2.

4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Polynomial Functions
Given a linear function f (x) = mx + b, we can add a square term, and
get a quadratic function g(x) = ax2 + f (x) = ax2 + mx + b. We can
continue adding terms of higher degrees, e.g. we can add a cube term
and get h(x) = cx3 + g(x) = cx3 + ax2 + mx + b, and so on. f (x), g(x),
and h(x) are all special cases of a polynomial function.

Definition (Polynomial Function)

A polynomial function is a function that can be written in the
form
f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0
for n a nonnegative integer, called the degree of the polynomial.
The coefficients an , an−1 , . . . , a1 , a0 are real numbers with an 6= 0.

Note that although an 6= 0, the remaining coefficients an−1 , an−2 , . . . , a1 , a0

can very well be 0.

Domain of Polynomial Function

The domain of a polynomial function is R, the set of all real
numbers.

The domain of f (x) = xn is R regardless the value of n (any nonneg-

ative integer), and so is the domain of g(x) = axn , where a is some
real number. Clearly, if you add, say k, such functions with different
degrees (n) the domain of the resulting function will still be R.
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Consider a function f (x) = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3). It could be rewritten

as
f (x) = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) =
2
= (x − 1)(x − 2x − 3x + 6) =
2
= (x − 1)(x − 5x + 6) =
= x3 − 5x2 + 6x − x2 + 5x − 6=
= x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6.

So, f (x) is a polynomial function of degree 3.

Question: How many y intercepts does f (x) have?

Answer: Only one, y = f (0) = −6. Any function can have at most
one y intercept, otherwise it will not pass the vertical line test.

y Intercept of a Polynomial Function

If f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 is a polynomial function,
it has exactly one y intercept y = a0 .

Question: How many x intercepts does f (x) have?

Answer: f (x) has 3 intercepts. 0 = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) =⇒ x = 1

or x = 2 or x = 3.

x Intercept of a Polynomial Function

A polynomial of degree n can have, at most, n linear factors.
Therefore, the graph of a polynomial function of positive degree n
can intersect the x axis at most n times. The x intercepts of
f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 could be found by solving
an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 = 0.

2
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

y
7
6
5
4 f (x)
3
2
1
0
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6
−7

Consider a function h(x) = (x2 + 1)(x − 2)(x − 3).

h(x) = (x2 + 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) =

= (x2 + 1)(x2 − 2x − 3x + 6) =
= (x2 + 1)(x2 − 5x + 6) =
= x4 − 5x3 + 6x2 + x2 − 5x + 6=
= x4 − 5x3 + 7x2 − 5x + 6.

h(x) is a polynomial function of degree 4, but has just 2 x intercepts,

because the equation 0 = (x2 + 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) has just 2 roots (zeros),
which are x = 2 and x = 3.

3
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

20y h(x)

16

12

−1 0 1 2 3 4 x
−4

Note that f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6 has degree 3, which is an odd

number. It starts negative, ends positive, and crosses the x axis odd
number of times.

h(x) = x4 − 5x3 + 7x2 − 5x + 6 has degree 4, which is an even number.

It starts positive, ends positive, and cross the x axis even number of
times.

Consider m(x) = −f (x) = −(x3 −6x2 +11x−6) = −x3 +6x2 −11x+6,

and n(x) = −g(x) = −(x4 −5x3 +7x2 −5x+6) = −x4 +5x3 −7x2 +5x−6.

y y
7
8
5
m(x) 4 n(x)
3
−1 0 1 2 3 4 x
1 −4
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 x
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 −8
−3 −12

−5 −16

−7 −20

4
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Definition (Leading Coefficient)

Given a polynomial function f (x) = an xn +an−1 xn−1 +. . .+a1 x+a0 ,
the coefficient an of the highest-degree term is called the leading
coefficient of a polynomial function f (x).

