INTRODUCTION

TO
COMPARATIVE
POLITICS
Bachelor of Arts in Political Science III A

GROUP 1:
ABELLON, Paul Francis P.
FABRO, Raymundo Jr. C.
NOLASCO, John Paulo C.
VITALIS, Godwin Charles P.
BANGAAN, Lyza Faye R.
PIMIENTA, Belinda P.
VENUS, Kimberly Xyrelle E.
 WHAT IS STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

1. The word "statistics" originally comes from the Latin word status, meaning "state" or
"condition," and was associated with the collection of data about the state or government. The term
"analysis" broadly refers to the process of examining and breaking down information or data to
understand it better, draw conclusions, or solve problems.

2. As states became more centralized and complex, they needed reliable data to manage
resources, implement policies, and enforce laws. The census became a crucial tool for this purpose,
providing detailed information about populations, property, and economic activity.

3. These functions make statistical analysis a crucial tool in validating theories, making informed
predictions, and producing reliable research results across various fields, including comparative
politics.

FUNCTIONS

Hypothesis Testing: Statistical analysis evaluates theories and predictions by analyzing empirical data
to determine whether observed relationships or patterns support or refute the proposed hypotheses.

 collecting data, analyzing data, to determine whether there is enough evidence in a sample of
data to infer that a certain condition is true for the entire population.

Comparative Analysis: Statistical techniques enable the comparison of political systems, policies, and
behaviors across different countries, helping to highlight how different systems operate and the effects
of various political structures.

 comparing the characteristics and outcomes of presidential and parliamentary democracies.

Predictive Modeling: Using historical data, statistical models forecast future political developments or
outcomes, such as predicting election results or the potential impact of policy changes.

 A common use of predictive modeling in politics is forecasting election results. By analyzing

data from past elections, demographic information, and current polling, a model can predict
which candidate is likely to win an upcoming election.
LAST

 "Spurious" means something that is false, misleading, or not what it appears to be.

Spurious Correlations: Strong relationships between variables might be misleading if – – they are
influenced by an unmeasured third factor. For instance, the correlation between electoral systems and
party systems might be due to underlying societal divisions rather than a direct effect. Therefore, the
observed correlation does not reflect a direct cause and-effect relationship between the electoral system
and the number of parties, but is instead driven by the unmeasured third factor, making the correlation
spurious.

 “Causation” refers to the relationship between two events or variables where one directly affects
the other. In other words, causation means that a change in one variable (the cause) produces a
change in another variable (the effect).

Unclear Causation: Even if a correlation is genuine, it doesn’t always clarify the direction of causation.
For example, while democracies might show higher economic growth, it's unclear whether democracy
promotes growth or if economic growth supports democratic stability. The correlation does not
inherently show which of these scenarios is true, or if another unmeasured factor influences both
democracy and economic growth. This lack of clarity about the direction of influence is why the
causation remains unclear, even when the correlation itself is genuine.

Despite its limitations, statistical analysis is essential because it provides empirical evidence,
supports theory testing, and enhances our understanding of political dynamics. It combines
rigor and flexibility, making it a powerful tool for both exploratory and confirmatory research.
statistical analysis may not be every- thing but it is certainly something

TRADITIONAL APPROACHES and its Three Methods

– HISTORICAL METHOD, The historical method can be distinguished from other

methods in that it looks for cause explanations which are historically sensitive. Eric
Wolf emphasizes that any study whic seeks to understand societies and causes of
human action could not merely seek technical solutions to problems stated in
technical terms.

LEGAL METHOD, It examines how laws function in practice, their impact on

society, and how they influence behavior, moving beyond the narrow focus of
traditional legal analysis.
 PHILOSOPHICAL METHOD, The philosophical method in traditional approaches
involves analyzing political concepts, ideas, and values through logical reasoning
and ethical inquiry. It focuses on normative questions like justice, rights, and the
nature of the state

MODERN APPROACHES and its Five Methods

– Behavioral analysis: is the study of political behavior to comprehend public

opinion, voting patterns, and political engagement through experiments, surveys,
and statistical methods.
– Quantitative Methods: Applying data analysis and statistical models to find trends,
validate theories, and forecast political phenomena.

– Qualitative Methods: To obtain a thorough grasp of political processes, institutions,

and actors, case studies, interviews, and content analysis are conducted.
– Systems theory: examines political systems as networked systems, emphasizing the
interactions between system inputs (demands) and outputs (policy).

