UNIT-IV

Energy Conservation In Major Utilities

Energy Conservation In Major Utilities: Pumps, Fans, Blowers, Compressed Air Systems,
Refrigeration And Air Conditioning Systems – Cooling Towers – D.G. Sets.

4.1 PUMPS:
The two main parts of the pump are the impeller and the diffuser. Impeller,
which is the only moving part, is attached to a shaft and driven by a motor. Impellers
are generally made of bronze, polycarbonate, cast iron, stainless steel as well as other
materials. The diffuser (also called as volute) houses the impeller and captures and
directs the water off the impeller.

Water enters the center (eye) of the impeller and exits the impeller with the help
of centrifugal force. As water leaves the eye of the impeller a low-pressure area is
created, causing more water to flow into the eye. Atmospheric pressure and centrifugal
force cause this to happen. Velocity is developed as the water flows through the
impeller spinning at high speed.

Energy Efficiency / Saving Measures in Pumps

 Ensure adequate NPSH(Net Positive Suction Head) at site of installation

  Ensure availability of basic instruments at pumps like pressure gauges, flow meters.

 Operate pumps near best efficiency point.

 Modify pumping system and pumps losses to minimize throttling.

 Adapt to wide load variation with variable speed drives or sequenced

control ofmultiple units.

 Stop running multiple pumps - add an auto-start for an on-line spare or add a
boosterpump in the problem area.

 Use booster pumps for small loads requiring higher pressures.

 Increase fluid temperature differentials to reduce pumping rates in

case ofheat exchangers.

 Repair seals and packing to minimize water loss by dripping.

 Balance the system to minimize flows and reduce pump power requirements.

 Avoid pumping head with a free-fall return (gravity); Use siphon effect to advantage:

 Conduct water balance to minimize water consumption

 Avoid cooling water re-circulation in DG sets, air compressors,

refrigerationsystems, cooling towers feed water pumps, condenser pumps and
process pumps.

 In multiple pump operations, carefully combine the operation of pumps to avoid throttling
 Provide booster pump for few areas of higher head

 Replace old pumps by energy efficient pumps

 In the case of over designed pump, provide variable speed drive, or

downsize /replace impeller or replace with correct sized pump for efficient
operation.
  Optimize number of stages in multi-stage pump in case of head margins

 Reduce system resistance by pressure drop assessment and pipe size optimization.

4.2 Fans & Blowers:

Fans and blowers provide air for ventilation and industrial process
requirements. Fans generate a pressure to move air (or gases) against a resistance
caused by ducts, dampers, or other components in a fan system. The fan rotor receives
energy from a rotating shaft and transmits it to the air.

Fans, blowers and compressors are differentiated by the method used to move the air, and by
the system pressure they must operate against. As per American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) the specific ratio - the ratio of the discharge pressure over the suction pressure – is used for
defining the fans, blowers and compressors (see Table 5.1).

Energy Efficiency / Saving Measures in Fans & Blowers

1. Minimizing excess air level in combustion systems to reduce FD (Forced Draft) fan and ID
(Induced Draft) fan load.

2. Minimizing air in-leaks in hot flue gas path to reduce ID fan load, especially in
case of kilns, boiler plants, furnaces, etc. Cold air in-leaks increase ID fan load
tremendously, due to density increase of flue gases and in-fact choke up the
capacity of fan, resulting as a bottleneck for boiler / furnace itself.

3. In-leaks / out-leaks in air conditioning systems also have a major impact on

energyEfficiency and fan power consumption and need to be minimized.
 The findings of performance assessment trials will automatically indicate potential
areasfor improvement, which could be one or a more of the following:

1. Change of impeller by a high efficiency impeller along with cone.

2. Change of fan assembly as a whole, by a higher efficiency fan

3. Impeller de-rating (by a smaller dia impeller)

4. Change of metallic / Glass reinforced Plastic (GRP) impeller by the more energy
Efficient hollow FRP impeller with aerofoil design, in case of axial flow fans,
wheresignificant savings have been reported
5. Fan speed reduction by pulley dia modifications for derating

