INDEX

I. A SURVEY OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS

II. VIDEO DISPLAY DEVICES
1. REFRESH CRT
2. RASTER SCAN DISPLAY
3. RANDOM SCAN DISPLAY
4. COLOR CRT MONITORS
5. DVST
6. FLAT PANEL DISPLAYS
III. RASTER SCAN SYSTEMS
IV. RANDOM SCAN SYSTEMS
V. INPUT DEVICES
VI. HARD COPY DEVICES
VII. GRAPHIC SOFTWARE
 UNIT 1:INTRODUCTION

I. A SURVEY OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS:

Computer graphics is the creation and manipulation of pictures with the help of a computer on a
display devices.The end product of the computer graphic is a picture, it may be a business
graph,drawing and engineering.

ADVANTAGES:

 Enhanced visual communication

 Realistic virtual experience
 Creative design possibilities
 Time saving productivity tools
 Improved data visualization
 Interactive user interfaces
 High quality digital art

APPLICATIONS:

 Computer Aided Design(CAD): . CAD methods are commonly used in design of

buildings automobiles, aircraft, spacecraft, textiles and many other products. It is very
useful for engineers and architects.

 Presentation graphics: Presentation Graphics is commonly used to summarize financial,

statistical, mathematical scientific and economic data for research reports, managerial
report etc. Examples of presentation graphics include bar charts, line graphs, surface
graphs, pie charts etc.

 Computer art: Computer Graphics methods are commonly used in fine art and
commercial art applications. Artists use variety of methods including special purpose
hardware, artists paint brush programs, paint packages such as pixel paint, CAD
packages, desktop publishing software, animation packages that provide facilities for
designing object shapes and object motions.

 Entertainment: Computer Graphics methods are commonly used in making motion

pictures, music videos, and television shows. Sometimes graphic scenes are displayed by
themselves and sometimes graphics objects are combined with actors and live scenes.

 Education and Training: For some training applications special systems are used which
include simulators for practice sessions of heavy equipment operators, air traffic control
 personal etc. Some simulators such as flight simulator have no video screens, instead
they have a control panel for instrument playing.

 Visualization: Producing graphical representations for scientific, engineering and medical

data sets and processes is referred to as visualization.

 Image processing: Two important applications of Image processing are improving picture
quality and machine perception of visual information. Image processing a and computer
graphics a can be combined with medical applications such as computer aided surgery.

II. VIDEO DISPLAY DEVICES

1.REFRESH CATHODE- RAY TUBES(CRT):

CRT is a technology used in traditional computer monitors and televisions. The image on CRT
display is created by firing electrons from the back of the tube of phosphorus located towards the
front of the screen.Once the electron heats the phosphorus, they light up, and they are projected
on a screen. The color you view on the screen is produced by a blend of red, blue and green light.

Refreshing: It is done by redrawing the picture repeatedly by quickly directing the

electron beam back over the same screen points.

Refresh rate: the frequency at which a picture is redrawn on the screen.

Persistence: how long phosphors continue to emit light after the CRT beam is removed.
Persistence is defined as the time that it takes the emitted light from the screen to decay
to one-tenth of its original intensity.
Lower-persistence phosphors require high refresh rates to maintain a picture definition on
the screen without flicker and they are useful for animation.
Higher-persistence phosphors are useful for displaying highly complex, static pictures.
Components of CRT:

Main Components of CRT are:

a) Electron Gun: Electron gun consisting of a series of elements, primarily a heating

filament (heater) and a cathode. The electron gun creates a source of electrons which are
focused into a narrow beam directed at the face of the CRT.
b) Control Electrode: It is used to turn the electron beam on and off.
c) Focusing system: It is used to create a clear picture by focusing the electrons into a
narrow beam.
d) Deflection Yoke: It is used to control the direction of the electron beam. It creates an
electric or magnetic field which will bend the electron beam as it passes through the area.
In a conventional CRT, the yoke is linked to a sweep or scan generator. The deflection
yoke which is connected to the sweep generator creates a fluctuating electric or magnetic
potential.
e) Phosphorus-coated screen: The inside front surface of every CRT is coated with
phosphors. Phosphors glow when a high-energy electron beam hits them.
Phosphorescence is the term used to characterize the light given off by a phosphor after it
has been exposed to an electron beam.

