can also be fitted to the lens. This
has a dual effect of reducing reflections within the image and reducing the light by about
two stops. Photographers set the camera's ISO setting to the lowest available on the camera
(commonly 100), as this reduces the camera's sensitivity to light and so gives the slowest
possible shutter speed.

The direction of movement of the lens has a dramatic effect on the results. Patience is required,
along with much experimentation, to establish where and how to move the camera to achieve the

31
desired effect. The camera can be moved upwards, downwards, to the right or left or away from
or towards the subject while being handheld. The camera may also be turned, angled, and rapidly
moved back and forth.

FILMING AT NIGHT

Day for night is a set of cinematic techniques used to simulate a night scene while filming in
daylight. It is often employed when it is too difficult or expensive to actually shoot during
nighttime. Because both film stocks and digital image sensors lack the sensitivity of the human
eye in low light conditions, night scenes recorded in natural light, with or without moonlight,
may be underexposed to the point where little or nothing is visible. This problem can be avoided
by using daylight to substitute for darkness. When shooting day for night, the scene is typically
underexposed in-camera or darkened during post-production, with a blue tint added. Additional
effects are often used to heighten the impression of night.

32
As film stocks and video cameras have improved in light sensitivity, shooting day for night has
become less common in recent years.

FILM LOOK

Film look (also known as filmizing or film-look) is a process in which video is altered in overall
appearance to appear to have been shot on film stock. The process is usually electronic, although
filmizing can sometimes occur as an unintentional by-product of some optical techniques, such
as telerecording. The effect is the exact opposite of a process called VidFIRE.

CAMERA AND ITS ACCESSORIES

Accessories for cameras are mainly used for care, protection, special effects, and functions.

Lens hood used on the end of a lens to block the sun or other light source to prevent glare and
lens flare.

Lens cap: covers and protects the camera lens when not in use.

33
Lens adapter: allows the use of lenses other than those for which the camera was designed.

Filter: allows artificial colors or changes light density.

Lens extension tube: allows close focus in macro photography.

Care and protection: include camera case and cover, maintenance tools, and screen protector.

Camera monitor: provides an off-camera view of the composition with a brighter and more
colorful screen, and typically exposes more advanced tools such as framing guides, focus
peaking, zebra stripes, waveform monitors (oftentimes as an "RGB parade"), vector
scopes and false color to highlight areas of the image critical to the photographer.

Tripod: primarily used for keeping the camera steady while recording video, doing a long
exposure, and time-lapse photography.

Microscope adapter: used to connect a camera to a microscope to photograph what the

microscope is examining.

Cable release: used to remotely control the shutter using a remote shutter button that can be
connected to the camera via a cable. It can be used to lock the shutter open for the desired period,
and it is also commonly used to prevent camera shake from pressing the built-in camera shutter
button.

Dew shield: prevents moisture build-up on the lens.

UV filter: can protect the front element of a lens from scratches, cracks, smudges, dirt, dust, and
moisture while keeping a minimum impact on image quality.

Battery and sometimes a charger

Large format cameras use special equipment that includes magnifier loupe, viewfinder, angle
finder, and focusing rail/truck. Some professional SLRs can be provided with
interchangeable finders for eye-level or waist-level focusing, focusing screens, eyecup, data
backs, motor-drives for film transportation or external battery packs.

34
CAMERA MOUNTS - TROLLEY

The Trolley shot a shot in which the camera moves toward or away from its subject while
filming. Traditionally dolly shots are filmed from a camera dolly but the same motion may also
be performed with a Steadicam, gimbal, etc. A dolly shot is generally described in terms of
"dollying in" or "dollying out". Trucking in and out is also a common synonym.

DOLLY

35
A camera dolly is a wheeled cart or similar device used in filmmaking and television
production to create smooth horizontal camera movements. The camera is mounted to the dolly
and the camera operator and focus puller or camera assistant usually ride on the dolly to push the
dolly back and forth. The camera dolly is generally used to produce images which involve
moving the camera toward or away from a subject while a take is being recorded, a technique
known as a "dolly shot". The dolly grip is the dedicated technician trained to operate the dolly by
manually pushing it back and forth.

CRANE

A jib or jib arm is the horizontal or near-horizontal beam used in many types of crane to support
the load clear of the main support. An archaic spelling is gib. Usually jib arms are attached to a
vertical mast or tower or sometimes to an inclined boom. In other jib-less designs such
as derricks, the load is hung directly from a boom which is often anomalously called a jib.
A camera jib or jib arm in cinematography is a small crane that holds nothing but the camera.

STEADICAM

Steadicam is a brand of camera stabilizer mounts for motion picture cameras invented by Garrett
Brown and introduced in 1975 by Cinema Products Corporation. It was designed to isolate the

36
camera from the camera operator's movement, keeping the camera motion separate and
controllable by a skilled operator.

Before the camera stabilizing system, a director had a number of choices for moving (or
"tracking") shots:

The camera could be mounted on a dolly, a wheeled mount that rolls on specialized tracks or a
smooth surface.

The camera could be mounted on a crane, a counterweighted arm that could move the camera
vertically and horizontally.

The camera operator shoot hand-held which would produce footage suitable mostly
for documentaries, news, reportage, live action, unrehearsed footage, or the evocation of
authentic immediacy or cinéma vérité during dramatic sequences.

37
PEDESTAL

A camera pedestal is an item upon which television cameras are mounted, typically seen
in television studios. Unlike tripods, pedestals give camera operators the ability to move the
camera in any direction (left, right, forward, back, up, down). They are commonly used on shiny-
floor shows, sitcoms and soap operas.

Whilst pedestals are most commonly seen in self-contained television studios, they are also seen
on outside broadcasts.

ARC

The arc shot in film, also called a 360 degrees shot or 360 tracking shot, orbits the camera around
a subject in an arc pattern. In an arc shot, the subject is usually stagnant while the camera circles
them in at least a semi-circle pattern. The term “arc” derives from mathematics meaning a
segment of a complete circumference. This segment in the shot is the orbital path of the camera.

38
What is an arc camera movement used for?

Centralize the audience’s focus

Capture different aspects of a setting

Create a dizzying effect in the audience

Add energy to scenes without dynamic blocking

HI-HAT

For low-angle shots particularly in cinematography, short tripods with fixed length legs and no
center column may be used. The lowest of these is called a low hat, with a slightly higher
version referred to as a hi hat.

39
JIB

In cinematography, a jib is any boom device used to mount a camera on one end, and
a counterweight with camera controls on the other. In principle, it operates like a see-saw, with
the balance point located closer to the counterweight, which allows the end of the arm with the
camera to move through an extended arc.

40
Typically a jib permits the camera to be moved vertically, horizontally, or a combination of the
two. A small jib can be mounted on a tripod, but many larger, purpose-built jibs have their own
support stands, often on wheels. Modern jibs are normally modular and can be assembled in
various lengths.

DRONES IN FILMMAKING

Drones in Filmmaking: The best drones for the job, key obstacles and using them to capture the
action

If you’re an aspiring or experienced filmmaker, or you’re merely interested in how drones can
capture the most amazing aerial footage, you’re not alone. From high-budget film crews to
amateur vloggers, many of our Coptrz Academy students are investing time and money into
drone cinematography each year. And with good reason. Some of the latest innovations you see
on the big screen have come from people using drones in filmmaking.

And we’re not talking about aerial shots of Coronation Street, or the fly-in to the Great British
Bake Off tent. We’re talking about the Marvel Universe, Bond and Harry Potter. With the
technology and opportunities growing year on year, the future is bright for the use of drones in
filmmaking.