6. Option of two speed motors or variable speed drives for variable duty conditions

7. Option of energy efficient flat belts, or, cogged raw edged V belts, in
place ofconventional V belt systems, for reducing transmission losses.
8. Adopting inlet guide vanes in place of discharge damper control

9. Minimizing system resistance and pressure drops by improvements in duct system

4.3 Compressed Air System

Compressed air is a gas or mixture of gases that is pressurized to a degree greater than that of its
surrounding environment.
Only 10 – 30% of energy reaches the point of end-use, and balance 70 – 90% of energy of the
power of the prime mover being converted to unusable heat energy and to a lesser extent lost in
form of friction, misuse and noise.

Compressed air systems consist of following major components - intake air filters, inter- stage
coolers, after coolers, air dryers, moisture drain traps, receivers, piping network, filters, regulators
and lubricators.
Intake Air Filters: Prevent dust from entering compressor; Dust causes sticking valves, scoured
cylinders, excessive wear etc.

Inter-stage Coolers: Reduce the temperature of the air before it enters the next stage to reduce the
 work of compression and increase efficiency. They are normally watercooled.

After Coolers: The objective is to remove the moisture in the air by reducing the temperature in a
water-cooled heat exchanger.

Air-dryers: The remaining traces of moisture after after-cooler are removed using air dryers, as air
for instrument and pneumatic equipment has to be relatively free of any moisture. The moisture is
removed by using adsorbents like silica gel /activated carbon, or refrigerant dryers, or heat of
compression dryers.

Moisture Drain Traps: Moisture drain traps are used for removal of moisture in the compressed air.
These traps resemble steam traps. Various types of traps used are manual drain cocks, timer based /
automatic drain valves etc.

Receivers: Air receivers are provided as storage and smoothening pulsating air output - reducing
pressure variations from the compressor.

Energy Efficiency / Saving Measures in Compressed Air System:

• Ensure air intake to compressor is not warm and humid by locating compressors in well
ventilated area or by drawing cold air from outside. Every 4°C rise in air inlet temperature will
increase powerconsumption by 1 percent.
• Clean air-inlet filters regularly. Compressor efficiency will be reduced by 2 percent for every
250 mm WC pressure drop across the filter.

• Keep compressor valves in good condition by removing and inspecting once every six
months. Worn-out valves can reduce compressor efficiency by as much as 50 percent.
• Install manometers across the filter and monitor the pressure drop as a guide to replacement of
element.
• Minimize low-load compressor operation; if air demand is less than 50 percent of compressor
capacity, consider change over to a smaller compressor or reduce compressor speed
appropriately (by reducing motor pulley size) in case of belt driven compressors.
• Consider the use of regenerative air dryers, which uses the heat of compressed air to remove
moisture.
• Fouled inter-coolers reduce compressor efficiency and cause more water condensation in air
receivers and distribution lines resulting in increased corrosion. Periodic cleaning of
intercoolers must be ensured.
• Compressor free air delivery test (FAD) must be done periodically to check the present
operating capacity against its design capacity and corrective steps must be taken if required.
• If more than one compressor is feeding to a common header, compressors must be operated in
such a way that only one small compressor should handle the load variations whereas other
compressors will operate at full load.
• The possibility of heat recovery from hot compressed air to generate hot air or water for
process application must be economically analyzed in case of large compressors.
• Consideration should be given to two-stage or multistage compressor as it consumes less
power for the same air output than a single stage compressor.
• If pressure requirements for processes are widely different (e.g. 3 bar to 7 bar), it is advisable
to have two separate compressed air systems.
• Reduce compressor delivery pressure, wherever possible, to save energy.
• Provide extra air receivers at points of high cyclic-air demand which permits operation
without extra compressor capacity.
• Retrofit with variable speed drives in big compressors, say over 100 kW, to eliminate the
`unloaded' running condition altogether.

• Keep the minimum possible range between load and unload pressure settings.