– Comparative analysis: is the process of contrasting political structures,

organizations, or laws in other nations or areas in order to find patterns,
distinctions, and causal connections.

STRENGTH AND WEAKNESSES:

Traditional Approach

Strengths:

Historical Method:

○ Pros: Delivers a deep dive into the causes and contexts that shape societies
over time, offering valuable insights into how past events influence current
political structures.
○ Cons: Often gets stuck in the past, sometimes failing to address present-
day dynamics or predict future developments, especially when dealing
with issues without historical precedent.
 2. Legal Method:
○ Pros: Focuses on how laws actually function and affect society, providing
clear insights into how legal frameworks shape behavior and
governance.
○ Cons: Can be too narrowly focused on legal texts and procedures,
potentially overlooking broader social, economic, or political
influences.
3. Philosophical Method:
○ Pros: Tackles fundamental questions about justice, rights, and the nature of
the state, offering a strong ethical basis for political thought.
○ Cons: Often abstract and theoretical, making it challenging to apply these
ideas to practical or real-world political issues.

Modern Approaches
Strengths:
1. Behavioral Analysis:
○ Pros: Provides data-driven insights into political behavior, public opinion, and
voter participation, directly informing campaigns and policy-making.
○ Cons: Can become too focused on what’s measurable, potentially
overlooking deeper motivations or cultural factors.
2. Quantitative Methods:
○ Pros: Offers rigorous analysis through statistics and data, allowing for
precise testing of theories and predictions.
○ Cons: Risks oversimplifying complex issues by reducing them to
numbers, sometimes missing the subtleties of context.
3. Qualitative Methods:
○ Pros: Delivers detailed, in-depth insights into political processes and
actors through case studies and interviews, capturing the complexity of
political life.
○ Cons: Findings can be difficult to generalize, and the interpretation of data can
be subjective.
 4. Systems Theory:
○ Pros: Looks at political systems as interconnected entities, helping to
understand how various parts influence each other.
○ Cons: Can be overly mechanical, sometimes downplaying the role of
individuals or outside influences.

5. Comparative Analysis:
○ Pros: Provides valuable insights by comparing different political systems,
h lighting patterns, best practices, and unique challenges.
i ○ Cons: Comparisons might oversimplify or ignore unique
g cultural or historical contexts, leading to misleading
h conclusions.

SUMMARY:

● Traditional approaches are strong in analyzing history and ethics but may lack
relevance to modern issues.
● Modern approaches offer empirical, data-based insights but risk
oversimplifying complex matters.

MARXIST METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH

Many claims have been made for “the Marxist method.” Some of them are justified, others are
exaggerated, false, or unintelligible. Although Marx had valuable methodological insights that are not
yet fully exhausted, there is no “dialectical reason” that separates Marxists from ordinary mortals. On
first exposure to Marxist writings, many feel mystified and terrorized by references to the “dialectical
unity of opposites,” the “revolutionary unity of theory and practice,” and similar phrases. All too often,
such locutions have allowed followers of Marx to get away with murder, sometimes literally so. It is
against this background of extreme self-indulgence that I adopt what may look like an excessively
purist viewpoint on methodology. Readers may tolerate suggestive ambiguity in a writer if on past
performance they are willing to give him the benefit of doubt, but Marxism has long since exhausted
its credit.
 The Marxist methodology that I want emphatically to reject is an amalgam of three elements.
The first is methodological holism, the view that in social life there exist wholes or collectivities,
statements about which cannot be reduced to statements about the member individuals. The second is
functional explanation, the attempt to explain social phenomena in terms of their beneficial
consequences for someone or something, even when no intention to bring about these consequences
has been demonstrated. The third is dialectical deduction, a mode of thinking that is derived from
Hegel's Logic and that does not lend itself to summary.

Marxist analysis provides a general framework within which one can search for historic process
laws about structures that are applicable to limited and concrete situations.

Ultimately, all philosophers are the product of their own times and Marx was no exception. There were
certain 20th century developments, which Marx could not visualize in his 19th century background.
This did not mean that he had been disproved or was ignorant. He himself said, ‘Like all other laws, it
is modified in its actual working by numerous conditions.