41
This week, we caught up with drone pilot Richard Steele, who was lucky enough to film the new
007 film, ‘No Time To Die’. In this case, he really does have a Licence To Fly…

Richard said: “I first started flying RC helicopters as a hobby in 2012, which then lead onto
micro drones when they became popular. I started with a tiny drone for in the house then moving
onto DJI phantom series with the old go pro gimbals. I then decided to get my drone
qualifications and became commercial in 2014, but still continuing my career as a self employed
carpenter. From there I did all kinds of jobs: estate agent images, videos and imaging for
websites and Face book pages etc.

“I progressed onto larger drones buying a DJI S1000 which is one of the old heavy lift systems, I
was subcontracted to do some of the Robson Green tales from Northumberland series, an
Emmerdale episode, then a number of short films, finally being put in contact with the chap who
owns the super heavy lift aircraft you see below, which is called a “Shotover U1”.

“The first few jobs I did with this were the series “Vera”, “Midsummer Murders”, “Brassic” and
a few others before finally getting the chance to film Bond 25 up in Scotland for the same
company. That was filmed in 2019, since then I’ve done more of my own filming jobs for
websites etc, and finally hung the tools up and finished being a tradesman and now I’ve ended up
working full time in the wind turbine inspection industry fly “Alta 8 and Alta 6” for an American
company called Sky Specs.

“The drone used for Bond was as I mentioned called a “U1 manufactured by Shotover” I can’t
remember the specific camera but it was a mag film camera rather than digital. All bond films
are recorded using magazine cameras not digital. Take-off weight of that drone for Bond was
42kg with a flight time of 5 minutes so getting the drone into position and getting the shot with
perfect timing was critical.

“My tip to anyone getting into cinematography is to do a few freelance projects for free, that
seems to be the only way to get into it and that way you can make your first show reel. Once
people see the sort of shots and videos you can produce and you market it well via social media
etc you may get noticed and picked up for certain jobs. Getting your name about is key in this
industry and try and think outside the box and put a twist on what you do so your videos stand
out from the rest.”

42
REFERENCE QUESTIONS
1. Explain the following:

Composition, Hand-Held Camera and Frame Rate

2. Write in details about Exposure, Camera Filters and Matte Box.

3. Elaborate the Camera Movement, Filming at Night and Film Look.

4. Elaborate about Camera and its accessories.

5. Discuss in detail about the following :

Camera Mounts – Trolley, Dolly, Crane, Steadicam.

6. What is Pedestal?

7. Define the Arc technique.

8. What is HI-HAT?

9. Discuss in brief about JIB

10. Explain the role of Drones in Film Making

43
 UNIT – III

CHARACTERISTICS OF LENS

Lens, in optics, piece of glass or other transparent substance that is used to form an image of an
object by focusing rays of light from the object. A lens is a piece of transparent material, usually
circular in shape, with two polished surfaces, either or both of which is curved and may be either
convex (bulging) or concave (depressed). The curves are almost always spherical; i.e., the radius
of curvature is constant. A lens has the valuable property of forming images of objects situated in
front of it. Single lenses are used in eyeglasses, contact lenses, pocket magnifiers, projection
condensers, signal lights, viewfinders, and on simple box cameras. More often a number of
lenses made of different materials are combined together as a compound lens in a tube to permit
the correction of aberrations. Compound lenses are used in such instruments as cameras,
microscopes, and telescopes.

The simplest compound lens is a thin cemented combination of two single lenses, such as that
used in the objective (the lens nearest the object) of a small refracting telescope. Microscope
objectives may contain as many as eight or nine elements, some of which may be made of

44
different materials in order to bring all colours of light to a common focus, and thus
prevent chromatic aberration. The objective lenses used in cameras may contain from two to 10
elements, while a so-called zoom or variable-focal length lens may have as many as 18 or 20
elements in several groups, the different groups being movable along the axis by levers or cams
in order to produce the desired change in focal length without a shift of the focal plane. Lenses
also vary greatly in diameter, from as small as 0.16 cm (1/16 inch) for an element in a
microscope objective to as large as 100 cm (40 inches) for an astronomical telescope objective.
In reflectors and several other types of astronomical telescopes, concave mirrors are used for the
objective instead of lenses.

FOCAL LENGTH

The focal length of an optical system is a measure of how strongly the system converges or
diverges light; it is the inverse of the system's optical power. A positive focal length indicates
that a system converges light, while a negative focal length indicates that the
system diverges light. A system with a shorter focal length bends the rays more sharply, bringing
them to a focus in a shorter distance or diverging them more quickly. For the special case of
a thin lens in air, a positive focal length is the distance over which initially collimated (parallel)
rays are brought to a focus, or alternatively a negative focal length indicates how far in front of
the lens a point source must be located to form a collimated beam. For more general optical
systems, the focal length has no intuitive meaning; it is simply the inverse of the system's optical
power.

45
In most photography and all telescopy, where the subject is essentially infinitely far away, longer
focal length (lower optical power) leads to higher magnification and a narrower angle of view;
conversely, shorter focal length or higher optical power is associated with lower magnification
and a wider angle of view. On the other hand, in applications such as microscopy in which
magnification is achieved by bringing the object close to the lens, a shorter focal length (higher
optical power) leads to higher magnification because the subject can be brought closer to the
center of projection.

Many lens manufacturers produce or produced prime lenses at or near the following focal
lengths: 20 mm, 24 mm, 28 mm, 35 mm, 40 mm, 50 mm, 85 mm, 105 mm, 135 mm, 200 mm,
300 mm, 400 mm, and 600 mm. For these lengths many manufacturers produce two or more
lenses with the same focal length but with different maximum apertures to suit the different
needs of photographers. Additional focal lengths can be created by using a teleconverter.

For 35 mm film and full frame digital cameras (in which the image area is 36 by 24 millimeters)
prime lenses can be categorized by focal length as follows:

12 to 21 mm: Ultra-Wide — usually used at very close subject distances to produce a perspective
that provides a dramatic, often extreme image that distorts a scene’s natural proportions

24 to 35 mm: Wide — capture a wider field of view than a standard lens, at shorter distances, the
perspective can show distortion

46
50 mm: Standard — a focal length near the 44mm image diagonal and a perspective similar to
human vision

85 mm: Portrait — short telephoto lens that accommodates a longer subject to camera distance
for pleasing perspective effects and useful image framing

135 mm: Telephoto — used, for example, by action and sports photographers to capture faraway
objects

200 to 500 mm: Super Telephoto — specialized, bulky lenses typically used in sports, action,
and wildlife photography

DEPTH OF FIELD

The depth of field (DOF) is the distance between the nearest and the furthest objects that are in
acceptably sharp focus in an image captured with a camera.

Many lenses include scales that indicate the DOF for a given focus distance and f-number; the
35 mm lens in the image is typical. That lens includes distance scales in feet and meters; when a
marked distance is set opposite the large white index mark, the focus is set to that distance. The
DOF scale below the distance scales includes markings on either side of the index that
correspond to f-numbers. When the lens is set to a given f-number, the DOF extends between the
distances that align with the f-number markings.

47
Photographers can use the lens scales to work backwards from the desired depth of field to find
the necessary focus distance and aperture. For the 35 mm lens shown, if it were desired for the
DOF to extend from 1 m to 2 m, focus would be set so that index mark was centered between the
marks for those distances, and the aperture would be set to f/11.

On a view camera, the focus and f-number can be obtained by measuring the depth of field and
performing simple calculations. Some view cameras include DOF calculators that indicate focus
and f-number without the need for any calculations by the photographer.

For cameras that can only focus on one object distance at a time, depth of field is the distance
between the nearest and the farthest objects that are in acceptably sharp focus. "Acceptably sharp
focus" is defined using a property called the "circle of confusion".

The depth of field can be determined by focal length, distance to subject, the acceptable circle of
confusion size, and aperture. Limitations of depth of field can sometimes be overcome with
various techniques and equipment. The approximate depth of field can be given by:

48
{\displaystyle {\text{DOF}}\approx {\frac {2u^{2}Nc}{f^{2}}}}

for a given circle of confusion (c), focal length (f), f-number (N), and distance to subject (u).

