Biochemistry 11/11/2024

Topics
Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. They
serve as a major source of energy and are classified as simple or complex.

Simple carbohydrates, such as sugars, are quickly digested and provide a rapid energy boost.
Complex carbohydrates, like starches and fibers, take longer to break down and provide
sustained energy.
Carbohydrates can be found in various food sources like fruits, vegetables, grains, and dairy
products.
The body can convert excess carbohydrates into glycogen for storage or fat for long-term
energy reserves.

Dehydration synthesis

Dehydration synthesis is a chemical reaction that combines two molecules by removing water,
forming a new molecule.

It is also known as condensation reaction.

Dehydration synthesis is important for building complex biological molecules like
carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids.
In this reaction, a hydroxyl group (-OH) is removed from one molecule and a hydrogen atom (-
H) is removed from the other molecule.
The two molecules then bond together, forming a covalent bond and releasing a water
molecule.

Hydrolysis reactions

Hydrolysis reactions involve breaking down molecules by adding water molecules, resulting in
the separation of chemical bonds. This process is crucial for digestion and cellular functions.

Hydrolysis is a catabolic process, unlike dehydration synthesis which forms bonds.

Enzymes often catalyze hydrolysis reactions in living organisms.
Hydrolysis breaks polymers into monomers, allowing for absorption and utilization by the
body.
It is a reversible reaction, meaning molecules can also be synthesized through condensation
reactions.

Lipids
Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in
organic solvents. They serve as a major source of energy and play a role in cell structure and
signaling.

There are several types of lipids, including fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, and
steroids.
Fatty acids are the building blocks of lipids, consisting of a long hydrocarbon chain with a
carboxyl group at one end.
Triglycerides are the most common type of lipid and function as energy storage molecules,
consisting of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone.
Phospholipids are essential components of cell membranes, with a hydrophilic head and
hydrophobic tail.
Steroids are lipids characterized by a four-ring structure, and they serve as hormones and are
a component of cell membranes.

Proteins

Proteins are macromolecules consisting of amino acid chains that play crucial roles in cell
structure, function, and regulation.

Proteins are made up of 20 different amino acids.

The sequence of amino acids determines the protein's structure and function.
Proteins can act as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies.
Denaturation can alter a protein's structure and function.

Protein structure

Protein structure refers to the three-dimensional arrangement of amino acid residues in a protein
molecule.

Proteins adopt different structural levels: primary (linear amino acid sequence), secondary
(localized folding patterns), tertiary (overall 3D shape), and quaternary (interactions between
multiple protein subunits).
The specific amino acid sequence determines the folding process and final structure of a
protein.
The folding of a protein is crucial for its function, as misfolded proteins can result in diseases
such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.
A protein's structure can be determined experimentally using methods like X-ray
crystallography or NMR spectroscopy.

Key Terms
Amino acid
Amino acid is a building block of proteins and plays a crucial role in various biological processes.

Amino acids are organic compounds that contain both an amino group and a carboxyl group.
There are 20 different naturally occurring amino acids that are commonly found in proteins.
Amino acids are classified into essential and non-essential based on whether our bodies can
produce them or not.
The sequence and composition of amino acids determine the structure and function of
proteins.

Cellulose

Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate found in the cell walls of plants, providing structural support
and rigidity.

Cellulose consists of long chains of glucose molecules linked together by beta 1-4 glycosidic
bonds.
It is the most abundant organic compound on Earth.
Cellulose cannot be broken down by human digestive enzymes, but is a vital source of dietary
fiber.
Cellulose is a renewable and biodegradable material, commonly used in paper, textiles, and
other industries.

Chitin

Chitin is a structural polysaccharide commonly found in the exoskeletons of arthropods and the
cell walls of fungi.

It is composed of N-acetylglucosamine monomers linked by β-1,4 glycosidic bonds.