2. RASTER SCAN DISPLAYS:

 The electron beam is swept across the screen one row at a time from top to
bottom. Each row is referred to as a scan line.
 Picture definition is stored in the frame buffer. This memory area holds the set of
intensity values for the screen points. These stored values are then retrieved from
the refresh buffer and used to control the intensity of the electron beam as it
moves from spot to spot across the screen.
  Refreshing on raster-scan display is carried out at the rate of 60-80 frames per seconds,
this can be done by using following retrace techniques
Horizontal retrace
Vertical retrace
 The scan is synchronized with the access of the intensity values held in the frame buffer.
The maximum resolution is determined by:
The characteristics of the monitor
Memory capacity available for storing the frame buffer

Advantages:

 A CRT has the electron beam directed only to the parts of the screen where an image is
to be drawn.
 Produce smooth line drawings.
 High Resolution

Disadvantages:

 Random-Scan monitors cannot display realistic shades scenes.

3.RANDOM SCAN DISPLAYS:

 The electron beam directed only to those parts of the screen where a picture is to be
displayed.
 Sometimes called: store-writing or calligraphic displays.
 Picture definition is stored as a set of line-drawing commands.
 Draws all the component lines of a picture 30 to 60 times each second, with up to
100,000 “short” lines in the display list.
 Designed for line-drawing applications and they cannot display realistic shaded scenes.
 A pen plotter operate in a similar way.
 Draws the components lines of an object in any order specified.
 Have higher resolution than raster-scan systems.
 Produce smooth line drawing.
 Refresh rate on a random scan system depends on the number of lines to be displayed.
 Picture definition is now stored as a set of line-drawing commands in an area of memory
referred to as the refresh display file.

 Other names: display list, display program or refresh rate “A set of commands”.
 After all line drawing commands have been processed, the system cycles through the set
of commands in the display file.
 All component lines of a picture are drawn 30 to 60 times each second
 When a small set of lines is to be displayed each refresh cycle is delayed to avoid refresh
rates greater than 60 frames per second.

Advantages:

 For line drawing applications

 Higher resolution than raster scan systems
 Smooth lines
 Disadvantages:

 Cannot display realistic shaded scenes

 Faster refreshing of the set of lines could burn out the phosphor

Differentiate between Random and Raster Scan Display:

Random Scan Raster Scan

1. It has high Resolution 1. Its resolution is low.

2. It is more expensive 2. It is less expensive

3. Any modification if needed is easy 3.Modification is tough

4. Solid pattern is tough to fill 4.Solid pattern is easy to fill

5. Refresh rate depends or resolution 5. Refresh rate does not depend on the picture.

6. Only screen with view on an area is displayed. 6. Whole screen is scanned.

7. Beam Penetration technology come under it. 7. Shadow mark technology came under this.

8. It does not use interlacing method. 8. It uses interlacing

9. It is restricted to line drawing applications 9. It is suitable for realistic display.

4.COLOR CRT MONITORS:

The CRT Monitor display by using a combination of phosphors. The phosphors are different
colors. There are two popular approaches for producing color displays with a CRT are:

1. Beam Penetration Method

2. Shadow-Mask Method

 BEAM PENETRATION METHOD

 Random scan monitors use the beam penetration method for displaying color picture. In
this, the inside of CRT screen is coated two layers of phosphor namely red and green.
 A beam of slow electrons excites only the outer red layer, while a beam of fast electrons
penetrates red layer and excites the inner green layer. At intermediate beam speeds,
combination of red and green light are emitted to show two additional colorsorange and
yellow.
 Advantages:

 Less expensive

Disadvantages:

 Quality of images are not good as comparable with other methods

 Four colors are allowed only

 SHADOW-MASK METHOD

 Raster scan system are use shadow mask methods to produce a much more range of
colors than beam penetration method.
 In this, CRT has three phosphor color dots. One phosphor dot emits a red light, second
emits a green light and third emits a blue light.
  This type of CRT has three electrons guns and a shadow mask grid as shown in figure.
 In this figure, three electrons beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the
shadow mask which contains a series of holes. When three beams pass through a hole in
shadow mask, they activate dot triangle as shown in figure.

Advantages:

 produce realistic images

 also produced different colors
 and shadows scenes.

Disadvantages:

 low resolution
 expensive
 electron beam directed to whole screen

5.DIRECT VIEW STORAGE TUBES(DVST):

DVST terminals also use the random scan approach to generate the image on the CRT screen.
The term "storage tube" refers to the ability of the screen to retain the image which has been
projected against it, thus avoiding the need to rewrite the image constantly.

Function of guns: Two guns are used in DVST

1. Primary guns: It is used to store the picture pattern.

2. Flood gun or Secondary gun: It is used to maintain picture display.
Advantage:
 No refreshing is needed.
 High Resolution
 Cost is very less

Disadvantage:
 It is not possible to erase the selected part of a picture.
 It is not suitable for dynamic graphics applications.
 If a part of picture is to modify, then time is consumed.