As distance or the size of the acceptable circle of confusion increases, the depth of field
increases; however, increasing the size of the aperture or increasing the focal length reduces the
depth of field. Depth of field changes linearly with F-number and circle of confusion, but
changes in proportion to the square of the focal length and the distance to the subject. As a result,
photos taken at extremely close range have a proportionally much smaller depth of field.

Sensor size affects DOF in counterintuitive ways. Because the circle of confusion is directly tied
to the sensor size, decreasing the size of the sensor while holding focal length and aperture
constant will decrease the depth of field (by the crop factor). The resulting image however will
have a different field of view. If the focal length is altered to maintain the field of view, the
change in focal length will counter the decrease of DOF from the smaller sensor and increase the
depth of field (also by the crop factor).

APERTURE

In optics, an aperture is a hole or an opening through which light travels. More specifically, the
aperture and focal length of an optical system determine the cone angle of a bundle of rays that
come to a focus in the image plane.

49
An optical system typically has many openings or structures that limit the ray bundles (ray
bundles are also known as pencils of light). These structures may be the edge of a lens or mirror,
or a ring or other fixture that holds an optical element in place, or may be a special element such
as a diaphragm placed in the optical path to limit the light admitted by the system. In general,
these structures are called stops, and the aperture stop is the stop that primarily determines
the ray cone angle and brightness at the image point.

In some contexts, especially in photography and astronomy, aperture refers to the diameter of the
aperture stop rather than the physical stop or the opening itself. For example, in a telescope, the
aperture stop is typically the edges of the objective lens or mirror (or of the mount that holds it).
One then speaks of a telescope as having, for example, a 100-centimeter aperture. Note that the
aperture stop is not necessarily the smallest stop in the system. Magnification and
demagnification by lenses and other elements can cause a relatively large stop to be the aperture
stop for the system. In astrophotography, the aperture may be given as a linear measure (for
example in inches or mm) or as the dimensionless ratio between that measure and the focal
length. In other photography, it is usually given as a ratio.

Sometimes stops and diaphragms are called apertures, even when they are not the aperture stop
of the system.

50
The word aperture is also used in other contexts to indicate a system which blocks off light
outside a certain region. In astronomy, for example, a photometric aperture around a star usually
corresponds to a circular window around the image of a star within which the light intensity is
assumed. The word "aperture" is also used as a small hole, similar to a peek-hole. For example,
in military terms, a bunker's aperture means a small peeking hole made artificially or by natural
means. A bunker's aperture can be used for preserving the body from enemy fire while achieving
a clear line of sight.

SHUTTER

In photography, a shutter is a device that allows light to pass for a determined period,
exposing photographic film or a photosensitive digital sensor to light in order to capture a
permanent image of a scene. A shutter can also be used to allow pulses of light to pass outwards,
as seen in a movie projector or a signal lamp. A shutter of variable speed is used to control
exposure time of the film. The shutter is constructed so that it automatically closes after a certain
required time interval. The speed of the shutter is controlled by a ring outside the camera, on
which various timings are marked.

Camera shutters can be fitted in several positions: Leaf shutters are usually fitted within a lens
assembly (central shutter), or more rarely immediately behind (behind-the-lens shutter) or, even
more rarely, in front of a lens, and shut off the beam of light where it is narrow.

Focal-plane shutters are mounted near the focal plane and move to uncover the film or sensor.

51
Behind-the-lens shutters were used in some cameras with limited lens interchangeability.
Shutters in front of the lens, sometimes simply a lens cap that is removed and replaced for the
long exposures required, were used in the early days of photography. Other mechanisms than the
dilating aperture and the sliding curtains have been used; anything which exposes the film to
light for a specified time will suffice.

The time for which a shutter remains open (exposure time, often called "shutter speed") is
determined by a timing mechanism. These were originally pneumatic (Compound shutter)
or clockwork, but since the late twentieth century are mostly electronic. Mechanical shutters
typically had a Time setting, where the shutter opened when the button was pressed and
remained open until it was pressed again, Bulb where the shutter remained open as long as the
button was pressed (originally actuated by squeezing an actual rubber bulb), and Instantaneous
exposure, with settings ranging from 30" to 1/4000" for the best leaf shutters, faster for focal-
plane shutters, and more restricted for basic types. The reciprocal of exposure time in seconds is

52
often used for engraving shutter settings. For example, a marking of "250" denotes 1/250". This
does not cause confusion in practice.

The exposure time and the effective aperture of the lens must together be such as to allow the
right amount of light to reach the film or sensor. Additionally, the exposure time must be suitable
to handle any motion of the subject. Usually it must be fast enough to "freeze" rapid motion,
unless a controlled degree of motion blur is desired, for example to give a sensation of
movement.

Most shutters have a flash synchronization switch to trigger a flash, if connected. This was quite
a complicated matter with mechanical shutters and flashbulbs which took an appreciable time to
reach full brightness, focal-plane shutters making this even more difficult. Special flashbulbs
were designed which had a prolonged burn, illuminating the scene for the whole time taken by a
focal plane shutter slit to move across the film. These problems were essentially solved for non-
focal-plane shutters with the advent of electronic flash units which fire virtually instantaneously
and emit a very short flash.

When using a focal-plane shutter with a flash, if the shutter is set at its X-sync speed or slower
the whole frame will be exposed when the flash fires (otherwise only a band of the film will be
exposed). Some electronic flashes can produce a longer pulse compatible with a focal-plane
shutter operated at much higher shutter speeds. The focal-plane shutter will still impart focal-
plane shutter distortions to a rapidly moving subject.

Cinematography uses a rotary disc shutter in movie cameras, a continuously spinning disc which
conceals the image with a reflex mirror during the intermittent motion between frame exposure.
The disc then spins to an open section that exposes the next frame of film while it is held by
the registration pin.

LENS

A lens is a transmissive optical device which focuses or disperses a light beam by means
of refraction. A simple lens consists of a single piece of transparent material, while a compound
lens consists of several simple lenses (elements), usually arranged along a common axis. Lenses

53
are made from materials such as glass or plastic, and are ground and polished or molded to a
desired shape. A lens can focus light to form an image, unlike a prism, which refracts light
without focusing. Devices that similarly focus or disperse waves and radiation other than visible
light are also called lenses, such as microwave lenses, electron lenses, acoustic lenses,
or explosive lenses.

Lenses are used in various imaging devices like telescopes, binoculars and cameras. They are
also used as visual aids in glasses to correct defects of vision such as myopia and hypermetropia

NORMAL LENS

In photography and cinematography, a normal lens is a lens that reproduces a field of view that
appears "natural" to a human observer. In contrast, depth compression and expansion with
shorter or longer focal lengths introduces noticeable, and sometimes disturbing, distortion.

54
A test of what is a normal lens then, is to find one that renders a printed (or otherwise displayed)
photograph of a scene that when held at 'normal' viewing distance (usually arm's length) in front
of the original scene and viewed with one eye, matches the real-world and the rendered
perspective, though Maurice Pirenne (in 1970) and others demonstrate that it is possible to see a
scene made with any lens in normal perspective if one adjusts the viewing distance; but
impractically close to the image for wide angle photographs and further away for a telephoto,
and views it from a static point at the centre of perspective from which the image was
made, supporting the observations of perspective paintings made by Leonardo da Vinci.

WIDE-ANGLE LENS

In photography and cinematography, a wide-angle lens refers to a lens whose focal length is
substantially smaller than the focal length of a normal lens for a given film plane. This type of
lens allows more of the scene to be included in the photograph, which is useful in architectural,

55
interior and landscape photography where the photographer may not be able to move farther
from the scene to photograph it.

Another use is where the photographer wishes to emphasize the difference in size or distance
between objects in the foreground and the background; nearby objects appear very large and
objects at a moderate distance appear small and far away.

