POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

INNOVATIVE WATER SOLUTIONS FOR WATER-SCARCE COMMUNITIES:

A STUDY ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF RAINWATER HARVESTING IN
FLOOD - PRONE AREAS IN BRGY. 597
METRO, MANILA, PHILIPPINES

A Research Paper Submitted

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Subject
Civil Engineering Research

by

Caparas, Roselyn Marie Z.

Kong, Shekinah Lyrish P.
Lim, Dino Antonio G.
Managbanag, Maxzinne G.

Advisers

Engr. Donamel M. Saiyari, PhD

Engr. Lesly Ann Pauline Manaoat, MSc

February 2024
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Table of Contents

CHAPTER I....................................................................................................... 1

BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .......................................................................................................... 3
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .............................................................................................................. 4
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................................................. 5
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................................... 5
SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS.................................................................................................................. 6
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS ................................................................................................................... 7
DEFINITION OF TERMS ...................................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER II ..................................................................................................... 8

2.1 RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEM ............................................................................................ 8

2.2 NON-POTABLE APPLICATIONS .................................................................................................. 12
2.3 FLOOD-PRONE AREAS ............................................................................................................... 15
2.4 WATER-SCARCE AREAS ............................................................................................................ 18
2.5 FILTRATION AND WATER TREATMENT ..................................................................................... 21
a. Filtration Treatment ........................................................................................................................... 21
b. Water Treatment.................................................................................................................................. 22
CHAPTER III ................................................................................................. 24

RESEARCH DESIGN ......................................................................................................................... 24

RESEARCH LOCALE ......................................................................................................................... 25
SAMPLING PROCEDURE................................................................................................................... 26
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT ................................................................................................................. 26
RESEARCH MATERIALS................................................................................................................... 27
DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE ...................................................................................................... 28
Administration: ........................................................................................................................................ 28
Distribution: ............................................................................................................................................. 28
Retrieval: .................................................................................................................................................. 29
STATISTICAL TREATMENT .............................................................................................................. 29
REFERENCES ................................................................................................ 32
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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1: THE INPUT-OUTPUT PROCESS OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 4

FIGURE 2: MAP OF BARANGAY 597 25

FIGURE 3: RAINWATER HARVESTING SYSTEMS PROTOTYPE 29

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 2.1: PERCENTAGE AREA OF LGUS UNDER EACH FLOOD RISK

CLASSIFICATION. 16

TABLE 2.2: POTENTIAL RAINFALL AT ANGAT DAM DURING EL NIÑO 20

LIST OF EQUATIONS

EQ. 1: SAMPLE SIZE 26

EQ. 2: DEMOGRAPHIC PERCENTAGE 29

EQ. 3: TOTAL WATER BALANCE 29

EQ. 4: TOTAL INFLOW 30

EQ. 5: WATER DEMAND 30

EQ. 6: TOTAL WATER OVERFLOW 30

EQ. 7: WATER RETENTION 31

EQ. 8: FLOOD VOLUME REDUCTION 31

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CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Background and Introduction

Rainfall is often considered a challenge by Filipinos given the roughly 20 typhoons

they experience each year, causing disruptions and widespread evacuations. Nonetheless, it

can also be a valuable resource in mitigating water scarcity. According to former agriculture

secretary Dr. William Dar and ex-environment chief Dr. Elisea Gozun, the Philippines

receives about 2,400 millimeters of rainfall each year, one of the highest in the world. While

this a challenge for the country, it also holds the potential to provide solutions for water

scarcity. However, despite having abundant rainfall, it was stated that the country's

rainwater harvest rate is only about 4 percent compared to India, which manages to harvest

about 60 percent of its annual 700 mm rainfall. Dar emphasized that people must

immediately prioritize rainwater harvesting as a significant strategy, addressing not only

agriculture but also household demands. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is one of the methods

employed and followed to support water conservation.

Considering the recurring water shortages in Metro Manila, the residents are

encouraged to conserve and seek alternative water sources. As stated by Water Resources

Management Office (WRMO, 2023), “As we prepare for even drier conditions due to El

Niño, it is of utmost importance to conserve water in order to prevent massive water

interruptions later this year”. Rainwater harvesting was among measures that authorities had

identified for helping mitigate the impacts of the strong 1997-1998 El Niño. It serves as a
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viable option for averting the inconveniences associated with water scarcity and contributing

to water preservation.

According to Lumbera, et al. (2013), Scarcity of water in some areas is of concern and

Rainwater harvesting has been one of the identified solutions. Aside from its significance for

its usage, it can also lessen flooding in impervious areas. Rainwater is an abundant resource in

the Philippines and when properly collected and managed, can help address flood problems.

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) has been practiced for years and has been viewed as one of the

better options for flood mitigation in urban areas compared to other storm water management

practices.