Marxist approaches

- bring a critical focus on class and economics but may overemphasize economic factors and
struggle with practical application outside of revolutionary contexts

• Historical Materialism: focuses on the ways that historical progress is influenced by material
conditions and economic variables.

• Dialectic Materialism: an approach of analysis that looks at conflicts that exist in society (such
as those between classes) and how resolving them affects society.

• Class Analysis: examines the interactions and disputes between various socioeconomic classes,
with a focus on the bourgeoisie owners of the means of production and the proletariat the
working class.

• Ideological Critique: examines how prevailing ideologies support the interests of the ruling
class to preserve the status quo.
 • Praxis: the practical application of theory, highlighting the need for revolutionary change to
realize a society without classes.

THE STATE IN GLOBAL CONTEXT

A state is a group of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion
of territory, having a government of their own, or which the huge body of inhabitants renders
habitual obedience and free from external control.

1. Population or People

The population is the most fundamental component of a state. It consists of the people who live
within the state’s territory and who are subject to its laws and governance. Without people, a state
cannot function, as there would be no one to govern and no one to be governed.

China: With over 1.4 billion people, China has the largest population of any state in the world.

Vatican City: In contrast, Vatican City has a population of only around 800 people, making it
the smallest state in terms of population. Despite its small size, Vatican City functions as a sovereign
state with its own governance, focusing primarily on religious and administrative matters for the
Catholic Church.

* the key point is that there must be a group of people present to constitute a state.

2. Territory

Territory is essential as it defines the physical space where a state can exert its authority and where its
population resides. The size, location, and natural resources of a territory can greatly influence a
state's power, wealth, and global significance.

- For the Philippines, Article 1 The National Territory comprises the jurisdiction of the
Philippines.
 -

3. Government

The government is the organizational structure that operates the state and through which the peoples
collective will is expressed and implemented. It consists of three branches:

- Legislative: Responsible for making laws.

- Executive: Responsible for enforcing laws.

- Judiciary: Responsible for interpreting laws and ensuring justice.

- The form of government can vary significantly from one state to another, with different
states adopting different systems of governance.

Example:

United Kingdom: The UK has a parliamentary system of government where the Prime Minister (head
of government) is the leader of the majority party in Parliament, and the monarch (head of state) has
a largely ceremonial role.

*Different government structures reflect the diversity in how states organize and manage power,
laws, and the rights of their citizens.

4. Sovereignty

Sovereignty is the ultimate authority of the state to govern itself without external interference. It
ensures that a state has control over its internal affairs and is free to interact with other states on an
equal footing. Sovereignty is divided into two aspects:

-Internal Sovereignty: The state’s power over its citizens and internal matters. The laws of one
country render only within Its territory.

-External Sovereignty: The state’s independence from outside control, allowing it to engage in
international relations freely.
 - Sovereignty is fundamental to a state's existence, determining its capacity to rule within its
borders and interact with other states.

5. International Recognition

International recognition is the acknowledgment by other states and international organizations that
an entity meets the criteria of statehood under international law.

Example: Treaty with RP-US, it is an evidence that Philippines has been recognized by other country.

Recognition can be:

-De jure Recognition: Full and formal acknowledgment, meaning the state meets all legal criteria.

-De facto Recognition: Acknowledgment of the state's existence and functioning, even if all legal
criteria are not yet fully met.

Each element plays a crucial role in establishing and maintaining a state’s identity, governance, and
status in the world. States vary widely in how they embody these elements, influenced by their
unique histories, cultures, geographies, and political systems. By understanding these elements and
how they manifest in different contexts, we gain a deeper insight into the nature of statehood and the
diversity of states around the world.

The State and the International Organization

No state is an island entire unto itself. Krasner (1999, p. 13) reminds us, ‘globalization is not
new, challenges to the authority of the state are not new, transnational flows are not new’.

- International Organization

An organization that is established by a treaty, or is an instrument governed by international

law and possessing its legal personality

The most prominent IO is the United Nations with 191 members, Other examples include the
World Trade Organization, Universal Postal Union, and the International Hydrographic
Organization.

- Intergovernmental Organization
 Refers to an entity created by a treaty, involving two or more nations, to work in good faith, on
issues of common interest.

IGOs lack enforcement mechanisms however most member states comply with IGO decisions.

Mechanisms of IGO Governance - conferences, discussions, treaties, and pronouncements are

characteristics of modern politics which is an appropriate response to global problems by the
international community lacking a world government.