Graph of a Polynomial Function

Given a polynomial function f (x) = an xn +an−1 xn−1 +. . .+a1 x+a0 :

(a) if an > 0 and n is odd, then the graph of f (x) starts neg-
ative, ends positive, and crosses the x axis odd number of
times but at least once;

(b) if an < 0 and n is odd, then the graph of f (x) starts pos-
itive, ends negative, and crosses the x axis odd number of
times but at least once;

(c) if an > 0 and n is even, then the graph of f (x) starts

positive, ends positive, and crosses the x axis even number
of times or does not cross it at all;

(d) if an < 0 and n is even, then the graph of f (x) starts

negative, ends negative, and crosses the x axis even
number of times or does not cross it at all.

Note: (c) is a reflection in the x axis of (a), and (d) is a

reflection in the x axis of (b).

Also note that a polynomial function always either increases or de-

creases without bound as x goes to either negative or positive in-
finity.

5
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Continuity and ”Smoothness” of Polynomial Func-

tion
2|x|
Consider f (x) = x . f (x) has a discontinuous break at x = 0.
y
4
f (x)
2

−5 −3 −1 1 3 5x
−2

−4

6
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Consider g(x) = |x| − 2. g(x) is continuous, but not smooth due to a

sharp corner at (0, −2).
y
4
g(x)
2

−5 −3 −1 1 3 5x
−2

−4

2
Consider h(x) = x−1 . h(x) has a discontinuous break at x = 1.
y
5

3 h(x)
1

−5 −3 −1 1 3 5x
−1

−3

−5

Graph of a Polynomial Function

The graph of a polynomial function is continuous, with no holes
or breaks. That is, the graph can be drawn without removing a
pen from the paper. Also, the graph of a polynomial is ”smooth”,
i.e. has no sharp corners.

7
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Rational Functions
Just as rational numbers are defined in terms of quotients of integers,
rational functions are defined in terms of quotients of polynomials.

Definition (Rational Function)

A rational function is any function that can be written in the

form
n(x)
f (x) = , d(x) 6= 0
d(x)
where n(x) and n(x) are polynomials.

For example,

1 x−2 x13 − 8
f (x) = , g(x) = , h(x) = ,
x x2 − x − 6 x5
p(x) = x4 − 5x3 + 7x2 , q(x) = 123, r(x) = 0
are all rational functions.

If n(x) and d(x) are polynomials, then they both have domain R.
However,

Domain of a Rational Function

If f (x) = n(x)
d(x) is a rational function, then its domain is the set of
all real numbers such that d(x) 6= 0.

8
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Example 1
x2 +1
Find the domain of f (x) = x2 −7x+10

9
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Vertical and Horizontal Asymptotes

Recall that a polynomial function is always continuous and ”smooth”.
It is also true that if x increases or or decreases without bound, then
function also increases or decreases without bound. However, this
may not be true for a rational function. Also, a rational function
may not have a y intercept.

Consider a rational function f (x) = x−3

x−2 . Its domain (−∞, 2] ∪ [2, ∞),
or all real numbers except for x = 2,

x f (x)
1.5 1.5−3
1.5−2
= −1.5
−0.5
=3
1.75 1.75−3
1.75−2
= −1.25
−0.25
=5
1.9−3 −1.1
1.9 1.9−2
= −0.1 = 11
1.95 1.95−3
1.95−2
= −1.05
−0.05
= 21
1.99 1.99−3
1.99−2
= −1.01
−0.01
= 101
1.999 1.999−3
1.999−2
= −1.001
−0.001
= 1001
1.9999 1.9999−3
1.9999−2
= −1.0001
−0.0001
= 10001
1.99999−3 −1.00001
1.99999 1.99999−2
= −0.00001 = 100001
2 undefined
2.00001−3 −0.99999
2.00001 2.00001−2
= 0.00001
= −99999
2.0001−3 −0.9999
2.0001 2.0001−2
= 0.0001
= −9999
2.001−3 −0.999
2.001 2.001−2
= 0.001
= −999
2.01−3 −0.99
2.01 2.01−2
= 0.01
= −99
2.05−3 −0.95
2.05 2.05−2
= 0.05
= −19
2.1−3 −0.9
2.1 2.1−2
= 0.1
= −9
2.25−3 −0.75
2.25 2.25−2
= 0.25
= −3
2.5−3 −0.5
2.5 2.5−2
= 0.5
= −1