It is resistant to enzymatic degradation due to its rigid and highly ordered structure.
Chitinases are enzymes that break down chitin into smaller fragments.
Chitin plays a role in various applications such as in the production of biodegradable plastics
and wound healing materials.

Disaccharide

A disaccharide is a type of carbohydrate composed of two monosaccharides bonded together by

a glycosidic linkage.

Common disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose.

Disaccharides are commonly found in foods such as fruits, dairy products, and grains.
During digestion, disaccharides are broken down into their constituent monosaccharides by
enzymes.
Disaccharides serve as a source of energy in the body.

Fatty Acid
Fatty acids are carboxylic acids consisting of a hydrocarbon chain and a terminal carboxyl group,
vital for energy storage and cellular structure.

Saturated fatty acids lack double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain, while unsaturated ones
have one or more double bonds.
Essential fatty acids, such as Omega-3 and Omega-6, must be obtained from the diet as the
body cannot synthesize them.
Trans fatty acids, found in processed foods, are detrimental to health and increase the risk of
cardiovascular diseases.
Fatty acids are crucial components of phospholipids, which form cell membranes, and serve
as precursors for signaling molecules.

Fructose

Fructose is a simple sugar that is found naturally in fruits, vegetables, and honey. It is often used
as a sweetener in processed foods and beverages.

Fructose is metabolized differently from glucose, and may have different effects on body
weight and metabolic health.
Excessive fructose consumption can contribute to obesity and metabolic syndrome.
Fructose is the sweetest of all naturally occurring sugars.
The liver plays a crucial role in metabolizing fructose, as it is the main site of fructose
metabolism in the body.

Glucose

Glucose is a simple sugar molecule that serves as the primary source of energy for cellular
respiration.

It is found in foods such as fruit, honey, and carbohydrates like bread and pasta.
Glucose is transported through the bloodstream to provide energy to all cells in the body.
It can be converted into glycogen for storage in the liver and muscles.
Excess glucose is converted into fat for long-term energy storage.

Glycogen

Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate that serves as the primary energy storage molecule in
animals.

Glycogen is synthesized and stored in the liver and muscles.

It is made up of long chains of glucose molecules bonded together.
Glycogen can be broken down into glucose to provide energy during periods of fasting or
exercise.
A deficiency in glycogen storage can result in diseases such as glycogen storage disease
 (GSD).

Inorganic

In the context of living organisms, inorganic substances lack carbon-hydrogen bonds. Inorganic
compounds include minerals and metals.

Inorganic substances play essential roles in vital biological processes, such as enzyme
cofactors.
Examples of inorganic compounds in biology include water, salts, and minerals like calcium
and iron.
Inorganic chemistry explores the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds in
biological systems.
Inorganic elements are crucial for the structure and function of biomolecules like proteins
and nucleic acids.

lactose

Lactose is a disaccharide sugar found in milk, composed of galactose and glucose. It is

hydrolyzed by the enzyme lactase.

Lactose is the primary source of energy for newborns and infants.

Lactose intolerance, a common condition, occurs when the body lacks sufficient lactase
enzyme to break down lactose.
Lactose undergoes fermentation by bacteria in the colon, producing gas, leading to
symptoms like bloating and diarrhea in lactose intolerant individuals.
Lactose is widely used in the food industry as an ingredient in products like dairy-based
desserts, breads, and processed meats.

Monosaccharide

Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar unit. They
are the building blocks of more complex carbohydrates.

Common examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.

Monosaccharides are main sources of energy for cells.
They can be linked together to form disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides are classified based on the number of carbon atoms they contain, such as
trioses, tetroses, pentoses, and hexoses.

Non-polar

Non-polar molecules lack significant differences in electronegativity, resulting in balanced charge

distribution. Such molecules do not readily interact with polar molecules.
 Non-polar molecules typically consist of non-metal elements with similar electronegativities.
Examples include hydrocarbons, fats, oils, and waxes.
Non-polar molecules are hydrophobic, resisting interaction with water.
Due to their lack of charge separation, non-polar molecules often interact through van der
Waals forces.