• Automatic timer controlled drain traps wastes compressed air every time the valve opens. So
frequency of drainage should be optimized.
• Check air compressor logs regularly for abnormal readings, especially motor current cooling
water flow and temperature, inter-stage and discharge pressures and temperatures and
compressor load-cycle.
• Compressed air leakage of 40 – 50 percent is not uncommon. Carry out periodic leak tests to
estimate the quantity of leakage.
• Install equipment interlocked solenoid cut-off valves in the air system so that air supply to a
machine can be switched off when not in use.
• Present energy prices justify liberal designs of pipeline sizes to reduce pressure drops.

• Compressed air piping layout should be made preferably as a ring main to provide desired
pressures for all users.
• A smaller dedicated compressor can be installed at load point, located far off from the central
compressor house, instead of supplying air through lengthy pipelines.
• All pneumatic equipment should be properly lubricated, which will reduce friction, prevent
wear of seals and other rubber parts thus preventing energy wastage due to excessive air
consumption or leakage.
• Misuse of compressed air such as for body cleaning, agitation, general floor cleaning, and
other similar applications must be discouraged in order to save compressed air and energy.
• Pneumatic equipment should not be operated above the recommended operating pressure as
this not only wastes energy bus can also lead to excessive wear of equipment's components
which leads to further energy wastage.
• Pneumatic transport can be replaced by mechanical system as the former consumed about 8
times more energy. Highest possibility of energy savings is by reducing compressed air use.
• Pneumatic tools such as drill and grinders consume about 20 times more energy than motor
driven tools. Hence they have to be used efficiently. Wherever possible, they should be replaced
with electrically operated tools.
• Where possible welding is a good practice and should be preferred over threaded connections.

• On account of high pressure drop, ball or plug or gate valves are preferable over globe valves
in compressed air lines.

4 .4 Refrigeration System:

The main purpose of a refrigerating system is to remove heat from a process and discharge it to the
surroundings.
The principle of such a machine is that a refrigerant is conveyed from the liquid storage (temperature and
pressure of the condenser) through a expansion device and an evaporator into the compressor and finally to
the condenser. During this circle application the refrigerant changes its state of aggregation. Passing through
the expansion device the refrigerant (state of aggregate: saturated liquid) reduces its pressure and the
temperature goes down. In the evaporator heat is extracted from the cooling reservoir (which includes the
medium to be cooled). Thermal insulation using high-efficiency HFC blown foams reduces energy
consumption of the refrigeration installations.
The main components to perform this task are the evaporator, compressor and condenser and thus further
explanation of their function and the types of components available is warranted. To understand, it is
necessary to know the three main equipment components.

Evaporator. Removes heat from air passing over the air system cooling coils. The evaporator consists of a
series of coils, in which the liquid is evaporated into a gas. This is occurs by absorbing the return chilled
water heat at a low temperature after it's pressure has been reduced through the expansion valve.

Compressor. Maintains a lower pressure in the evaporator than in the condenser. The refrigerant liquid
will expand and drop in pressure while passing through the small opening of theexpansion valve. This
raises the pressure of the evaporated liquid to a point where the condensing temperature is above the
temperature of the cooling water available.

Note: The refrigerant serves as a heat transferring medium with the heat finally disposed of by the
condenser.
Condenser. It cools the hot gas received from the compressor to a point where it will condense into a
liquid. The condenser may be air cooled or water cooled. The air cooled condenser simply has air blown
through rows of tubes containing the gas from the compressor.