Metro Manila, as the country’s political, economic, and educational center, and

being the most densely populated region comprising 16 highly urbanized cities, has several

identified flood-prone areas. The MMDA identified the City of Manila as having the

highest number of flood-prone streets among the 16 highly urbanized cities in the National

Capital Region (NCR) after an hour’s worth or 80 millimeters (mm) of rain. Recent study

by the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) reveals that Metro Manila is

prone to floods, not just because of the rising seas, but also if dumped with an hour of

continuous rain.

In the face of frequent water supply interruptions and continuous street flooding

during heavy rains in various parts of Metro Manila including streets in Brgy. 597. This

research seeks to evaluate the feasibility of rainwater harvesting to alleviate water shortages

and mitigate flooding in low- lying areas. This study aims to promote rainwater harvesting to

supply water for domestic purposes and prevent fallen rains from street flooding in Brgy. 597.
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This approach will contribute to a decline in flooding incidents in designated areas, while

simultaneously allowing the collection, filtration, and storage of water for multiple future

uses. The result of this study will hold great significance for every household,

implementing rainwater harvesting toward establishing environmentally sustainable homes.

Statement of the Problem

This research seeks to assess the viability of harvesting rainwater in selected low-lying

regions of Metro Manila by addressing the following questions:

1. What is the demographic profile of the respondent in terms of:

1.1. Family Size

1.2. Income Level

1.3. Residential Status

1.4. Duration of Residency

2. Will the harvested water be sufficient to address the water scarcity in the community?

3. Is implementing rainwater harvesting systems an effective measure to reduce flooding

within the community?

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Conceptual Framework

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

• Demographic Profile
• Standardized • Determine the
Questionnaire suiffiency of
• Interpretation of harvested water to
• Gathering of Data address water
Data scarcity in the
community
• Statistical • Provide effective
• Application of Treatment measure to reduce
Rainwater flooding by
Harvesting implementing
Systems Rainwater
Harvesting Systems

Figure 1: The Input-Output Process of Conceptual Framework

The input in research framework indicated the distribution of standardized

questionnaire, gathering of data, and practical application of Rainwater Harvesting Systems.

Then, the research process includes the interpretation of the data and apply the statistical

treatment. Lastly, the output includes the demographic profile of the residents in Brgy. 597,

determining the sufficiency of harvested water to address water scarcity in the community,

and provide effective measures to reduce flooding by implanting rainwater harvesting

systems.
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Theoretical Framework

Rainwater Harvesting Principles served as a foundation for this study, focusing on the

environmental benefits of water conservation in buildings. Hammon (2011) emphasized the

potential for rainwater utilization both indoors and outdoors, contributing to considerations in

system design.

As the world population increases, the need and demand for water supply is also

growing. One of the primary sources of water for every living species is rainwater (Rahman,

2014). Due to the rapid urbanization of the Philippines, Metro Manila often experiences

water supply scarcity. To mitigate this issue, rainwater harvesting can be one solution.

Additionally, many places in Metro Manila are considered flood-prone areas. Through

rainwater harvesting, inhabitants can reduce the amount of rainwater flowing onto the streets,

potentially preventing excessive flooding in the community. Installing rainwater harvesting

systems on household roofs and having a water reservoir for storage and distribution can

convert rainwater into safe and useful non-potable water for household consumption.

Significance of the Study

The significance of the study is to evaluate the feasibility of rainwater harvesting to

alleviate water scarcity and mitigate flooding in low-lying areas of Metro Manila. The study

aims to empower communities, reduce vulnerabilities, and enhance the self-sufficiency of

residents by introducing and evaluating innovative water solutions.

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The study encourages students to analyze data, find viable solutions, and assess the

feasibility and efficacy of rainwater harvesting in various contexts by bringing attention to the

significance of sustainable resource management and water conservation.

The study holds significance by directly impacting the well-being of communities in

Metro Manila. Promoting rainwater harvesting fosters a sense of collective ownership and

responsibility for water management, encouraging sustainable environmental practices.

The researchers aim to highlight rainwater harvesting as a long-term approach for

water management problems in Metro Manila. Rainwater harvesting promotes water

conservation, reducing dependency on energy-intensive water treatment and distribution

systems.

Scope and Limitations

This research study was focused on implementing the rainwater harvesting system in

areas with one of the highest numbers of flood-prone streets in the central part of Manila City

specifically along V. Mapa Street (from Guadal Canal Street to Old Sta. Mesa Street) situated

in Brgy 597.

Residents in Brgy. 597 who encountered water scarcity and flooding in their street

were chosen as respondents. Due to the scope of this research, the researchers were not able to

collect data from the entire recommended population sample, thus this study is limited by the

number of participants.
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Research Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis: There is no significant increase in the amount of water supply for

non-potable household usage as a result of rainwater harvesting (RWH), and RWH does not

contribute to the prevention of flooding in several areas in Metro Manila.