Not water-soluble

Substances that are not water-soluble do not readily dissolve in water due to their hydrophobic
nature, making them interact with each other instead.

Not water-soluble substances often have long hydrocarbon chains or bulky structures that
repel water molecules.
Examples of not water-soluble substances include fats, oils, and certain vitamins like vitamin
A, D, E, and K.
These substances tend to form distinct layers when mixed with water, known as emulsions.
Not water-soluble compounds can be transported within the body by binding to carrier
proteins.

Organic

In the realm of chemistry, 'Organic' refers to compounds containing carbon-hydrogen bonds,

typically found in living organisms and vital for life processes.

Organic compounds are diverse and play crucial roles in various biological processes.
Carbon is the key element in organic compounds, enabling the formation of complex
structures.
Organic chemistry focuses on the study of these compounds and their properties.
Functional groups such as hydroxyl, carbonyl, and amino groups are common in organic
molecules.

Phospholipids

Phospholipids are a class of lipids that form cell membranes, consisting of a hydrophilic head
and hydrophobic tail, providing structure and regulating membrane fluidity.

Phospholipids are essential components of cell membranes, enabling the

compartmentalization of cellular processes.
Phospholipids can spontaneously form bilayers due to their amphipathic nature, allowing the
separation of aqueous compartments within cells.
Phospholipids are crucial for the transport of fat-soluble vitamins and serve as precursors for
signaling molecules like diacylglycerol and phosphoinositides.
Phospholipids can undergo modification through processes such as phosphorylation,
acylation, and lipid rafts formation.
Polar

In chemistry, polar refers to molecules or chemical bonds with unequal sharing of electrons,
leading to partial positive and negative charges.

Water is a well-known polar molecule due to its unequal distribution of electrons, resulting in
its unique properties.
Polar molecules are attracted to other polar molecules through intermolecular forces like
hydrogen bonding.
In biological systems, polar compounds play a crucial role in various processes such as cell
signaling and membrane structure.
Solvents like ethanol and acetone are polar, enabling them to dissolve polar solutes by
forming interactions.

Polysaccharide

Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates composed of multiple monosaccharide units linked

together. They serve as energy storage molecules and provide structural support in cells.

Common examples include starch, glycogen, and cellulose found in plants and animals.
They can be straight-chain or branched-chain structures, influencing their properties and
functions.
Polysaccharides play a vital role in maintaining blood sugar levels and digestive health.
The digestion of polysaccharides into monosaccharides is facilitated by specific enzymes in
the body.

Primary structure

Primary structure refers to the sequence of amino acids in a protein molecule.

Primary structure is the most basic level of protein structure.

It determines how the protein folds into its final 3D shape.
The sequence of amino acids in the primary structure is encoded by the DNA sequence.
Changes in the primary structure can lead to changes in protein function or structure.

Quaternary structure

In the context of proteins, quaternary structure refers to the organization of multiple protein
subunits to form a functional complex.

Quaternary structure is stabilized by various non-covalent interactions, such as hydrogen

bonds, ionic bonds, and hydrophobic interactions.
Proteins with quaternary structure are typically more stable and have a greater functional
diversity than proteins with lower levels of structural organization.
 Quaternary structure plays a crucial role in the regulation of protein activity and function.
The assembly of protein subunits into a quaternary structure can be influenced by factors
such as temperature, pH, and the presence of specific ligands.

R group

In Biochemistry, 'R group' refers to the variable part of an amino acid that determines its unique
chemical properties and function.

The 'R group' can be a simple atom or a complex structure.

The 'R group' determines the hydrophilic or hydrophobic nature of the amino acid.
The 'R group' can be classified into different categories such as nonpolar, polar, acidic, or
basic.
The 'R group' plays a crucial role in protein folding and interaction with other molecules.