Energy Efficiency / Saving Measures in Refrigeration System

a) Cold Insulation
Insulate all cold lines / vessels using economic insulation thickness to minimize heat gains;
andchoose appropriate (correct) insulation.

b) Building Envelope
Optimize air conditioning volumes by measures such as use of false ceiling and
segregation ofcritical areas for air conditioning by air curtains.

c) Building Heat Loads Minimization

Minimize the air conditioning loads by measures such as roof cooling, roof painting, efficient
lighting, pre-cooling of fresh air by air- to-air heat exchangers, variable volume air system,
optimal Thermo static setting of temperature of air conditioned spaces, sun film applications,
etc.

e) Process Heat Loads Minimization

Minimize process heat loads in terms of TR capacity as well as refrigeration level, i.e.,
temperaturerequired, by way of:
i) Flow optimization
ii) Heat transfer area increase to accept higher temperature coolant
iii) Avoiding wastages like heat gains, loss of chilled water, idle flows.
iv) Frequent cleaning / de-scaling of all heat exchangers

f) At the Refrigeration A/C Plant Area

i) Ensure regular maintenance of all A/C plant components as per manufacturer guidelines.
ii) Ensure adequate quantity of chilled water and cooling water flows, avoid bypass
flowsby closing valves of idle equipment.
iii) Minimize part load operations by matching loads and plant capacity on line;
adoptvariable speed drives for varying process load.
iv) Make efforts to continuously optimize condenser and evaporator parameters
forminimizing specific energy consumption and maximizing capacity.
v) Adopt VAR system where economics permit as a non-CFC solution.

4.5 Air Conditioning:

It is the process of controlling and maintaining the properties of air like temperature,
humidity, purity, direction of flow etc. in a closed space.

Energy Efficiency / Saving Measures in A/C

 Ensure air intake to compressor is not warm and humid by locating compressors in well
ventilated area or by drawing cold air from outside. Every 4°C rise in air inlet
temperature will increase power consumption by 1 percent.

 Clean air-inlet filters regularly. Compressor efficiency will be reduced by 2 percent for
every 250 mm WC pressure drop across the filter.

 Keep compressor valves in good condition by removing and inspecting once every six
months. Worn-out valves can reduce compressor efficiency by as much as 50 percent.

 Install manometers across the filter and monitor the pressure drop as a guide to
replacement of element.
 Minimize low-load compressor operation; if air demand is less than 50 percent of
compressor capacity, consider change over to a smaller compressor or reduce
compressor speed appropriately (by reducing motor pulley size) in case of belt driven
compressors.

 Consider the use of regenerative air dryers, which uses the heat of compressed air to
removemoisture.

 Fouled inter-coolers reduce compressor efficiency and cause more water condensation
in air receivers and distribution lines resulting in increased corrosion. Periodic cleaning
of intercoolers must be ensured.

 Compressor free air delivery test (FAD) must be done periodically to check the present
operating capacity against its design capacity and corrective steps must be taken if
required.

 If more than one compressor is feeding to a common header, compressors must be

operated in such a way that only one small compressor should handle the load variations
whereas other compressors will operate at full load.

The possibility of heat recovery from hot compressed air to generate hot air or water for
process application must be economically analyzed in case of large compressors.

 Consideration should be given to two-stage or multistage compressor as it consumes less

power for the same air output than a single stage compressor.

 If pressure requirements for processes are widely different (e.g. 3 bar to 7 bar), it is
advisable to have two separate compressed air systems.

 Reduce compressor delivery pressure, wherever possible, to save energy.

 Provide extra air receivers at points of high cyclic-air demand which permits operation
without extra compressor capacity.
 Retrofit with variable speed drives in big compressors, say over 100 kW, to eliminate the
`unloaded' running condition altogether.

 Keep the minimum possible range between load and unload pressure settings.

 Automatic timer controlled drain traps wastes compressed air every time the valve
opens. So frequency of drainage should be optimized.

 Check air compressor logs regularly for abnormal readings, especially motor current
cooling water flow and temperature, inter-stage and discharge pressures and
temperatures and compressor load-cycle.

 Compressed air leakage of 40 – 50 percent is not uncommon. Carry out periodic leak
tests toestimate the quantity of leakage.

 Install equipment interlocked solenoid cut-off valves in the air system so that air supply
to amachine can be switched off when not in use.

 Present energy prices justify liberal designs of pipeline sizes to reduce pressure drops.

 Compressed air piping layout should be made preferably as a ring main to provide
desired pressures for all users.