Alternative Hypothesis: Rainwater harvesting (RWH) significantly increases the

amount of water supply for non-potable household usage, and RWH helps prevent flooding in

several areas in Metro Manila.

Definition of Terms

Eradicated - to get rid of something or destroy something bad.

Flood-Prone - any land area susceptible to being inundated by water from any source.

Implement - the process of making something effective or starting to use something.

Non-Potable - any type of water that is not suitable for human consumption.

Precipitation - any liquid or frozen water that forms in the atmosphere and falls to Earth. It is

one of the three main steps of the global water cycle.

Rainwater Harvesting - the simple process or technology used to conserve rainwater by

collecting, storing, conveying, and purifying rainwater that runs off from rooftops, parks,

roads, open grounds, etc. for later use.

Scarcity - insufficiency or shortness of supply.

Spatial technologies - any software or hardware that interacts with real-world locations.
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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents literature and studies by various authors and researchers.

These are found by the researchers to be directly related to the present study. These are

gathered by researchers from different studies, journals, and articles. Furthermore, this

review of related literature is the basis to support the study.

2.1 Rainwater Harvesting System

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is a sustainable practice that involves collecting and

storing rainwater for various uses, such as irrigation, household chores, and replenishing

groundwater sources. In ancient times, people recognized the fundamental importance of

water in human life, leading to the development of Rainwater Harvesting Systems (RWH).

Historical evidence indicates the existence of such systems dating back to 500 BC

(Yannopoulos et al., 2017).

This ancient technique harnesses the natural precipitation that falls on rooftops, land

surfaces, and other catchment areas, directing it to storage systems like tanks or underground

reservoirs. By capturing and utilizing rainwater, communities can reduce their dependency on

centralized water supplies, alleviate strain on local water resources, and promote eco-friendly

water management practices that conserve both energy and resources.

Over the past two decades, the adoption of RWH aligns with the overarching

principles of detention-based Low Impact Development (LID) and Sustainable Drainage

System (SuDS) methodologies. When designed with precision, RWH acts as an additional
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method to reduce the frequency, peaks, and total volume of urban runoff. Implementing tank-

focused RWH and other on-site technologies in cities can mitigate urbanization's adverse

effects on stormwater drainage (Campisano et al., 2017).

In Sylhet City, Bangladesh, home to nearly 0.7 million residents and one of the most

densely populated areas, challenges like inadequate housing, growing slums, and limited

access to clean water are prevalent. A study by Alam et al. (2012) assessed the viability of

RWH systems in this context, revealing that RWH can be three to five times more cost-

effective than traditional private water supplies. Moreover, the quality of the rainwater

gathered may be recommended for drinking and other non-potable domestic use.

Consequently, rainwater harvesting emerges as a promising alternative to ensure sufficient

and safe water access for the residents of Sylhet City (Alam et al., 2012).

In a study conducted by Freni and Liuzzo (2019) in Palermo, Sicily, they analyzed the

effectiveness and performance of RWH systems to supply water for toilet flushing and reduce

flooding in 408 single-family houses in a residential part of Southern Italy; where flooding is

common. The results indicated that implementing RWH systems on an urban scale

significantly contributes to effective urban management. Moreover, RWH systems play a

significant role in minimizing flood volumes, thereby offering crucial support in preventing

potential failures of drainage systems during heavy storm events.

The researchers conducted a range of FLO-2D hydraulic simulations across the 1.6

km2 area, revealing that RWH systems demonstrate commendable effectiveness during rain

events with low to medium depths (up to 50mm), effectively decreasing flood volumes.

However, the 2002-2008 data indicated that RWH tanks are ineffective in decreasing flood
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volumes during intense rainfalls because they cannot store great rainfall amounts. To manage

stormwater during such events, the researchers suggested that it is essential to implement

strategies like detention tanks, bigger pipes, or RWH tanks with capacities greater than 5 m3;

nevertheless, the associated expenses may not be cost-effective.

The implementation of RWH systems in Sicily showed that flooded areas can be

eradicated during small rainfall events. Whereas, for a rainfall event with up to 50 mm depth,

a 35% flood area reduction is evident. However, the impact becomes minimal during more

intense rainfall events (Freni & Liuzzo, 2019).

In a country like the Philippines, where water resource management is crucial for

agriculture, domestic use, and environmental sustainability, the adoption of rainwater

harvesting systems can play a vital role in ensuring consistent access to clean and safe water,

especially in areas with limited infrastructure or frequent water-related challenges.