This exaggeration of relative size can be used to make foreground objects more prominent and
striking, while capturing expansive backgrounds.

A wide angle lens is also one that projects a substantially larger image circle than would be
typical for a standard design lens of the same focal length. This large image circle enables either
large tilt & shift movements with a view camera, or a wide field of view.

By convention, in still photography, the normal lens for a particular format has a focal length
approximately equal to the length of the diagonal of the image frame or digital photosensor. In
cinematography, a lens of roughly twice the diagonal is considered "normal".

56
Longer lenses magnify the subject more, apparently compressing distance and (when focused on
the foreground) blurring the background because of their shallower depth of field. Wider lenses
tend to magnify distance between objects while allowing greater depth of field.

Another result of using a wide-angle lens is a greater apparent perspective distortion when the
camera is not aligned perpendicularly to the subject: parallel lines converge at the same rate as
with a normal lens, but converge more due to the wider total field. For example, buildings appear
to be falling backwards much more severely when the camera is pointed upward from ground
level than they would if photographed with a normal lens at the same distance from the subject,
because more of the subject building is visible in the wide-angle shot.

Because different lenses generally require a different camera–subject distance to preserve the
size of a subject, changing the angle of view can indirectly distort perspective, changing the
apparent relative size of the subject and foreground.

TELEPHOTO LENS

In photography and cinematography, is a specific type of a long-focus lens in which the physical
length of the lens is shorter than the focal length. This is achieved by incorporating a special lens
group known as a telephoto group that extends the light path to create a long-focus lens in a
much shorter overall design. The angle of view and other effects of long-focus lenses are the
same for telephoto lenses of the same specified focal length. Long-focal-length lenses are often
informally referred to as telephoto lenses, although this is technically incorrect: a telephoto lens
specifically incorporates the telephoto group.

57
Telephoto lenses are sometimes broken into the further sub-types of short telephoto (85–135 mm
in 35 mm film format), medium telephoto: (135–300 mm in 35 mm film format) and super
telephoto (over 300 mm in 35 mm film format).

A telephoto lens works by having the outermost (i.e. light gathering) element of a much shorter
focal length than the equivalent long-focus lens and then incorporating a second set of elements
close to the film or sensor plane that extend the cone of light so that it appears to have come from
a lens of much greater focal length. The basic construction of a telephoto lens consists of front
lens elements that, as a group, have a positive focus. The focal length of this group is shorter
than the effective focal length of the lens. The converging rays from this group are intercepted by
the rear lens group, sometimes called the "telephoto group," which has a negative focus. The
simplest telephoto designs could consist of one element in each group, but in practice, more than
one element is used in each group to correct for various aberrations. The combination of these
two groups produces a lens assembly that is physically shorter than a long-focus lens producing
the same image size.

58
ZOOM LENS

A zoom lens is a mechanical assembly of lens elements for which the focal length (and
thus angle of view) can be varied, as opposed to a fixed-focal-length (FFL) lens (see prime lens).

A true zoom lens, also called a par focal lens, is one that maintains focus when its focal length
changes. Most consumer zoom lenses do not maintain perfect focus, but are still par focal
designs. Most camera phones that are advertised as having optical zoom actually use a few
cameras of different but fixed focal length, combined with digital zoom to make a hybrid system.

TV camera and Canon DIGI SUPER 86 II zoom lens with 86× magnification

The convenience of variable focal length comes at the cost of complexity – and some
compromises on image quality, weight, dimensions, aperture, autofocus performance, and cost.
For example, all zoom lenses suffer from at least slight, if not considerable, loss of image
resolution at their maximum aperture, especially at the extremes of their focal length range. This
effect is evident in the corners of the image, when displayed in a large format or high resolution.
The greater the range of focal length a zoom lens offers, the more exaggerated these
compromises must become.

59
PRIME LENS

In film and photography, a prime lens is a fixed focal length photographic lens (as opposed to
a zoom lens), typically with a maximum aperture from f2.8 to f1.2. The term can also mean the
primary lens in a combination lens system. Confusion between these two meanings can occur
without clarifying context. Alternate terms, such as primary focal length, fixed focal length,
or FFL are sometimes used to avoid ambiguity.

The term prime has come to mean the opposite of zoom—a fixed-focal-length or unifocal lens.
While a prime lens of a given focal length is less versatile than a zoom lens, it is often of
superior optical quality, wider maximum aperture, lighter weight, and smaller size. These
advantages stem from having fewer moving parts, optical elements optimized for one particular
focal length, and a less complicated lens formula that creates fewer optical aberration issues.
Larger maximum aperture (smaller f-number) facilitates photography in lower light, and a
shallower depth of field.

60
A normal lens or "normal prime" is a lens with a focal length about equal to the diagonal size of
the film or sensor format, or that reproduces perspective that generally looks "natural" to a
human observer under normal viewing conditions.

The older, original meaning of prime lens is the main lens in a combination lens system. When
the camera lens is used with some other optical device, such as a close-up lens, teleconverter,
or teleside converter, the camera lens itself is properly called the prime lens. Prime is here used
in the sense of primary, chief, original, first in order, etc.

Lens manufacturers such as ARRI Media, ISCO Precision Optics, Schneider, Carl Zeiss
AG, Canon and others still make variable focal length cine and video lenses regularly catalogued
as variable prime lenses. A variable prime is sometimes distinguished from a "true zoom" in that
the latter maintains focus as the focal length is varied.

This use of the term "prime lens" is an example of a retronym. Early in photography only
primary camera lenses were available, and were merely called "lenses" or "objectives". Later,
"auxiliary" lenses were available, which usually fit in front of the front element of the primary or
"prime" lens.

61
REFERENCE QUESTIONS

1. Explain in detail about Characteristics of Lens

2. Describe about Focal Length and Depth of Field

3. Write about Aperture and Shutter

4. Classify the Normal Lens and Wide Angle Lens

5. Distinguish Telephoto Lens and Zoom Lens

6. Elaborate about Prime Lens

7. Define the Concave Lens

8. Write about Convex Lens

9. What is F-Stop

10. Define the Angle of View

62
 UNIT-IV

NATURE OF LIGHT

Light has the properties of a wave and a particle.

The word “wavelength” is used to express the wave or undulating property of light. It is the
distance that light travels in one oscillation, and is often expressed using a unit called
"nanometer". One nanometer is equal to one billionth of a meter. Our eyes can only see light that
is of a wavelength between approximately 400 to 700 nanometers. This range is called the visible
light. The light of other wavelengths includes X-rays, ultraviolet rays, and infrared rays. Though
we cannot see them directly, these are also members of the light family.

On the other hand, light also has the property of a particle. The intensity of the light varies
depending on the number of particles. Bright light has many particles while dark light has fewer
particles. These particles of light are called “photons”.

We can check out the particle property of light by comparing light with sound using a device
called oscilloscope. Sound is known to have the characteristics of a wave. When the intensity or
magnitude of sound gradually weakens, the signal of sound becomes smaller and eventually
disappears. However, when light gradually weakens, the overall quantity of its signal becomes

63
less yet the few remaining pulses (extremely short signals) can be detected and the size of these
individual signals does not decrease. This tells us that light cannot become any smaller, and that
light has a property of a “particle.”

THREE-POINT LIGHTING

Three-point lighting is a standard method used in visual media such as theatre, video, film, still
photography, computer-generated imagery and 3D computer graphics. By using three separate
positions, the photographer can illuminate the shot's subject (such as a person) however desired,
while also controlling (or eliminating entirely) the shading and shadows produced by direct
lighting.

The key light, as the name suggests, shines directly upon the subject and serves as its principal
illuminator; more than anything else, the strength, color and angle of the key determines the
shot's overall lighting design.