6.FLAT- PANEL DISPLAYS:

The Flat-Panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement compare to CRT.

Example: Small T.V. monitor, calculator, pocket video games, laptop computers, an
advertisement board in elevator.
  Emissive Display: The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. Examples are Plasma Panel, thin film electroluminescent display and LED (Light
Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Display: The Non-Emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Examples are LCD
(Liquid Crystal Device).

III. RASTER SCAN SYSTEM

Interactive raster-graphics systems typically employ several processing units.

 In addition to the CPU, a special purpose processor called the video controller or display
controller is used to control the operation of the display device.
 Here the frame buffer is in the system memory, the video controller accesses the frame
buffer to refresh the screen.
IV. RANDOM SCAN SYSTEM

An application program is input and stored in the system memory along with a graphics package.
Graphics commands in the program are translated by the graphics package into a display file
stored in the system memory.

 This display file is then accessed by the display processor to refresh the screen.
 The display processor cycles through each command in the display file program
once during every refresh cycle.
 Graphic patterns are drawn on a random scan system by directing the electron
beam along the component lines of the picture.
 Lines are defined by the values for their co-ordinate endpoints, and these input
coordinate values are converted to x and y deflection voltages. A scene is then
drawn one line at a time by positioning the beam to fill in the line between
specified endpoints

V.INPUT DEVICES

The Input Devices are the hardware that is used to transfer transfers input to the computer. The
data can be in the form of text, graphics, sound, and text. Output device display data from the
memory of the computer. Output can be text, numeric data, line, polygon, and other objects.
 a) KEYBOARD:The most commonly used input device is a keyboard. The data is entered by
pressing the set of keys. All keys are labeled. A keyboard with 101 keys is called a QWERTY
keyboard.

The keyboard has alphabetic as well as numeric keys. Some special keys are also available.

1. Numeric Keys: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
2. Alphabetic keys: a to z (lower case), A to Z (upper case)
3. Special Control keys: Ctrl, Shift, Alt
4. Special Symbol Keys: ; , " ? @ ~ ? :
5. Cursor Control Keys: ↑ → ← ↓
6. Function Keys: F1 F2 F3....F9.
7. Numeric Keyboard: It is on the right-hand side of the keyboard and used for fast entry
of numeric data.

Function of Keyboard:
1. Alphanumeric Keyboards are used in CAD. (Computer Aided Drafting)
2. Keyboards are available with special features line screen co-ordinates entry, Menu
selection or graphics functions, etc.
3. Special purpose keyboards are available having buttons, dials, and switches. Dials are
used to enter scalar values. Dials also enter real numbers. Buttons and switches are used
to enter predefined function values.

Advantage:
 Suitable for entering numeric data.
 Function keys are a fast and effective method of using commands, with fewer errors.

Disadvantage:
 Keyboard is not suitable for graphics input.

b) MOUSE: A Mouse is a pointing device and used to position the pointer on the screen. It is a
small palm size box. There are two or three depression switches on the top. The movement of the
mouse along the x-axis helps in the horizontal movement of the cursor and the movement along
 the y-axis helps in the vertical movement of the cursor on the screen. The mouse cannot be used
to enter text. Therefore, they are used in conjunction with a keyboard.

Advantage:
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive

c) TRACK BALL: It is a pointing device. It is similar to a mouse. This is mainly used in

notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted, and
by changing fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.

Advantage:
 Trackball is stationary, so it does not require much space to use it.
 Compact Size

d) SPACE BALL: It is similar to trackball, but it can move in six directions where trackball
can move in two directions only. The movement is recorded by the strain gauge. Strain
gauge is applied with pressure. It can be pushed and pulled in various directions. The ball
has a diameter around 7.5 cm. The ball is mounted in the base using rollers. One-third of
the ball is an inside box, the rest is outside.

Applications:
 It is used for three-dimensional positioning of the object.
 It is used to select various functions in the field of virtual reality.
 It is applicable in CAD applications.
 Animation is also done using spaceball.
  It is used in the area of simulation and modeling.

e) JOY STICK: A Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to change cursor
position on a monitor screen. Joystick is a stick having a spherical ball as its both lower
and upper ends as shown in fig. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick
can be changed in all four directions. The function of a joystick is similar to that of the
mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer
games.

f) LIGHT PEN: Light Pen (similar to the pen) is a pointing device which is used to select a
displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and
an optical system placed in a small tube. When its tip is moved over the monitor screen,
and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and
sends the corresponding signals to the CPU.