Examples include the United Nations which replaced the League of Nations, The Universal
Postal Union, the European Union, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, the African
Development Bank, the World Trade Organization, and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

Regional Organization

A group assembled in any “geographically appropriate” area, which may include a city,
country, groups of countries, or other geographic regions to address common issues and promote
regional integration and cooperation. Its primary purpose is to foster dialogue, cooperation, and
collaboration among member states in areas such as political stability, economic development, trade,
security, and cultural exchange.

North American Free Trade Association seeks to eliminate trade tariffs between two
developed states, the United States and Canada, and the developing economy, Mexico.

The cornerstone of Regional Organizations is established democracies capable of making,

implementing, and sustaining agreements with other countries. Most Regional organizations lacked
the legitimacy that direct election can provide.

Examples of Regional Organizations include The Organization of American States (oldest) and
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations.

4. Non - governmental organizations

Are groups that function independently of any governments, sometimes called civil societies
established on community, national, and international levels to serve social or political goals such as
humanitarian cases of environmental protection.
 Examples include the Philippine Red Cross, Pro-Life Philippines, Habitat for Humanity
Philippines, ChildHope Asia, IBON Foundation, Society for the Conversation of Philippine Wetlands,
and the Philippines Alliance on Human Rights Advocates.

The State in the Global Economy

The global economy is best described by the growing economic activity operating between
countries including international trade and currency trading. In the second half of the twentieth
century, international trade was free apace while production and finance broker fees of national
restraints. States in a developed world are reasonably favored with the balance of opportunities while
states in the least developed countries remain in a dependent position surviving by exporting basic
foodstuffs or minerals in competition with other equally poor states.

Developed Countries and Developing Countries

Gross Domestic Product is one of the most well-known values for assessing economic health,
several other metrics can also be used to gauge a nation’s development. The World Bank uses gross
national income per capita for measurements consisting of four different categories; high-income
economies, upper middle-income economies, lower middle-income economies, and low-income
economies. According to the United Nations, its development status is a reflection of its basic
economic country conditions and it is measured by the Human Development Index. It is a metric
developed to assess the social and economic development levels of countries based on life
expectancy, educational attainment, and income.

- Developed Nation

A nation that meets certain socioeconomic criteria. These criteria may include the country’s
GDP/GNI per capita, its level of industrialization, its general standard of living, and/or the amount
of technological infrastructure. 36 countries were considered developed as stated by the United
Nations having shared several characteristics such as;

1. Birth and death rates are stable. Birth rates are not very high thanks to quality medical care and
high living standards. Infant mortality rates are low and families do not need to have a large number
of children for expectations that some will not survive.
2. Inclusivity. It is not just men working, but also career-oriented women with smaller families
choosing to not have children.

3. They use a disproportionate amount of the world’s resources. They use cars, fly on airplanes, and
power their homes with electricity and gas.

4. They have higher levels of debt, unlike developing economies. Developing economies are unable to
obtain that kind of bottomless financing.

- Developing Nation

A nation is considered developing if it does not meet the socioeconomic criteria. These actions
are most often with lower income, an underdeveloped industrial base, a lower standard of living, and
a lack of access to modern technology so as a result, they mostly experience a lack of jobs, food, clean
drinking water, education, healthcare, and housing. According to the United Nations, 126 countries
were considered developing and these are located in either Africa, Asia, or Latin America and the
Caribbean.

Examples of Developed Countries include

1. Australia - GDP $1.69 trillion, Population 26,731,205 , GPD per capita $66, 589.05, HDI 0.949

2. Belgium - GDP $908.63 billion, Population 11.74 million, GPD per capita $44, 947, HDI 0.937

3. Brazil - GDP $2.331 trillion, Population 212.10 million, GPD per capita $11, 352, HDI 0.760

4. Canada - GDP $2.16 trillion, Population 39.79 million, GPD per capita $44,965, HDI 0.934

5. China - GDP $18.533 trillion, Population 1.42 billion, GPD per capita $13,136, HDI 0.788

Examples of Developing Countries

6. Philippines- GDP $471.516 billion, Population 114.16 million, GPD per capita $3,902.00, HDI 0.
0.699

DEMOCRATIC STATE AND DEMOCRATIZATION

Democracy

Democracy is a system of gov't in which the power is vested in the people.