 A smaller dedicated compressor can be installed at load point, located far off from the
central compressor house, instead of supplying air through lengthy pipelines.

 All pneumatic equipment should be properly lubricated, which will reduce friction,
prevent wear of seals and other rubber parts thus preventing energy wastage due to
excessive air consumption or leakage.

 Misuse of compressed air such as for body cleaning, agitation, general floor cleaning,
and other similar applications must be discouraged in order to save compressed air and
energy.
  Pneumatic equipment should not be operated above the recommended operating
pressure as this not only wastes energy bus can also lead to excessive wear of
equipment's components which leads to further energy wastage.

 Pneumatic transport can be replaced by mechanical system as the former consumed

about 8 times more energy. Highest possibility of energy savings is by reducing
compressed air use.

 Pneumatic tools such as drill and grinders consume about 20 times more energy than
motor driven tools. Hence they have to be used efficiently. Wherever possible, they
should be replaced with electrically operated tools.

 Where possible welding is a good practice and should be preferred over threaded
connections.
 On account of high pressure drop, ball or plug or gate valves are preferable over
globevalves in compressed air lines.

4.6 Cooling Towers

Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical plants. The primary task of a cooling
tower is to reject heat into the atmosphere.
Cooling towers work based on the principle of “evaporative cooling“.
Evaporative cooling is the process where warm water from an industrial process is pumped up to the top
of the cooling tower where the water distribution system is. The water then gets distributed by cooling
tower nozzles to the wet deck. At the same time, air is being drawn through the air-inlet louvers forcing
water to evaporate. Evaporation causes the heat to be removed from the make up water. The hot air
naturally rises out of the tire.
They represent a relatively inexpensive and dependable means of removing low-grade heat from cooling
water. The make-up water source is used to replenish water lost to evaporation. Hot water from heat
exchangers is sent to the cooling tower. The water exits the cooling tower and is sent back to the
exchangers or to other units for further cooling. Typical closed loop cooling tower system is shown in
Figure.
Components of Cooling Tower
The basic components of an cooling tower are: Frame and casing, fill, cold water basin,
drift eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans.
Frame and casing: Most towers have structural frames that support the exterior enclosures
(casings), motors, fans, and other components. With some smaller designs, such as some glass
fiber units, the casing may essentially be the frame.
Fill: Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer by maximising water
and air contact. Fill can either be splash or film type.
Cold water basin: The cold water basin, located at or near the bottom of the tower, receives
the cooled water that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin usually has a sump or
low point for the cold water discharge connection. In many tower designs, the cold water basin
is beneath the entire fill.
Drift eliminators: These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that otherwise
would be lost to the atmosphere.
Air inlet: This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower. The inlet may take up an entire
side of a tower–cross flow design– or be located low on the side or the bottom of counter flow
designs.
Louvers: Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is to equalize air flow
into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter flow tower designs
do not require louvers.
Nozzles: These provide the water sprays to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of
the fill is essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either be
fixed in place and have either round or square spray patterns or can be part of a rotating assembly as
found in some circular cross-section towers.
Fans: Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally, propeller
fans are used in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal fans are found in forced
draft towers.

Energy Saving Opportunities in Cooling Towers

 Follow manufacturer's recommended clearances around cooling towers and relocate or

modify structures that interfere with the air intake or exhaust.

 Optimize cooling tower fan blade angle on a seasonal and/or load basis.

 Correct excessive and/or uneven fan blade tip clearance and poor fan balance.

 On old counter-flow cooling towers, replace old spray type nozzles with new square
sprayABS practically non-clogging nozzles.

 Replace splash bars with self-extinguishing PVC cellular film fill.

 Install new nozzles to obtain a more uniform water pattern

 Periodically clean plugged cooling tower distribution nozzles.

 Balance flow to cooling tower hot water basins.

 Cover hot water basins to minimize algae growth that contributes to fouling.

 Optimize blow down flow rate, as per COC limit.