Uses:
1. Light Pens can be used as input coordinate positions by providing necessary
arrangements.
2. If background color or intensity, a light pen can be used as a locator.
 3. It is used as a standard pick device with many graphics system.
4. It can be used as stroke input devices.
5. It can be used as valuators

g) DIGITIZERS: The digitizer is an operator input device, which contains a large, smooth
board (the appearance is similar to the mechanical drawing board) & an electronic
tracking device, which can be changed over the surface to follow existing lines. The
electronic tracking device contains a switch for the user to record the desire x & y
coordinate positions. The coordinates can be entered into the computer memory or stored
or an off-line storage medium such as magnetic tape.

Advantages:
1. Drawing can easily be changed.
2. It provides the capability of interactive graphics.

Disadvantages:
1. Costly
2. Suitable only for applications which required high-resolution graphics.

h) TOUCH PANELS: Touch Panels is a type of display screen that has a touch-sensitive
transparent panel covering the screen. A touch screen registers input when a finger or
other object comes in contact with the screen.When the wave signals are interrupted by
some contact with the screen, that located is recorded. Touch screens have long been used
in military applications.
 i) VOICE RECOGNITION: Voice Recognition is one of the newest, most complex input
techniques used to interact with the computer. The user inputs data by speaking into a
microphone. The simplest form of voice recognition is a one-word command spoken by
one person. Each command is isolated with pauses between the words.
Voice Recognition is used in some graphics workstations as input devices to accept voice
commands. The voice-system input can be used to initiate graphics operations or to enter
data. These systems operate by matching an input against a predefined dictionary of
words and phrases.

Advantage:
1. More efficient device.
2. Easy to use
3. Unauthorized speakers can be identified

Disadvantages:
1. Very limited vocabulary
2. Voice of different operators can't be distinguished.

j) IMAGE SCANNER: It is an input device. The data or text is written on paper. The
paper is feeded to scanner. The paper written information is converted into electronic
format; this format is stored in the computer. The input documents can contain text,
handwritten material, picture extra.
By storing the document in a computer document became safe for longer period of time.
The document will be permanently stored for the future. We can change the document
when we need. The document can be printed when needed.Scanning can be of the black
and white or colored picture. On stored picture 2D or 3D rotations, scaling and other
operations can be applied.

k) BAR CODE READER: Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data
(data in the form of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling
goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a
stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in
the form of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods,
numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a
stationary scanner.
l) MICROPHONE: The microphone is a computer input device that is used to input the
sound. It receives the sound vibrations and converts them into audio signals or sends to a
recording medium. The audio signals are converted into digital data and stored in the
 computer. The microphone also enables the user to telecommunicate with others. It is
also used to add sound to presentations and with webcams for video conferencing.

VI) HARD COPY DEVICES

All the output devices can be categorised into two categories

1. Hard Copy Devices

2. Soft Copy Devices

Hard copy devices are those that give the output in the tangible form. Printers and Plotters
are two common hard copy devices.

Soft copy devices give output in the intangible form or the virtual form, e.g. something
displayed on a screen. All the computer monitors are covered under this category.

PRINTERS:
1. Impact Printers: The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon and onto
the papers are known as Impact Printers.

These Printers are of two types:

1. Character Printers
2. Line Printers

2. Non-Impact Printers: The printers that print the characters without striking against the
ribbon and onto the papers are called Non-Impact Printers. These printers print a complete page
at a time, therefore, also known as Page Printers.

Page Printers are of two types:

1. Laser Printers
2. Inkjet Printers

IMPACT PRINTERS:

Dot Matrix Printers:

Dot matrix has printed in the form of dots. A printer has a head which contains nine pins. The
nine pins are arranged one below other. Each pin can be activated independently. All or only the
same needles are activated at a time. When needless is not activated, and then the tip of needle
stay in the head. When pin work, it comes out of the print head. In nine pin printer, pins are
arranged in 5 * 7 matrixes.
Advantage:
1. Dot Matrix Printers prints output as dots, so it can print any shape of the character. This
allows the printer to print special character, charts, graphs, etc.
2. Dot Matrix Printers come under the category of impact printers. The printing is done
when the hammer pin strikes the inked ribbon. The impressions are printed on paper. By
placing multiple copies of carbon, multiple copies of output can be produced.
3. It is suitable for printing of invoices of companies.

Daisy Wheel Printers:

Head is lying on a wheel and Pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy, that's why
called Daisy wheel printer.
Advantage:

1. More reliable than DMPs

2. Better Quality

Disadvantage:
1. Slower than DMPs

Drum Printers:

These are line printers, which prints one line at a time. It consists of a drum. The shape of the
drum is cylindrical. The drum is solid and has characters embossed on it in the form of vertical
bands. The characters are in circular form. Each band consists of some characters. Each line on
drum consists of 132 characters. Because there are 96 lines so total characters are (132 * 95) =
12, 672.