- combination of two Greek words "demos" which means people and "kratos" meaning rule or
power.

- In a democratic society, people exercise their power through various means which includes voting
in election , participating in political debates and discussions and engaging in civic activities. The
fundamental principles of democracy include political equality, majority nile with respect for
minority rights, individual freedoms, and the protection of human rights.

Key Characteristics and Principles of Democracy

1. Popular Sovereignty-The ultimate source of political authority resides with the poople. They have
the right to choose their representatives and participate in decision-making processes.

2. Political Equality - In a democracy, all citizens have equal political rights and opportunities. Each
person's vote carries the same weight, regardless of their social status, wealth, or other factors

3. Rule of Law - Democracy is based on the principle that everyone, including elected officials, is
subject to and accountable under the law laws are established and enforced to protect individual
rights and maintain order

4. Majority Rule with Minority Rights-Decisions are typically made by majority vote, hut the rights
of minorities and individuals are protected. Minority groups and dissenting opinions are respected,
and there are cheeks and balances in place to prevent the tyranny of the majority.

Tyranny of majority- a situation in which a group of people are treated unfairly because their
situation is different from the situation of most of the people in a democratic country

Thus, the majority also must work together to protect the rights of the minority, listen to their
arguments, hear their objections, bear their criticisms and welcome any suggestions they may have.

5. Free and Fair Flections-Democracy relies on regular, transparent, and fair elections to ensure that
citizens can choose their representatives freely. Flections provide a mechanism for peaceful transfer
of power and accountability of elected officials

6. Protection of Individual Rights and Freedoms: Democracy upholds individual rights, such as
freedom of speech, assembly, religion, and the press. It ensures the protection of human rights,
including equality, justice, and the right to a fair trial.
7. Pluralism and Civil Society: Democracy fosters an environment where diverse opinions, interests,
and political parties can coexist. It encourages the active participation of citizens in civil society
organizations, such as non-governmental organizations, trade unions, and advocacy groups.

Form of Democracy

1. Direct Democracy

- is a form of democracy in which the electorate decides on policy initiatives without elected
representatives as proxies. - Direct democracy is when citizens gather together to vote on law and
policies.

- The earliest well-documented direct democracy is said to be the Ancient Athens wherein this system
remained in place for 180 years until 322 BC.

2. Representative and Liberal Democracy (Modern Democracy)

- Modern Democracy is a product of the 3 historical developments - the English Parliamentary

system, French Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution.

- Representative is an indirect democracy where sovereignty is held by the peoples representative

- Liberal Democracy emphasizes the separation of powers, an independent judiciary, and a system of
checks and balances between branches of government.

3. New Democracy

- is also a modern democracy but the thing to highlight is that many new democracies do seem to
have consolidated by one crucial test: a peaceful transfer of power though election.

4. Semi Democracy is a form of government that is loosely defined as part democracy and part
dictatorship, or as a "regime that mixes democratic with autocratic features."

-The term semi-democracy is used to refer to a state that shares both democratic and authoritarian
features.

What makes a democratic state?

1. Constitution and Rule of Law- A democratic state typically has a constitution that outlines the
fundamental rights and freedoms of its citizens, as well as the structure and powers of the
government. The rule of law ensures that the government, including its officials, is bound by and
operates according to established laws and procedures.

Example. The United States is a democratic state with a constitution that guarantees individual rights
and outlines the powers and limitations of the government. The U.S. Constitution has served as a
foundation for democratic governance for over two centuries.

2. Free and Fair Elections- Regular elections provide citizens with the opportunity to elect their
representatives and participate in decision-making. Elections should be conducted in a transparent,
impartial, and inclusive manner, allowing for the expression of diverse opinions and the peaceful
transfer of power.

Example: India, the world's largest democracy, holds regular elections at national, state, and local
levels. These elections involve a significant portion of the population and are conducted with
widespread participation and oversight

3. Separation of Powers - The democratic state typically divides power among different branches of
government to prevent the concentration of authority. Separation of powers ensures cheeks and
balances, with each branch having its responsibilities and the ability to limit or scrutinize the actions
of others

Example: The parliamentary system in the United Kingdom features a separation of powers between
the executive (government), legislative (Parliament), and judicial branches. This division of power
establishes accountability and prevents the abuse of authority.