In indoor shots, the key is commonly a specialized lamp, or a camera's flash. In outdoor daytime
shots, the Sun often serves as the key light. In this case, of course, the photographer cannot set
the light in the exact position they want, so instead arranges the shot to best capture the sunlight,
perhaps after waiting for the sun to position itself just right.

64
The fill light also shines on the subject, but from a side angle relative to the key and is often
placed at a lower position than the key (about at the level of the subject's face). It balances the
key by illuminating shaded surfaces, and lessening or eliminating chiaroscuro effects, such as the
shadow cast by a person's nose upon the rest of the face. It is usually softer and less bright than
the key light (up to half), and more to a flood. Not using a fill at all can result in stark contrasts
(due to shadows) across the subject's surface, depending upon the key light's harshness.
Sometimes, as in low-key lighting, this is a deliberate effect, but shots intended to look more
natural and less stylistic require a fill.

In some situations a photographer can use a reflector (such as a piece of white cardstock
mounted off-camera, or even a white-painted wall) as a fill light instead of an actual lamp.
Reflecting and redirecting the key light's rays back upon the subject from a different angle can
cause a softer, subtler effect than using another lamp.

The backlight (a.k.a. the rim, hair, or shoulder light) shines on the subject from behind, often (but
not necessarily) to one side or the other. It gives the subject a rim of light, serving to separate the
subject from the background and highlighting contours.

Back light or rim light is different from a kick in that a kick (or kicker) contributes to a portion of
the shading on the visible surface of the subject, while a rim light only creates a thin outline
around the subject without necessarily hitting the front (visible) surface of the subject at all.

HMI

Hydrargyrum Medium-Arc Iodide (HMI) lights are the most used type of light on set. HMI lights
emit an ultraviolet light with a blue hue. To power up, HMI lights require an electrical ballast.
The ballast ignites the metal-halide gas and mercury vapor mix in the bulb. Ballasts also limit the
current to prevent flickering. HMI lamps are up to four times more powerful than traditional
incandescent bulbs. There is a very loud noise when powering up HMI bulbs, so the lighting
technician is required to shout “striking” to notify the cast and crew.

65
The age of an HMI bulb is very important. During its first few hours, a brand new bulb will have
a color temperature up to 15,000K. These bulbs should be left on to reach the optimal range of
5600K, which is close to daylight. Bulbs should not be used past half their lifetime. The bulbs
require more voltage and the color temperature will continue to decrease 1 kelvin every hour
burnt, eventually risking serious damage if used too long.

HMI lights are rather expensive lights, but they are much more efficient. The bulbs can only be
dimmed to 50%, but it causes the color temperature to rise to a stronger blue. If blown out or
dropped, HMI bulbs will explode hot glass and mercury vapor. It’s very important to have a
knowledgeable lighting technician on staff if using HMI.

66
XENON LIGHT

A xenon arc lamp is a highly specialized type of gas discharge lamp, an electric light that
produces light by passing electricity through ionized xenon gas at high pressure. It produces a
bright white light to simulate sunlight, with applications in movie projectors in theaters,
in searchlights, and for specialized uses in industry and research. For instance, Xenon arc lamps
with mercury lamps are the two most common lamps used in wide-field fluorescence
microscopes.

67
Xenon arc lamps can be roughly divided into three categories: continuous-output xenon short-arc
lamps, continuous-output xenon long-arc lamps, and xenon flash lamps (which are usually
considered separately).

Each consists of a fused quartz or other heat resistant glass arc tube, with
a tungsten metal electrode at each end. The glass tube is first evacuated and then re-filled with
xenon gas. For xenon flashtubes, a third "trigger" electrode usually surrounds the exterior of the
arc tube. The lifetime of a xenon arc lamp varies according to its design and power consumption,
with a major manufacturer quoting average lifetimes ranging from 500 hours (7kW) to 1,500
(1kW).

CARBON ARC LIGHTING

68
In popular use, the term arc lamp means carbon arc lamp only. In a carbon arc lamp, the
electrodes are carbon rods in free air. To ignite the lamp, the rods are touched together, thus
allowing a relatively low voltage to strike the arc. The rods are then slowly drawn apart, and
electric current heats and maintains an arc across the gap. The tips of the carbon rods are heated
and the carbon vaporizes. The carbon vapor in the arc is highly luminous, which is what
produces the bright light. The rods are slowly burnt away in use, and the distance between them
needs to be regularly adjusted in order to maintain the arc.

Many ingenious mechanisms were invented to control the distance automatically, mostly based
on solenoids. In one of the simplest mechanically-regulated forms (which was soon superseded
by more smoothly acting devices) the electrodes are mounted vertically. The current supplying
the arc is passed in series through a solenoid attached to the top electrode. If the points of the
electrodes are touching (as in startup) the resistance falls, the current increases and the increased
pull from the solenoid draws the points apart. If the arc starts to fail the current drops and the
points close up again.

The Yablochkov candle is a simple arc lamp without a regulator, but it has the drawbacks that
the arc cannot be restarted (single use) and a limited lifetime of only a few hours.

69
TUNGSTEN FRESNELS

Tungsten light is basically a more powerful version of a common household light bulb. While a
household light bulb may only take a few hundred watts at most, lights that are used to light film
sets are easily 1000 watts (1K) and often over 20,000 watts (20K). The tungsten light bulb
naturally produces an orange hue, similar to indoor lights. Tungsten lights have a colour
temperature ranging from 3200 to 3400 Kelvin. One typically uses a CTB ('' colour temperature
blue'') filter to balance the colour temperature with outdoor or HMI light.

70
PAR

A parabolic aluminized reflector lamp (PAR lamp or simply PAR) is a type of electric lamp that
is widely used in commercial, residential, and transportation illumination. It produces a highly
directional beam. Usage includes theatrical lighting, locomotive headlamps, aircraft landing
lights, and residential and commercial recessed lights ("cans" in the United States).

Many PAR lamps are of the sealed beam variety, with a parabolic reflector, one or
more filaments, and a glass or plastic lens sealed permanently together as a unit. Originally
introduced for road vehicle headlamp service, sealed beams have since been applied
elsewhere. Halogen sealed beam lamps incorporate a halogen lamp within a quartz or hard glass
envelope.

CHINESE LANTERN

A sky lantern (Chinese lantern) is a small hot air balloon made of paper, with an opening at the
bottom where a small fire is suspended.

In Asia and elsewhere around the world, sky lanterns have been traditionally made for centuries,
to be launched for play or as part of long-established festivities. The name sky lantern is a

71
translation of the Chinese name but they have also been referred to as sky candles or fire
balloons. In Thai, they are known as khom loi.

Several fires have been attributed to sky lanterns, with at least one 21st-century death caused.
Sky lanterns have been made illegal in several countries. Many areas of Asia do not permit sky
lanterns because of widespread fire hazards as well as danger to livestock.

One traditional account says that Diwali commemorates the return of Rama after 14 years of
exile and victory over Ravana, just before the start of the winter season, as part of celebrations
sky lanterns are released into the night sky with hopes towards a new year. Although fireworks
have been lit for a longer period, Chinese lanterns gained popularity in Diwali in the 21st
century. One of the most famous sky lantern festivals is celebrated at Udaipur, Rajasthan. In
Bengal and Northeast India, Buddhist people celebrate their Probarona Purnima which signifies
the end of their three-month lent by releasing lighted sky lanterns (fanush), it is the second-
largest festival of the Buddhist community. During Diwali festival (The festival of Light) eco-
friendly sky lanterns are used for celebrations along with fireworks. It is a ritual of warding away
bad energy and beginning a new (enlightened) path to righteousness.