 Replace slat type drift eliminators with low pressure drop, self-extinguishing, PVC
cellular units.
 Restrict flows through large loads to design values.

 Segregate high heat loads like furnaces, air compressors, DG sets, and isolate cooling
towers for sensitive applications like A/C plants, condensers of captive power plant etc.
A 1°C cooling water temperature increase may increase A/C compressor kW by 2.7%. A
1°C drop in cooling water temperature can give a heat rate saving of kCal/kWh in a
thermal power plant.

 Monitor L/G ratio, CW flow rates w.r.t. design as well as seasonal variations. It would
help to increase water load during summer and times when approach is high and
increase air flowduring monsoon times and when approach is narrow.

 Monitor approach, effectiveness and cooling capacity for continuous optimization

efforts, asper seasonal variations as well as load side variations.

 Consider COC improvement measures for water savings.

 Consider energy efficient FRP blade adoption for fan energy savings.

 Consider possible improvements on CW pumps with respect to efficiency improvement.

 Control cooling tower fans based on leaving water temperatures especially in case of
small units.
 Optimize process CW flow requirements, to save on pumping energy, cooling load,
evaporation losses (directly proportional to circulation rate) and blow down losses.

4.7 DG SET SYSTEM

Diesel engine is the prime mover, which drives an alternator to produce electrical energy. In
the diesel engine, air is drawn into the cylinder and is compressed to a high ratio (14:1 to
25:1). During this compression, the air is heated to a temperature of 700–900°C. A metered
quantity of diesel fuel is then injected into the cylinder, which ignites spontaneously because
of the high temperature. Hence, the diesel engine is also known as compression ignition (CI)
engine.
DG set can be classified according to cycle type as: two stroke and four stroke. However,
the bulk of IC engines use the four stroke cycle. Let us look at the principle of operation of the
four-stroke diesel engine.
Four Stroke - Diesel Engine
The 4 stroke operations in a diesel engine are: induction stroke, compression stroke, ignition
and power stroke and exhaust stroke.

1st : Induction stroke - while the inlet valve is open, the descending piston draws in
fresh air.
2nd : Compression stroke - while the valves are closed, the air is compressed to a pressure of
up to 25 bar.
3rd : Ignition and power stroke - fuel is injected, while the valves are closed (fuel injection
actually starts at the end of the previous stroke), the fuel ignites spontaneously and
the piston is forced downwards by the combustion gases.
4th : Exhaust stroke - the exhaust valve is open and the rising piston discharges the spent
gases from the cylinder.

A diesel generating set should be considered as a system since its successful operation depends
on the well-matched performance of the components, namely:
a) The diesel engine and its accessories.
b) The AC Generator.
c) The control systems and switchgear.
d) The foundation and power house civil works.
e) The connected load with its own components like heating, motor drives, lighting etc.
It is necessary to select the components with highest efficiency and operate them at their
optimum efficiency levels to conserve energy in this system.
Energy Saving Measures in DG Set

a) Ensure steady load conditions on the DG set, and provide cold, dust free air at
intake(use of air washers for large sets, in case of dry, hot weather, can be
considered).
b) Improve air filtration.
c) Ensure fuel oil storage, handling and preparation as per manufacturers'
guidelines/oil company data.
d) Consider fuel oil additives in case they benefit fuel oil properties for DG set usage.

e) Calibrate fuel injection pumps frequently.

f) Ensure compliance with maintenance checklist.

g) Ensure steady load conditions, avoiding fluctuations, imbalance in phases,

harmonicloads.
h) In case of a base load operation, consider waste heat recovery system adoption
for steam generation or refrigeration chiller unit incorporation. Even the Jacket
CoolingWater is amenable for heat recovery, vapour absorption system
adoption.
i) In terms of fuel cost economy, consider partial use of biomass gas for
generation. Ensure tar removal from the gas for improving availability of the
engine in the longrun.
j) Consider parallel operation among the DG sets for improved loading and fuel
economytherefore.
k) Carryout regular field trials to monitor DG set performance, and maintenance
planning as per requirements.