4. Protection of Human Rights - A democratic state upholds and protects the fundamental human
rights and freedoms of its citizens. These rights include freedom of speech, assembly, religion, und
the press, as well as the right to a fair trial and protection from discrimination.

Example: Germany is known for its strong commitment to human rights. The German constitution
guarantees various individual rights and protections, and German courts play a crucial role in
upholding these rights.

5. Civil Society and Freedom of Expression - A democratic state encourages the active participation of
its citizens in civil society organizations, such as non-governmental organizations, trade unions, and
advocacy groups. Freedom of expression allows individuals to express their opinions, engage in
public discourse, and hold the government accountable.
Example: Sweden has a robust civil society, with numerous non-profit organizations and advocacy
groups that focus on issues such as human rights, environmental protection, and social justice. Free
speech is protected, allowing citizens to express their opinions openly.

6. Independent Media- A democratic state values and protects a free and independent media.
Journalist should have the freedom to report on issues of public interest without undue influence or
censorship. Independent media plays a crucial role in informing the public, promoting transparency,
and holding the government accountable

Example: Norway is frequently cited as a country with a strong commitment to press freedom. Its
media landscape is characterized by a diverse range of independent news outlets that provide critical
reporting and analysis.

DEMOCRATIZATION

Democratization is the process where a non-democratic country will be democratic. It includes the
establishment of democratic institutions and practices. democratic counties right now didn't appear
all at once. Tt has transition, and that is called the waves of Democratization

Three waves of democratization

FIRST WAVE:

/ it is the first long wave /

- given the fact that in nature, this is the first batch of democratization, it is indeed slow. Nearly 30
counties were established during this wave. However, some of these fledgling countries were later
overthrown by FASCIST, COMMUNIST, OR MILITARY DICTATORSHIPS. The reason why there's a
reverse wave. And it happened from 1922 to 1942. To explain further, the reverse wave is when those
new democracies did not last long and failed to maintain being a democratic one. But, countries like
United State of America and Britain were able to consolidate.

IN USA, it is the perfect example of what a liberal democracy is.

/what is liberal democracy?/

Liberal democracy is it started when their founders thought that political leadership in a democratic
way then, there's an idea that popped on that the citizens could only be represented fairly by
someone like them. That is when the suffrage started, but it’s only extended sa mga white males. It
was 1991, when women were offered to vote, and with the voting rights act of 1965, blacks were able
to vote also.

The founding fathers of America wanted to prevent dictatorship. And to prevent any government
officials from acquiring too much power they put up the system of checks and balances between the
institutions of government. By with that, the constitution placed the government under the law.

/ NO ONE IS ABOVE THE LAW/

IN BRITAIN, their democratic transition was less liberal but more representative form of
government. it gives priority to its representative element like the political parties and emphasizes
the powers of the parliament. so it is more likely an electoral competition between the political
parties.

SECOND WAVE,

It began in the WWII and continued until 1960s. like the first wave, not ll were able to consolidate. for
example, the elected rulers were overthrown by the military coups in several latin america states. But
after 1945, after those dictators were deefeated, there are some established democracies emerge such
as the West Germany, Austria, Japan, And Italy and were influenced by the USA.

They were able to establish a firm roots because they were able to recover their economy with the
help of America. they stregthen the political parties and emerged as the leading democratic
instrument.it is also stated in the Germanys Basic Law.

THIRD WAVE,

It began in 1974 until 1991.

This is when the dictatorship in Greece, Portugal, and Spain ended. In Latin America, many countries
like Argentina and Brasil transitioned from military dictatorship to democracy. But only the southern
European countries were able to consolidate into democratic one. The transitions during this wave,
were driven by economic development, demands for political participation ng mga middle class, and
the urge to not go back in a authoritarian regimes.

New Democracy

- refers to a political system that recently transitioned from authoritarian to a democratic form of
governance. Establishing and strengthening of democratic institutions and practices. They are
typically in a fragile state as they tries to solidify their government as they address challenges like
Political and economic issue, plus the lingering influence of authoritarian element.

POLITICAL ISSUE;

A democracy only consolidated when it provides an accepted framework

Poverty and inequality are the main issues because those elites have more power and opportunity
than poor ones.

Which is why according to Vanhanen, such conditions favour neither the diffusion of power
resources nor development of mutual toleration and compromise which foster democratic
consolidation. Which means that those evident inequality happening is the main political issue

na meron ang new democratic countries.