Unfortunately, despite its potential benefits in addressing water scarcity and sustainability

challenges, the widespread adoption and modernization of RWH systems have been hampered

by various factors, including inadequate promotion, lack of incentives, and competing water

management approaches (Lumbera et al., 2013). For instance, a study conducted on the Island

of Mangalabang, Philippines discussed numerous Rainwater Harvesting practices and

utilizations and how they can heavily impact not only the island but even the whole province

of Iloilo as well. Results show collecting rainwater from roofs is a common practice on the

island, given the limited availability of water on it. This method serves as a practical approach

to supplement daily water requirements, providing a valuable and sustainable source of water

to meet the essential needs of households and the community. In this manner, the researchers
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suggested that households should undergo training on clean and safe rainwater harvesting

practices to ensure effective and hygienic water collection. Additionally, an orientation

focused on the preservation and utilization of rainwater organized within the barangay could

be beneficial (Ciriaco et al., 2022a).

Metro Manila, officially known as the National Capital Region (NCR), is an

administrative region situated in the central part of Luzon, Philippines. According to the 2020

Census, NCR recorded a total population of 13,484,462 residents. This figure accounts for

21.68% of the population within the Luzon Island group and constitutes 12.37% of the

country's total population. Based on these statistics, the population density within the NCR is

calculated at 21,765 individuals per square kilometer, highlighting the densely populated

nature of this administrative region (Philippine Statistics Authority, 2021); because of this, the

access to clean and adequate water supply for the said area is limited. The only primary

sources of water supply for Metro Manila are the Angat, Ipo, and La Mesa Dams. These

reservoirs play a crucial role in providing potable water to meet the daily needs of the densely

populated National Capital Region (Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System, 2021).

Ironically, the Philippines experiences approximately 20 typhoons on average each

year, subjecting various regions, including Metro Manila, to significant weather-related

challenges. In 2009 for instance, Metro Manila endured the impact of 10 strong typhoons,

resulting in substantial rainfall and triggering floods throughout the area (Porio, 2011). In

Metro Manila, the average monthly rainfall varies between dry and median years, typically

experiencing 7 dry months (100 mm), 5 wet months (200 mm), and no months characterized

by heavy precipitation. During a wet year, there were 4 dry months (100 mm), 4 wet months
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(200 mm), and 3 months with heavy precipitation (Necesito et al., 2013). In this context, the

utilization of RWH systems is pivotal for its residents.

A review of Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) systems as a non-potable water resource for

reducing floods in Metro Manila shows that the reduction of water extracted from the Angat

Dam that causes flooding issues in the mentioned area will be possible through RWH.

Benefiting from abundant rainfall, Metro Manila has access to an adequate supply of

rainwater to be used, Additionally, because the nature of rainwater does not contain hard

metals, it only requires basic water supply treatments (Necesito et al., 2013).

2.2 Non-Potable Applications

Rainwater harvesting systems provide environmentally friendly solutions that address

the need for water conservation and reduce surface runoff. The stored rainwater can be

effectively utilized for different purposes, such as irrigating green roofs, maintaining gardens,

and flushing toilets. The efficient allocation and utilization of water resources in each

application are essential objectives (Palermo Stefania Anna and Talarico, 2020)

(Ciriaco et al., 2022b) conducted a study of rainwater harvesting practices and

utilization on the island of Malangabang in the Philippines. Rainwater was predominantly

sourced from rooftops, with minimal collection from grounds and plants. The main uses of

rainwater included watering plants, toilet cleaning, and flushing while drinking was the least

common use. The study identified significant relationships between harvesting practices and

utilization, such as the utilization of rooftop rainwater for personal washing and cleaning,
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employing gutter-collected water for pet bathing, and storing rainwater in used containers for

cooking and other household cleaning. These findings support prior research emphasizing the

advantages of rainwater harvesting in mitigating water shortages.

Demographic and climatic factors play a crucial role in determining the water savings

of an RWH system, resulting in significant spatial variability. (Preeti & Rahman, 2021) found

considerable variation in water savings across Australian capital cities. They develop a

Python-based tool that utilizes daily water balance modeling and various input data, including

rainfall, roof area, overflow losses, water demand, and first flush. Utilizing ten different tank

sizes and considering three distinct water uses, they demonstrated that RWHS exhibits high

reliability (80%-100%) for toilet and laundry use across all Australian capital cities.

Nevertheless, the reliability of irrigation use is limited due to the excessive water demand

associated with irrigation.

Furthermore, based on(Chiu et al., 2015) The current centralized urban water supply

heavily relying on energy poses a substantial water-energy challenge, particularly for rapid

growing Asian cities. To address this issue, there is growing recognition of the potential to

harvest rooftop rainwater for non-potable purposes. The study suggests a design of rainwater

harvesting on a citywide scale using the Geographic Information System (GIS)-simulation-

based design system (GSBDS). This GSBDS integrated a rainfall database, water balance

model, spatial technologies, energy-saving investigations, and economic feasibility analysis

based on a case study of eight communities in the Taipei metropolitan, Taiwan. By addressing

temporal and spatial variations in rainfall, GSBDS becomes a versatile tool for evaluating

RWHS in diverse locations. The results show that the scheme is feasible when considering
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water and energy savings. RWHSs have been found to be cost-effective, resulting in 21.6%

domestic water-use savings and 138.6 kWh/year-family energy savings. In addition, the cost

of energy-saving per unit is lower compared to solar PV systems in 85% of the RWHS

settings. Therefore, RWHSs not only promote water savings but also serve as an alternative

renewable energy-saving approach to tackle the water-energy dilemma caused by rapid

urbanization.