72
SPACE LIGHTS

Uplighting is less common, often used to bounce indirect light off the ceiling and back down. It
is commonly used in lighting applications that require minimal glare and uniform general
illuminance levels. Uplighting (indirect) uses a diffuse surface to reflect light in a space and can
minimize disabling glare on computer displays and other dark glossy surfaces. It gives a more
uniform presentation of the light output in operation. However indirect lighting is completely
reliant upon the reflectance value of the surface. While indirect lighting can create a diffused and
shadow free light effect it can be regarded as an uneconomical lighting principle.

Front lighting is also quite common, but tends to make the subject look flat as its casts almost no
visible shadows. Lighting from the side is the less common, as it tends to
produce glare near eye level.

Backlighting either around or through an object is mainly for accent. Backlighting is used to
illuminate a background or backdrop. This adds depth to an image or scene. Others use it to
achieve a more dramatic effect.

Down lighting is most common, with fixtures on or recessed in the ceiling casting light
downward. This tends to be the most used method, used in both offices and homes. Although it is

73
easy to design, it has dramatic problems with glare and excess energy consumption due to large
number of fittings. The introduction of LED lighting has greatly improved this by approx. 90%
when compared to a halogen down light or spotlight. LED lamps or bulbs are now available to
retro fit in place of high energy consumption lamps.

Soft light

Soft light tends to “wrap” around subjects, producing shadows with soft, fuzzy edges. Softness
of light increases with the size of the light source, as the emitted light rays will travel in many
directions as they move toward the subject. Light sources can also produce softer light by using
diffusion material (like in a softbox) or by bouncing the light of a surface (like with a reflector).

74
Soft light use is popular in photography and cinematography. By diffusing hard shadows,
softening dark areas, and removing sharp edges, soft light produces more flattering images of the
human form. Colours may also appear richer and more realistic.

FLUORESCENT BANK

A fluorescent lamp, or fluorescent tube, is a low-pressure mercury-vapor gas-discharge

lamp that uses fluorescence to produce visible light. An electric current in the gas excites
mercury vapor, which produces short-wave ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor coating
on the inside of the lamp to glow. A fluorescent lamp converts electrical energy into useful light
much more efficiently than an incandescent lamp. The typical luminous efficacy of fluorescent
lighting systems is 50–100 lumens per watt, several times the efficacy of incandescent bulbs with
comparable light output. For comparison, the luminous efficacy of an incandescent bulb may
only be 16 lumens per watt.

75
Fluorescent lamp fixtures are more costly than incandescent lamps because, among other things,
they require a ballast to regulate current through the lamp, but the initial cost is offset by a much
lower running cost. Compact fluorescent lamps are now available in the same popular sizes as
incandescent and are used as an energy-saving alternative in homes.

Because they contain mercury, many fluorescent lamps are classified as hazardous waste.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency recommends that fluorescent lamps be
segregated from general waste for recycling or safe disposal, and some jurisdictions require
recycling of them.

COLOR TEMPERATURE

Color temperature is the color of light emitted by an idealized opaque, non-reflective body at a
particular temperature measured in kelvins. The color temperature scale is used to categorize the
color of light emitted by other light sources regardless of their temperature.

76
Color temperature is a characteristic of visible light that has important applications
in lighting, photography, videography, publishing, manufacturing, astrophysics, horticulture, and
other fields. In practice, color temperature is meaningful only for light sources that do in fact
correspond somewhat closely to the color of some black body, i.e., light in a range going from
red to orange to yellow to white to bluish white; it does not make sense to speak of the color
temperature of, e.g., a green or a purple light. Color temperature is conventionally expressed
in kelvins, using the symbol K, a unit of measure for absolute temperature.

Color temperatures over 5000 K are called "cool colors" (bluish), while lower color temperatures
(2700–3000 K) are called "warm colors" (yellowish). "Warm" in this context is an analogy to
radiated heat flux of traditional incandescent lighting rather than temperature. The spectral peak
of warm-colored light is closer to infrared, and most natural warm-colored light sources emit
significant infrared radiation. The fact that "warm" lighting in this sense actually has a "cooler"
color temperature often leads to confusion.

Photographic emulsion film does not respond to lighting color identically to the human retina or
visual perception. An object that appears to the observer to be white may turn out to be very blue
or orange in a photograph. The color balance may need to be corrected during printing to achieve
a neutral color print. The extent of this correction is limited since color film normally has three
layers sensitive to different colors and when used under the "wrong" light source, every layer
may not respond proportionally, giving odd color casts in the shadows, although the mid-tones
may have been correctly white-balanced under the enlarger. Light sources with discontinuous
spectra, such as fluorescent tubes, cannot be fully corrected in printing either, since one of the
layers may barely have recorded an image at all.

Photographic film is made for specific light sources (most commonly daylight film and tungsten
film), and, used properly, will create a neutral color print. Matching the sensitivity of the film to
the color temperature of the light source is one way to balance color. If tungsten film is used
indoors with incandescent lamps, the yellowish-orange light of the tungsten incandescent lamps
will appear as white (3200 K) in the photograph. Color negative film is almost always daylight-
balanced, since it is assumed that color can be adjusted in printing (with limitations, see above).
Color transparency film, being the final artifact in the process, has to be matched to the light
source or filters must be used to correct color.

77
Filters on a camera lens, or color gels over the light source(s) may be used to correct color
balance. When shooting with a bluish light (high color temperature) source such as on an
overcast day, in the shade, in window light, or if using tungsten film with white or blue light, a
yellowish-orange filter will correct this. For shooting with daylight film (calibrated to 5600 K)
under warmer (low color temperature) light sources such as sunsets, candlelight or tungsten
lighting, a bluish (e.g. #80A) filter may be used. More-subtle filters are needed to correct for the
difference between, say 3200 K and 3400 K tungsten lamps or to correct for the slightly blue cast
of some flash tubes, which may be 6000 K.

If there is more than one light source with varied color temperatures, one way to balance the
color is to use daylight film and place color-correcting gel filters over each light source.

Photographers sometimes use color temperature meters. These are usually designed to read only
two regions along the visible spectrum (red and blue); more expensive ones read three regions
(red, green, and blue). However, they are ineffective with sources such as fluorescent or
discharge lamps, whose light vary in color and may be harder to correct for. Because this light is
often greenish, a magenta filter may correct it. More sophisticated colorimetry tools can be used
if such meters are lacking.

COLOR BALANCE

In photography and image processing, color balance is the global adjustment of the intensities of
the colors (typically red, green, and blue primary colors). An important goal of this adjustment is
to render specific colors – particularly neutral colors like white or grey – correctly. Hence, the
general method is sometimes called gray balance, neutral balance, or white balance. Color
balance changes the overall mixture of colors in an image and is used for color correction.
Generalized versions of color balance are used to correct colors other than neutrals or to
deliberately change them for effect. White balance is one of the most common kinds of
balancing, and is when colors are adjusted to make a white object (such as a piece of paper or a
wall) appear white and not a shade of any other colour.

78
Sometimes the adjustment to keep neutrals neutral is called white balance, and the phrase color
balance refers to the adjustment that in addition makes other colors in a displayed image appear
to have the same general appearance as the colors in an original scene. It is particularly important
that neutral (gray, neutral, white) colors in a scene appear neutral in the reproduction.

Image data acquired by sensors – either film or electronic image sensors – must be transformed
from the acquired values to new values that are appropriate for color reproduction or display.
Several aspects of the acquisition and display process make such color correction essential –
including that the acquisition sensors do not match the sensors in the human eye, that the
properties of the display medium must be accounted for, and that the ambient viewing conditions
of the acquisition differ from the display viewing conditions.

The color balance operations in popular image editing applications usually operate directly on
the red, green, and blue channel pixel values, without respect to any color sensing or

79
reproduction model. In film photography, color balance is typically achieved by using color
correction filters over the lights or on the camera lens.

Color balancing an image affects not only the neutrals, but other colors as well. An image that is
not color balanced is said to have a color cast, as everything in the image appears to have been
shifted towards one color. Balancing may be thought in terms of removing this color cast.