Drum contains a number of hammers also.

Chain Printers:

These are called as line printers. These are used to print one line at a line. Basically, chain
consists of links. Each link contains one character. Printers can follow any character set style,
i.e., 48, 64 or 96 characters. Printer consists of a number of hammers also.

Advantages:
1. Chain or Band if damaged can be changed easily.
2. It allows printing of different form.
3. Different Scripts can be printed using this printer.

Disadvantages:
1. It cannot print charts and graphs.
2. It cannot print characters of any shape.
3. Chain Printers is impact printer, hammer strikes so it is noisy.

NON-IMPACT PRINTERS:

Inkjet Printers: These printers use a special link called electrostatic ink. The printer head
has a special nozzle. Nozzle drops ink on paper. Head contains up to 64 nozzles. The ink
dropped is deflected by the electrostatic plate. The plate is fixed outside the nozzle. The
deflected ink settles on paper.
Advantages:
1. These produce high quality of output as compared to the dot matrix.
2. A high-quality output can be produced using 64 nozzles printed.
3. Inkjet can print characters in a variety of shapes.
4. Inkjet can print special characters.
5. The printer can print graphs and charts.

Disadvantages:
1. Inkjet Printers are slower than dot matrix printers.
2. The cost of inkjet is more than a dot matrix printer.

Laser Printers: These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produces the dots
needed to form the characters to be printed on a page & hence the name laser printers.

The output is generated in the following steps:

Step1: The bits of data sent by processing unit act as triggers to turn the laser beam on & off.

Step2: The output device has a drum which is cleared & is given a positive electric charge. To
print a page the modulated laser beam passing from the laser scans back & forth the surface of
the drum. The positive electric charge on the drum is stored on just those parts of the drum
surface which are exposed to the laser beam create the difference in electric which charges on the
exposed drum surface.

Step3: The laser exposed parts of the drum attract an ink powder known as toner.

Step4: The attracted ink powder is transferred to paper.

Step5: The ink particles are permanently fixed to the paper by using either heat or pressure
technique.

Step6: The drum rotates back to the cleaner where a rubber blade cleans off the excess ink &
prepares the drum to print the next page.

PLOTTERS:

Plotters are a special type of output device. It is suitable for applications:

1. Architectural plan of the building.

2. CAD applications like the design of mechanical components of aircraft.
3. Many engineering applications.

Advantage:
1. It can produce high-quality output on large sheets.
2. It is used to provide the high precision drawing.
3. It can produce graphics of various sizes.
4. The speed of producing output is high.

Drum plotter: It consists of a drum. Paper on which design is made is kept on the drum. The
drum can rotate in both directions. Plotters comprised of one or more pen and penholders. The
holders are mounted perpendicular to drum surface. The pens are kept in the holder, which can
move left to the right as well as right to the left. The graph plotting program controls the
movement of pen and drum.

Flatbed plotter: It is used to draw complex design and graphs, charts. The Flatbed plotter can be
kept over the table. The plotter consists of pen and holder. The pen can draw characters of
various sizes. There can be one or more pens and pen holding mechanism. Each pen has ink of
different color. Different colors help to produce multicolor design of document. The area of
plotting is also variable. It can vary A4 to 21'*52'.

It is used to draw

 Cars
 Ships
 Airplanes
 Shoe and dress designing
 Road and highway design
 VII. GRAPHIC SOFTWARE

Graphics software, however, is capable of editing graphics in a multitude of ways and includes a
number of types of software, including paint programs, illustration and design programs,
photo/image editors, presentation graphics software, animation software, computer aided design
software, and some desktop publishing software. Graphics software can edit bitmap and/or
vector graphics, and can be used to design label templates. Examples of graphics software
include Adobe Illustrator, Photoshop, InDesign, CorelDraw, Inkscape, Microsoft Paint, and
Paint.Net.

There are two types of Graphics Software:

1. General Purpose Packages: Basic Functions in a general package include those for
generating picture components (straight lines, polygons, circles and other figures), setting color
and intensity values, selecting views, and applying transformations.

Example of general purpose package is the GL (Graphics Library), GKS, PHIGS, PHIGS+ etc.

2. Special Purpose Packages: These packages are designed for non programmers, so that these
users can use the graphics packages, without knowing the inner details.

Example of special purpose package is

1. Painting programs
2. Package used for business purpose
3. Package used for medical systems.
4. CAD packages

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