Rainwater harvesting system (RWHS) is a feasible solution to sustain the flexibility

and robustness of water supply systems. The research introduces a stochastic approach to

evaluate the performance of RWHS, giving particular importance to tank size. Various

simulations, encompassing different non-potable water demands and roof area typologies, are

conducted to analyze the impact of these factors on RWHS efficiency. An economic

assessment is also conducted to illustrate the model’s effectiveness in determining the optimal

tank size. The results are specific to the climate of study region characterized by uneven

rainfall distribution, suggest that even in unfavorable conditions, RWHS can still provide

substantial water savings. The study identifies greater efficiency for RWHS with smaller

Demand-Roof Area ratios and establishes a maximum tank size per unit area, indicating

diminishing benefits beyond this limit. The economic assessment reveals positive net present

values for investing in RWHS, particularly for large rooftop areas and small Demand-Roof

Area Ratios. Overall, investing in RWHS is considered low risk with short payback times in

these conditions (Lopes et al., 2017)

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2.3 Flood-Prone Areas

According to Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) flood is

one of the most destructive natural disasters in the Philippines, due to having an average of 20

typhoons entering the country per year. Philippines was marked by two major storm events

during 2022, including Tropical Storm Megi in April which caused a total of 346 fatalities,

and Tropical Storm Nalgae in October which affected 3.3 million people. (EM-DAT 2022)

Philippines's urban centers are in low-lying areas and are near the banks of major river

systems, in Manila the Pasig-Marikina River. (Nantes 2007) Metro Manila, also known as the

National Capital Region (NCR), has a land area of 636 square kilometers and is surrounded

by the Meycauayan and Malabon-Tullahan river basins in the North, the Pasig-Marikina River

basin in the East, the Mangahan river basin, and Manila Bay to the West, with Laguna de Bay

to the Southeast. Metro Manila is characterized as a vast drainage basin that frequently

experiences inundation from overflowing rivers and stormwaters. (Bankoff 2003)

Flooding in Metro Manila is caused by severe typhoons that have passed through our

country. Additionally, it is exacerbated by high population density and urbanization, pollution

generated by the inhabitants, and a deficient drainage system throughout the city. Overflowing

of nearby bodies of water also results in flooding. Lastly, the lack of preparedness and

mitigation systems further contributes to the recurring issue (Alcazaren, 2013).

This is the list of flood-prone areas in NCR, Philippines for 2023: Caloocan, Las

Piñas, Makati, Malabon, Mandaluyong, Manila, Marikina, Muntinlupa, Navotas, Parañaque,

Pasay, Pasig, Pateros, Quezon City, San Juan, Taguig, and Valenzuela. In Manila, the flood-

prone areas include España to Lacson, Lagusnilad Underpass, Maria Clara to Maceda,
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Maceda to Laon-Laan, Maceda to Simoun Malvar St., P. Burgos near Manila City Hall, Pedro

Gil St., Quirino Avenue, and Taft Avenue going to Roxas Boulevard, Recto to Morayta, and

Rizal Avenue corner R.Papa. (Zoleta 2023)

Table 2.1 This figure shows the percentage area of LGUs under each flood risk classification.

Values that are highlighted in bold indicate the highest percentage area, which identifies the

Table 2.1: Percentage Area of LGUs Under Each Flood Risk Classification.
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flood risk classification of the greater area of the LGU. (Rubio et al., 2020)

Flooding impacts transportation networks on both short and long-term timescales. It

causes diversions, delays, and the closure of roads. Additionally, it disrupts public

transportation networks and leads to heavy traffic throughout the entire area (Bacero &

Fillone, 2023). These flood events greatly affect the social and economic aspects, leading to

loss of lives, damaged properties and infrastructure, destruction of health and livelihood.

Additionally, it costs a significant amount of money to repair the damage caused by the event

(Jago-on et al., 2011).

It is expected that by the year 2030, flood damage in Manila will increase by 212% due to the

higher frequency of extreme rainfall events and the anticipated level of urbanization in the

future (Kefi et al., 2020).

According to the data gathered from the survey of Porio (2011), the most vulnerable

during a typhoon are those living in low-lying areas near bodies of water, residents of squatter

settlements, and low-salary earners. During a typhoon, there is an inadequate supply of

potable water and compromised sanitation, leading to the sickness of evacuees. Many people

suffer from various ailments such as skin allergies, psoriasis, athlete's foot, fever, cold,

diarrhea, typhoid, dengue, leptospirosis, and Tuberculosis (TB) infection. Those who fall ill

end up spending most of their money on healthcare and medicines. Additionally, a significant

number of affected individuals cannot leave their homes and lack any available means of

transportation. Moreover, many appliances left in their homes become rusty and broken, while

some houses are destroyed by the typhoon.