Color balance is also related to color constancy. Algorithms and techniques used to attain color
constancy are frequently used for color balancing, as well. Color constancy is, in turn, related
to chromatic adaptation. Conceptually, color balancing consists of two steps: first, determining
the illuminant under which an image was captured; and second, scaling the components
(e.g., R, G and B) of the image or otherwise transforming the components so they conform to the
viewing illuminant.

Viggiano found that white balancing in the camera's native RGB color model tended to produce
less color inconstancy (i.e., less distortion of the colors) than in monitor RGB for over 4000
hypothetical sets of camera sensitivities. This difference typically amounted to a factor of more
than two in favor of camera RGB. This means that it is advantageous to get color balance right at
the time an image is captured, rather than edit later on a monitor. If one must color balance later,
balancing the raw image data will tend to produce less distortion of chromatic colors than
balancing in monitor RGB.

80
REFERENCE QUESTIONS

1. Define the Nature of light

2. Elaborate the Three Point Lighting

3. Compare the HMI - Xenon Light – carbon Arc Lighting

4. Classify the Tungsten Fresnels – PAR – Chinese Lantern

5. Explain in detail about Fluorescent bank

6. Describe the Colour Temperature

7. Write in detail about Colour balance

8. Define the Wave Length

9. What is Hard Light

10. Explain in brief about Soft Light

81
 UNIT – V

FILMMAKING

Filmmaking (Film Production) is the process by which a motion picture is produced. Filmmaking
involves a number of complex and discrete stages, starting with an initial story, idea, or
commission. It then continues through screenwriting, casting, pre-production, shooting, sound
recording, post-production, and screening the finished product before an audience that may result
in a film release and an exhibition. Filmmaking occurs in a variety of economic, social, and
political contexts around the world. It uses a variety of technologies and cinematic techniques.

Although filmmaking originally involved the use of film, most digital. Today, filmmaking refers
to the process of crafting an audio-visual story commercially for distribution or broadcast.

Film production consists of five major stages:

Development: Ideas for the film are created, rights to existing intellectual properties are
purchased, etc., and the screenplay is written. Financing for the project is sought and obtained.

Pre-production: Arrangements and preparations are made for the shoot, such as hiring cast
and film crew, selecting locations and constructing sets.

Production: The raw footage and other elements of the film are recorded during the film shoot,
including principal photography.

Post-production: The images sound, and visual effects of the recorded film are edited and
combined into a finished product.

Distribution: The completed film is distributed, marketed, and screened in cinemas and/or
released to home video to be viewed.

82
DEVELOPMENT

The development stage contains both general and specific components. Each film studio has a
yearly retreat where their top creative executives meet and interact on a variety of areas and
topics they wish to explore through collaborations with producers and screenwriters, and then
ultimately, directors, actors, and actresses. They choose trending topics from the media and real
life, as well as many other sources, to determine their yearly agenda. For example, in a year
when action is popular, they may wish to explore that topic in one or more movies. Sometimes,
they purchase the rights to articles, bestselling novels, plays, the remaking of older films, stories
with some basis in real life through a person or event, a video game, fairy tale, comic
book, graphic novel. Likewise, research through surveys may inform their decisions. They may
have had blockbusters from their previous year and wish to explore a sequel. They will
additionally acquire a completed and independently financed and produced film. Such notable
examples are "Little Miss Sunshine" and "The English Patient" as well as "Roma".

Studios hold general meetings with producers and screenwriters about original story ideas. "In
my decade working as a writer, I knew of only a few that were sold and fewer that made it to the
83
screen," relays writer-director-professor Wayne Powers (The Italian Job). Alan Watt, writer-
director and Founder of The LA Writer's Lab, confirmed that completed original screenplays,
referred to as "specs", make big news when they sell, but these make up a very small portion of
movies that are ultimately given the green light to be produced by the president of a studio.

The executives return from the retreat with fairly well-established instructions. They spread these
concepts through the industry community, especially to producers they have deals with
(traditional studios will have those producers in offices on their lots). Also, agents for
screenwriters are made aware. This results in a pairing of producers with writers, where they
develop a "take", a basic story idea that utilizes the concept given by studio executives. Often it
is a competition with several pairings meeting with studio executives and "pitching" their "take".
Very few writing jobs are from original ideas brought to studios by producers or writers. Perhaps
one movie a year will be a "spec" script that was purchased.

Once the producer and writer have sold their approach to the desired subject matter, they begin
to work. However, many writers and producers usually pass before a particular concept is
realized in a way that is awarded a green light to production. Production of "The Unforgiven",
which earned Oscars for its Director/Star Clint Eastwood, as well as its screenwriter, David
Webb Peoples, required fifteen years. Wayne Powers related that "The Italian Job" took
approximately eight years from concept to screen, which, as Powers added, "is average." And
most concepts turned into paid screenplays wind up gathering dust on some executive's shelf,
never to see production.

Writers have different styles and creative processes; some have stronger track records than
others. Because of this, how the development process proceeds from there and how much detail a
writer returns to the studio to divulge before beginning writing can vary greatly. Screenwriters
are often protected by the union the Writers Guild of America, or WGA. The WGA allows a
screenwriter to contract for One Draft, One Revision and One Polish. Bob Eisle, Writer and
Member of the Guild Board states, "Additional writing requires extension of contracts and
payment for additional work". They are paid 80% of their fee after the First Draft. Preliminary
discussions are minimal with studio executives but might be quite detailed with the producer.

84
Next, a screenwriter writes a screenplay over a period of several months, or however long it
takes. Deadlines are in their contracts but there is no pressure to adhere to them. Again, every
writer's process and speed varies. The screenwriter may rewrite the script several times to
improve dramatization, clarity, structure, characters, dialogue, and overall style.

Script Coverage, a freelance job held by recent university graduates, does not feed scripts into
the system that are ready for production nor already produced. "Coverage" is a way for young
screenwriters to be read and their ideas might make their way up to an executive or famous
producer and result in "meet and greets" where relations with up and comers can be formed. But
it has not historically yielded ideas studios pursue into production.

The studio is the film distributor who at an early stage attempts to choose a slate of concepts that
are likely to have market appeal and find potential financial success. Hollywood distributors
consider factors such as the film genre, the target audience and assumed audience, the historical
success of similar films, the actors who might appear in the film, and potential directors. All
these factors imply a certain appeal of the film to a possible audience. Not all films make a profit
from the theatrical release alone, however, the studio mainly targets the opening weekend and
the second weekend to make most domestic profits. Occasionally, a film called a "word of mouth
film" does not market strongly but its success spreads by word of mouth. It slowly gains its
audience. These are special circumstances and these films may remain in theaters for 5 months
while a typical film run is closer to 5 weekends. Further earnings result from pay
television purchases, foreign market purchases and DVD sales to establish worldwide
distribution gross of a Film.

Once a screenplay is "green-lit", directors and actors are attached and the film proceeds into the
pre-production stage, although sometimes development and pre-production stages will overlap.
Projects which fail to obtain a green light may have protracted difficulties in making the
transition to pre-production and enter a phase referred to as developmental hell for extended
period of time or until developmental turnaround.

Analogous to almost any business venture, financing of a film project deals with the study of
filmmaking as the management and procurement of investments. It includes the dynamics
of assets that are required to fund the filmmaking and liabilities incurred during the filmmaking

85
over the time period from early development through the management of profits and losses after
distribution under conditions of different degrees of uncertainty and risk. The practical aspects of
filmmaking finance can also be defined as the science of the money management of all phases
involved in filmmaking. Film finance aims to price assets based on their risk level and their
expected rate of return based upon anticipated profits and protection against losses.