10
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

x f (x)
−100000−3
-100000 −100000−2
= −100003
−100002
= 1.00001
−10000−3
-10000 −10000−2
= −10003
−10002
= 1.0001
−1000−3
-1000 −1000−2
= −1003
−1002
= 1.001
−1000−3
-1000 −1000−2
= −1003
−1002
= 1.001
−10−3
-10 −10−2
= −13
−12
= 1.08333
−5−3 −8
-5 −5−2
= −7 = 1.14286
0 0−3
0−2
= −3
−2
= 1.5
1.5 1.5−3
1.5−2
= −1.5
−0.5
=3
2.5−3 −0.5
2.5 2.5−2
= 0.5 = −1
3−3
3 3−2
= 01 =0
5−3
5 5−2
= 23 = 0.666667
10−3
10 10−2
= 78 = 0.875
100−3
100 100−2
= 97
98
= 0.989796
1000−3 997
1000 1000−2
= 998 = 0.998998
10000−3
10000 10000−2
= 9997
9998
= 0.9999
100000−3
100000 100000−2
= 99997
99998
= 0.99999

y x=2
8
The graph of f (x) gets closer to
6
the line x = 2 as x gets closer to 2.
4 Line x = 2 is a vertical asymp-
2 tote for f (x).
y=1
−8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8x The graph of f (x) gets closer to
−2 the line y = 1 as x increases or de-
−4
creases without bound. The line
y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote
−6 for f (x).
−8

11
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Definition (Vertical Asymptote)

A vertical line x = a is called a vertical asymptote for a function
f (x) if the graph of f (x) gets closer to the line x = a as x gets
closer to a.

n(x)
Note: the number of vertical asymptotes of a rational function f (x) = d(x)
is
at most equal to the degree of d(x).

Definition (Horizontal Asymptote)

A horizontal line y = b is called a horizontal asymptote for a
function f (x) if the graph of f (x) gets closer to the line y = b as x
gets x increases or decreases without bound.

Note: a rational function has at most one horizontal asymptote. Moreover, the
graph of a rational function approaches the horizontal asymptote (when one exists)
both as x increases and decreases without bound.

x = −2 x=2 x=0
y y
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

−5 −3 −1 1 3 5x −5 −3 −1 1 3 5x
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3
−4 −4
−5 −5

8 8 1 x2 + 1
f (x) = = f (x) = x + =
x2 −4 (x − 2)(x + 2) x x

12
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Example 2
3x+3
Given the rational function f (x) = x2 −9
,

(a) Find the domain.

(b) Find the x and y intercepts.
(c) Find the equations of all vertical asymptotes.
(d) If there is a horizontal asymptote, find its equation.
(e) Using the information from parts (a)-(d) and additional points as necessary,
sketch a graph of f for −10 ≤ x ≤ 10.

13
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

y
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

−10−9−8−7−6−5−4−3−2−1 x
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6
−7
−8
−9
−10

14
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

3x2 −3x−36
Consider the rational function g(x) = x3 −4x2 −9x+36 .

x = −3 x=3
y
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

−10−9−8−7−6−5−4−3−2−1 x
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6
−7
−8
−9
−10

15
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Example 3
Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the rational function
3
f (x) = xx2 −4x
+5x .

16
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

17
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Applications

Example 4 (Employee Training)

A company that manufactures computers has established that, on
the average, a new employee can assemble N (t) components per
day after t days of on-the-job training, as given by
25t + 5
N (t) = , t≥0
t+5
Sketch a graph of N , 0 ≤ t ≤ 100, including any vertical or horizon-
tal asymptotes. What does N (t) approach as t increases without
bound?

18
Ch 2. Functions and Graphs 2.4 Polynomial and Rational Functions

N (t)

19