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One solution to flood events is the Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) potential of roofs as

catchment areas for rainwater. It reduces a significant amount of rainwater and keeps it off the

streets, even in extreme storm scenarios. The primary purpose of RWH is to make clean water

available in water-scarce areas. A large tank with 5000 US gallons of rainwater is sufficient to

reduce peak flood flows. Overall, the results indicate that RWH can help prevent street

flooding and can even be a source of non-potable water.

2.4 Water-Scarce Areas

Water shortage in the Philippines is the result of rapid population growth and poor

governance, stemming from the failure to construct infrastructure specifically for water supply

management. Nine million out of 101 million Filipinos still consume unsafe water and rely on

unsustainable water sources. Water scarcity particularly affects people in rural areas, low-

income urban cities, and urban centers like Metro Manila (NCR) (Palanca-Tan, 2020).

Additionally, 24 million Filipinos lack access to improved sanitation, leading to disease

outbreaks and life-threatening illnesses (WATEROAM, 2020). Another contributing factor to

water scarcity in the Philippines is the El Niño phenomenon, causing week-long water

interruptions throughout the entire country (Cepeda, 2023).

The El Niño-Southern Oscillation, or ENSO, is a change in the ocean-atmosphere

system in the eastern Pacific region that causes significant weather changes worldwide. It is

identified by unusual warm ocean temperatures along and on both sides of the equator, mainly

in the central and eastern Pacific. It occurs irregularly, approximately every two to seven
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years, and differs in magnitude and duration from the previous occurrence (Abrera et al.,

1998).

The consequences of El Niño on water supply in Manila include a reduction in raw

water allocation due to water shortages (Abrera et al., 1998). El Niño significantly affects

people through socioeconomic damage, migration, disease outbreaks, and food and water

insecurity, as reported by OCHA (2016).

Angat Dam is the primary source of potable water for Metro Manila, supplying 90

percent of the entire capital. It also irrigates 25,000 hectares of farmland in Central Luzon.

During the 2019 El Niño, the water level of Angat Dam dropped to record lows, causing 61

percent of the country to experience water scarcity (Andrade, 2023).

On the 4th of July 2023, the World Meteorological Organization announced the

possibility of El Niño to emerge with a 90% chance of having high strength up to the end of

the year, and it is expected to be extended up until 2024 due to extreme weather conditions

caused by the climate change. With this occurrence it is expected that the world will

experience greater, and more severe widespread floods, and droughts that will cause vast

economic damage, and water and food scarcity. (NOAA, 2023) According to PAGASA, the

El Niño phenomenon will persist through April to June 2024, reaching its peak with a

moderate-to-strong intensity. During this phenomenon, it is expected that almost the entire

country will experience rainfall percentages well below normal (PAGASA, 2023).

Table 2.2 This figure illustrates the potential rainfall at Angat Dam during the El Niño

phenomenon. It is anticipated that in February, the National Capital Region (NCR) will

experience significant water scarcity. (PAGASA, 2023)

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Table 2.2: Potential Rainfall at Angat Dam During El Niño

Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) can be a sustainable solution in addressing both urban

flooding and water scarcity. It can reduce the reliance of inhabitants on municipal water

sources and allow them to use their own water reservoirs for household purposes. If the RWH

system is installed and maintained properly, it can provide an adequate water supply to fulfill

the community's water demand in areas with abundant rainfall (Waseem et al., 2023). In a

tropical country like the Philippines, which receives abundant rainfall, there should be an

effort to utilize rainwater by converting runoff water into usable water for crop irrigation or

household usage. By doing so, it will alleviate the water scarcity the community is currently

experiencing (Maxwell-Gaines, 2022)

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2.5 Filtration and Water Treatment

a. Filtration Treatment

A water filtration system is a mechanism designed to remove solid particles, both tiny

and large, from a liquid using a filter medium that permits the passage of liquid while

restricting solid particles. In the context of drinking water, a basic water filter operates by

employing a fine physical barrier to reduce contamination levels. (IQS, 2024)

Furthermore, a filtration system plays a crucial role in ensuring the safety of the water

we consume. It can eliminate harmful chemicals, bacteria, and viruses, making the water

suitable for drinking and various other uses. Additionally, the system can effectively remove

sediment, contributing to an enhanced taste and appearance of the water (Smg, 2023).

Typically, drinking water filtration systems incorporate a comprehensive five-stage process,

including sediment an effective method for reducing turbidity in water caused by the presence

of suspended solids such as sand, silt, or clay. Mechanical Filtration where untreated water

passes through a mesh filter or cartridge that traps suspended particles on the surface or within

the filter. Chemical Filtration refers to any filtering substance that is designed to change the

chemical composition of the water by removing dissolved substances through activated

media, like carbon or resin. Mineral, and Bacterial filtration (N. Mao, 2016).