Saturated

In terms of molecules, 'Saturated' refers to a state where all available bonding sites are filled,
making the molecule stable and unable to form additional bonds.

Saturated fats are typically solid at room temperature.

Saturated hydrocarbons contain only single bonds between carbon atoms.
Saturated solutions contain the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a solvent
at a given temperature.
Saturated fatty acids are common in animal products and some plant sources.

Secondary structure

Secondary structure refers to the local folded shape of a protein determined by hydrogen
bonding between nearby amino acids.

The two most common types of secondary structures are alpha helices and beta sheets.
Secondary structure is stabilized by hydrogen bonds.
Protein function is often linked to its secondary structure.
Secondary structure can be predicted using computational methods.

starch

Starch is a complex carbohydrate found in plants, composed of glucose molecules. It is the

primary energy storage molecule in plants.

Starch granules consist of two forms: amylose, a linear chain of glucose molecules, and
amylopectin, a branched chain.
Digestion breaks down starch into smaller glucose units for absorption into the bloodstream.
 Starch is commonly found in staple foods like potatoes, rice, and corn.
It serves as an important source of energy for humans and animals.

steroids

Steroids are fat-soluble organic compounds consisting of four interconnected rings. They play
important roles in various physiological functions such as regulation of metabolism and
inflammation.

Common types include cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen, and cortisol.

Some steroids are used as medication to reduce inflammation and treat conditions like
asthma and autoimmune diseases.
Anabolic steroids are synthetic derivatives of testosterone that promote muscle growth and
are commonly abused for athletic performance enhancement.
Steroids can interact with cell membranes and regulate gene expression, influencing diverse
biological processes.

sucrose

Sucrose is a common disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose. It is found in plants and
is a major source of energy for living organisms.

Sucrose is commonly known as table sugar and is used as a sweetener in food and
beverages.
In the body, sucrose is broken down into glucose and fructose, which can be used for energy.
Sucrose is found in high concentrations in sugar cane, sugar beets, and fruits.
The digestion of sucrose is facilitated by the enzyme sucrase, which hydrolyzes it into
glucose and fructose.

Tertiary structure

Tertiary structure refers to the three-dimensional arrangement of a protein's secondary structure

elements, resulting in its final folded form.

Tertiary structure is stabilized by various interactions, including hydrogen bonding,

hydrophobic interactions, electrostatic interactions, and disulfide bonds.
The folding of a protein into its tertiary structure is crucial for its proper function and stability.
Misfolding of proteins can lead to diseases, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.
The determination of tertiary structure is often achieved through techniques like X-ray
crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.

Triglyceride

Triglycerides are a type of lipid molecule composed of three fatty acids and a glycerol molecule;
they serve as a major storage form of energy in the body.
 Triglycerides are primarily found in adipose tissue and circulate in the bloodstream.
High levels of triglycerides in the blood are associated with an increased risk of heart
disease.
Triglycerides are an essential component of cell membranes and play a role in insulation and
protection of organs.
They are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol during digestion for energy utilization and
storage.

Unsaturated

In chemistry, unsaturated refers to compounds that contain double or triple carbon-carbon

bonds, resulting in fewer hydrogen atoms than saturated compounds.

Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature, while saturated fats are typically solid.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are more reactive than saturated hydrocarbons.
Unsaturated solutions can dissolve more solute compared to saturated solutions.
Unsaturated compounds are commonly found in plant-based oils and are considered
healthier than saturated fats.

Water-soluble

Water-soluble refers to molecules that can easily dissolve in water due to their hydrophilic
properties, allowing them to be transported in the bloodstream.

Key examples include vitamins B and C which are vital for various cellular functions.
These molecules have polar or charged regions that interact favorably with water molecules.
Water-soluble compounds are typically excreted by the kidneys, influencing their
pharmacokinetics.
Their solubility in water aids in efficient delivery and circulation throughout the body for
metabolic processes.