PRE-PRODUCTION

In pre-production, every step of actually creating the film is carefully designed and planned. This
is the phase where one would narrow down all the options of the production. It is where the
entire planning takes place before the camera rolls and sets the overall vision of the project.
The production company is created and a production office established. The film is pre-
visualized by the director and may be storyboarded with the help of illustrators and concept
artists. A production budget is drawn up to plan expenditures for the film. For major
productions, insurance is procured to protect against accidents. Pre-production also includes
working out the shoot location and casting process. The Producer hires a Line Manager or a
Production Manager to create the schedule and budget for the film.

86
The nature of the film, and the budget, determine the size and type of crew used during
filmmaking. Many Hollywood blockbusters employ a cast and crew of hundreds, while a low-
budget, independent film may be made by a "skeleton crew" of eight or nine (or fewer). These
are typical crew positions:

Storyboard artist: creates visual images to help the director and production designer
communicate their ideas to the production team.

Director: is primarily responsible for the storytelling, creative decisions and acting of the film.

Assistant director (AD): manages the shooting schedule and logistics of the production, among
other tasks. There are several types of AD, each with different responsibilities.

Film producer: hires the film's crew.

Unit production manager: manages the production budget and production schedule. They also
report, on behalf of the production office, to the studio executives or financiers of the film.

Location manager: finds and manages film locations. Nearly all pictures feature segments that
are shot in the controllable environment of a studio sound stage, while outdoor sequences call for
filming on location.

Production designer: the one who creates the visual conception of the film, working with the art
director, who manages the art department which makes production sets.

Costume designer: creates the clothing for the characters in the film working closely with the
actors, as well as other departments.

Makeup and hair designer: works closely with the costume designer in order to create a certain
look for a character.

Casting director: finds actors to fill the parts in the script. This normally requires that actors
partake in an audition, either live in front of the casting director or in front of one or more
cameras.

Choreographer: creates and coordinates the movement and dance – typically for musicals. Some
films also credit a fight choreographer.

87
Director of photography (DOP): the head of the photography of the entire film, supervises
all cinematographers and camera operators.

Production sound mixer: the head of the sound department during the production stage of
filmmaking. They record and mix the audio on set – dialogue, presence and sound
effects in monaural and ambience in stereo. They work with the boom operator, Director, DA,
DP, and First AD.

Sound designer: creates the aural conception of the film, working with the supervising sound
editor. On Bollywood-style Indian productions the sound designer plays the role of a director of
audiography.

Composer: creates new music for the film. (Usually not until post-production)

PRODUCTION

In production, the film is created and shot. In this phase, it is key to keep planning ahead of the
daily shoot. The primary aim is to stick to the budget and schedule, which requires constant
vigilance. More crew will be recruited at this stage, such as the property master, script
supervisor, assistant directors, stills photographer, picture editor, and sound editors. These are

88
the most common roles in filmmaking; the production office will be free to create any unique
blend of roles to suit the various responsibilities needed during the production of a film.
Communication is key between the location, set, office, Production Company, distributors and
all other parties involved.

A typical day shooting begins with the crew arriving on the set/location by their call
time. Actors usually have their own separate call times. Since set
construction, dressing and lighting can take many hours or even days, they are often set up in
advance.

The grip, electric and production design crews are typically a step ahead of the camera and sound
departments: for efficiency's sake, while a scene is being filmed, they are already preparing the
next one.

While the crew prepares their equipment, the actors do their costumes and attend the hair and
make-up departments. The actors rehearse the script and blocking with the director, and the
camera and sound crews rehearse with them and make final tweaks. Finally, the action is shot in
as many takes as the director wishes. Most American productions follow a specific procedure:

The assistant director (AD) calls "picture is up!" to inform everyone that a take is about to be
recorded, and then "quiet, everyone!" Once everyone is ready to shoot, the AD calls "roll sound"
(if the take involves sound), and the production sound mixer will start their equipment, record a
verbal slate of the take's information, and announce "sound speed", or just "speed", when they
are ready. The AD follows with "roll camera", answered by "speed!" by the camera operator
once the camera is recording. The clapper loader, who is already in front of the camera with
the clapperboard, calls "marker!" and slaps it shut. If the take involves extras or background
action, the AD will cue them ("action background!"), and last is the director, telling the actors
"action!". The AD may echo "action" louder on large sets.

A take is over when the director calls "Cut!" and the camera and sound stop recording. The script
supervisor will note any continuity issues, and the sound and camera teams log technical notes
for the take on their respective report sheets. If the director decides additional takes are required,
the whole process repeats. Once satisfied, the crew moves on to the next camera angle or "setup,"

89
until the whole scene is "covered." When shooting is finished for the scene, the assistant director
declares a "wrap" or "moving on," and the crew will "strike," or dismantle, the set for that scene.

At the end of the day, the director approves the next day's shooting schedule and a daily progress
report is sent to the production office. This includes the report sheets from continuity, sound, and
camera teams. Call sheets are distributed to the cast and crew to tell them when and where to
turn up the next shooting day. Later on, the director, producer, other department heads, and,
sometimes, the cast, may gather to watch that day or yesterday's footage, called dailies, and
review their work.

With workdays often lasting fourteen or eighteen hours in remote locations, film production
tends to create a team spirit. When the entire film is "in the can", or in the completion of the
production phase, it is customary for the production office to arrange a wrap party, to thank all
the cast and crew for their efforts.

For the production phase on live-action films, synchronizing work schedules of key cast and
crew members is very important, since for many scenes, several cast members and most of the
crew must be physically present at the same place at the same time (and bankable stars may need
to rush from one project to another). Animated films have different workflow at the production
phase, in that voice actors can record their takes in the recording studio at different times and
may not see one another until the film's premiere. Animated films also have different crew, since
most physical live-action tasks are either unnecessary or are simulated by various types
of animators.

POST-PRODUCTION

This stage is usually thought of as starting when principal photography ends, but they may
overlap. The bulk of post-production consists of the film editor reviewing the footage with the
director and assembling the film out of selected takes. The production sound (dialogue) is also
edited; music tracks and songs are composed and recorded if a film is intended to have a score;
sound effects are designed and recorded. Any computer-generated visual effects are digitally
added by an artist.

90
Finally, all sound elements are mixed down into "stems", which are synchronized to the images
on the screen, and the film is fully completed ("locked").

DISTRIBUTION

Distribution is the last stage, where the film is released to cinemas or, occasionally, directly to
consumer media (VHS, VCD, DVD, Blu-ray) or direct download from a digital media provider.
The film is duplicated as required (either onto film or hard disk drives) and distributed to
cinemas for exhibition (screening). Press kits, posters, and other advertising materials are
published, and the film is advertised and promoted. A B-roll clip may be released to the press
based on raw footage shot for a "making of" documentary, which may include making-of clips as
well as on-set interviews separate from those of the Production Company or distributor. For
major films, key personnel are often contractually required to participate in promotional tours in
which they appear at premieres and festivals and sit for interviews with many TV, print, and
online journalists. The largest productions may require more than one promotional tour, in order
to rejuvenate audience demand at each release window.

91
Since the advent of home video in the late 1970s, most major films have followed a pattern of
having several distinct release windows. A film may first be released to a few select cinemas, or
if it tests well enough, may go directly into wide release. Next, it is released, normally at
different times several weeks (or months) apart, into different market segments
like rental, retail, pay-per-view, in-flight entertainment, cable television, satellite television,
or free-to-air broadcast television. The distribution rights for the film are also usually sold for
worldwide distribution. The distributor and the production company share profits and manage
losses.

92
REFERENCE QUESTIONS

1. Explain the Development phase in Film Making.

2. Describe the stage of Film Pre – Production.

3. Elaborate a detail note on Film Production.

4. Explain in detail about Post – Production phase.

5. Describe the Film Distribution stage.

6. Define the film Exhibition.

7. Write the role of Assistant Director?

8. What is DOP?

9. Define the term DVD.

10. Explain the Film Making process with reference explanation from any movie.

93