In essence, a water filtration system actively works to ensure the safety of the water

we consume daily. It eliminates bad stuff like bacteria, algae, viruses, and chemicals that keep

people healthy. Moreover, the system improves the overall quality of water by filtering out

impurities, resulting in a better taste and appearance. A Water filtration system not only
 POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
22

makes sure that people drink and use safe water but also contributes to an improved water

experience.

According to Desoloc, 2020, the effects of using a water filter to ensure the students’

health and prevent them from having different illnesses or diseases that may come from the

water they drink daily. Using a water filter at school helps keep students healthy by making

sure the water they drink is safe. The filter removes harmful things in the water that could

make them sick. This helps prevent illnesses and diseases that might come from drinking

water with bad stuff in it. When the water is clean and safe to drink, students can focus better

on their studies without worrying about getting sick. It's like having a shield that protects them

from potential health problems related to water, creating a better and safer environment for

learning.

b. Water Treatment

The provision of clean water in flood conditions can be served. Household scale water

treatment technology has the main objective of reducing pathogenic microorganisms, although

several technologies also reduce levels of chemical and radiological contamination (Marlinae

et al., 2021). During floods, ensuring access to clean water is crucial. Household water

treatment technologies primarily aim to decrease the presence of disease-causing

microorganisms. Additionally, some of these technologies go beyond and also lower levels of

chemical and radiological contamination, providing a comprehensive approach to water

safety.
 POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
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According to Necesito et al., 2013 to be able to utilize the rainwater harvested for non-

potable consumptions: the water should be subjected to basic water treatments to remove

inorganic pollutants by using filtration media, activated carbon, or sand filtration. In using

harvested rainwater for non-drinking purposes, it's essential to undergo basic water treatments.

This involves removing inorganic pollutants through processes like filtration using media,

activated carbon, or sand filtration. In simpler terms, before using rainwater for things other

than drinking, it needs to go through a cleaning process to get rid of certain types of

contaminants. Moreover, the findings of the study of (Aguilar et al., 2014) water treatment is

the process of removing existing contaminants to make water become fit for disposal or reuse.

The wastewater generally contains 99.9% water and 0.1% solid impurities; thus, it has a

large potential as a source of water for different purposes such as fishponds, comfort rooms,

and cleaning sources, among others. Highlight that water treatment is a process designed to

eliminate contaminants from water, making it safe for disposal or reuse. Wastewater, which

comprises 99.9% water and 0.1% solid impurities, has substantial potential as a water source

for diverse applications, including fishponds, bathrooms, and cleaning. The study underscores

the importance of recognizing wastewater as a resource rather than mere waste, emphasizing

its capacity to serve various needs. By acknowledging and treating wastewater appropriately,

it can become a valuable and versatile water source for different purposes.
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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter involves research design, sampling procedure, research instrument, data

gathering procedure and statistical treatment.

Research Design

The researchers opted for a quantitative descriptive approach to gather data and

analyze the current situation and possible benefits of rainwater harvesting in addressing water

scarcity in the community. The method used for the study involves conducting questionnaires

with the residents of Barangay 597 to gather data on their current water usage, patterns of

water consumption, and the use of rainwater harvesting system measures to mitigate floods.

The descriptive-quantitative of research is used in this study since it describes the emphasis of

the objective measurements of data collected through surveys.

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Research Locale

Figure 2: Map of Barangay 597

The study was conducted in Barangay 597, Sta. Mesa Manila, Metro Manila,

Philippines. With a total population of 1,672 according to the 2020 Census, the mentioned

locality experienced a decline in population with a negative growth rate of 3.87% since 1990.

In the 2015 Census, the household population of Barangay 597 was 2,017. This population

was divided into 539 households, resulting in an average of 3.74 individuals per family.

Situated in the central area of the street with the most pronounced flooding; Victorino Mapa

(V. Mapa), the barangay was selected by the researchers due to its relevance to the flooding

problem in Metro Manila and its first-hand experience with the mentioned dilemma.
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Sampling Procedure

The respondents of this study were households from Barangay 597, Sta. Mesa Manila,

Metro Manila, Philippines. Moreover, a random sampling approach was utilized throughout

this study.
Where:
Eq. 1: Sample Size Z = Z-score
corresponding to the
! ! ×#×(%&#) desired confidence level
(!
𝑛= ! ! ×#×(%&#)
(e.g., 1.96 for a 95%
1+% (!)
& confidence level)
p = estimated proportion
of the population (0.5)
E = Margin of Error
%.+,! ×-..×(%&-..) N = Population Size
-.-.!
𝑛= %.+,! ×-..×(%&-..)
= 224. 3 ≈ 225 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑒ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠
1+% -.-.! (./+)
&

With a total household population of 539, the sample size of 225 was determined through the

equation presented above while considering several factors such as the desired level of

confidence, the margin of error, and the variability within the population.

Research Instrument

The standardized questionnaire is the main instrument used in the data gathering

procedure process. The survey questionnaires had questions that relates to the study that helps

the study proves the answer regarding Innovative Water Solutions for Water Scarce

Communities: A Study on the Implementation of Rainwater Harvesting in Flood – Prone

Streets in Brgy. 579. The survey questionnaire was composed of three parts. The first part was

concerned with the Demographic Profile of the respondents. The second part was concerned
 POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
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with the sufficiency of rainwater harvesting system to address water scarcity. The third part

was concerned with effective measures of RWH to reduce flooding within the community.

Research Materials

The design prototype of the rainwater harvesting system draws inspiration from the

preceding research conducted by Del Pilar et al. (2018) regarding rainwater harvesting

through roof systems.

Figure 3: Rainwater Harvesting Systems Prototype

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RWH System Parts

Roof Gutters - Responsible for collecting the rainwater and transporting it into the water

pipes.

Mesh Filter - Prevents debris, leaves, insects, and other contaminants in the collection

system.

First-Flush - Removes initial pollutants that came from the collection of rainwater from the

roof.

Filtration System - This is where the rainwater is treated and from which inorganic pollutants

are removed using filtration media such as activated carbon or sand filtration.

Water Reservoir - Provides storage capacity for the harvested rainwater, which must have a

minimum size of 48m^2 according to the DPWH rainwater harvesting standard.

Data Gathering Procedure

The researchers made use of a standardized questionnaire as a tool for gathering the

required data. During the procedure the researchers underwent the following processes:

Administration: The researcher asked a permission to conduct research to the selected

respondents in Brgy. 597. Once the participants approved, the researcher administered the

standardized questionnaire to the residents.

Distribution: Questionnaires were given personally by the researchers to the selected

respondents. The researchers assured the respondents of confidentiality of their survey form

since the study does not need their identity but some background information that contributes

on the study.
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29

Retrieval: The researchers collected the survey questionnaire personally. After the collection

of the survey questionnaire, the data were tallied and analyzed for interpretation.

Statistical Treatment

To determine the demographic profile of the respondents, the percentage was used. To

compute the percentage, the formula is as follows:

Eq. 2: Demographic Percentage

𝑓
𝑃= 𝑥 100
𝑁

Where:
P = percentage
f = frequency
N = number of respondents

In determining if the harvested amount of rainwater is sufficient amidst the water

scarcity, the water balance is the net total of the water that runs into the system. To compute

the total water balance, the formula is as follows:

Eq. 3: Total Water Balance

𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑚/ ) = 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤(𝑚/ ) − 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤(𝑚/ )

The quantification of rainfall is derived from the daily data provided by the Philippine

Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA 2023).

According to the Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board (2011), it was estimated that the

catchment area for duplex and single-attached social houses should have a minimum size of

48 m2. Additionally, a runoff coefficient of 0.8, which is often used for highly urbanized
 POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
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areas, was applied (JICA, 1990). To solve for the total inflow of the rainwater harvesting

system, we have the formula below:

Eq. 4: Total Inflow

𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤(𝑚/ ) = 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙(𝑚) × 𝐶𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑚0 ) × 𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

The study utilized a sample size of 225 households for the overall population. The

plumbing fixtures consist solely of standard fixtures, such as faucets and water closets. The

water volume required for each flush of inefficient, conventional, and dual-flush toilets was

0.0165 m3, 0.006 m3, and 0.0043 m3, respectively. The formula for determining the total

outflow or water demand of the consumers is as follows:

Eq. 5: Water Demand

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤(𝑚/ ) = 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛)

𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠
× 𝐴𝑣𝑒. 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠( )
𝑑𝑎𝑦 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛

𝑚/
× 𝑃𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑( )
𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠

The water reservoir has a capacity of 60 cubic meters, as specified by the rainwater

collecting design of the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH 2011). To solve

the amount of rainwater that cannot be harvested due to the insufficient capacity of the

reservoir, the formula for total water overflow is below:

Eq. 6: Total Water Overflow

𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤(𝑚/ ) = 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑚/ ) − 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒(𝑚/ )

 POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
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Evaluating the performance of the RWH system in mitigating floods for the whole

duration of the study. The formula for solving the retention of rainwater (R) is as follows:

Eq. 7: Water Retention

𝑃12134 − 𝐹
𝑅= × 100%
𝑃12134

Where:
𝑃12134 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

To determine the value of the reduced flood volume (𝐹6(7 ), the formula is shown below:

Eq. 8: Flood Volume Reduction

𝑉689
𝐹6(7 = × 100%
𝐹

Where:
𝑉689 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑊𝐻
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑥
 POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
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