GE 2 Module Lesson 2

LEARNING MODULE IN ge 2 (readings in Philippine history)
AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

MAIN CAMPUS, BUNAWAN AGUSAN DEL SUR
LESSON 2
TEXT, CONTEXT, SUBTEXT
READY
LESSON OBJECTIVES
Upon accomplishing this module, students will be able to:
A. analyze the context, content and perspective of different kinds of primary sources;
B. determine the contribution on the kinds of primary sources in understanding Philippine
History;
C. develop analytical and critical skills with exposure to primary sources;
D. express stewardship and sense of responsibility in preserving and nurturing the
resources of our country;
E. appraise the origin of the Philippine Islands, cultural heritage and natural resources.
TARGET SKILLS
Memorization, analyzing ideas, evaluating events, understanding concepts
LEARNERS
Second year students
TIME FRAME
This module will be accomplished approximately in 6 hours within 2 weeks to complete all the
activities recommended. This is a distance learning program, thus the time frame is flexible and
largely self-directed.
REFERENCEs
Solmerano, E.T. M (2018) et al. Readings in Philippine History. Philippines: Fastbooks

Educational Supply, Inc. Chapter 3 “Content and Contextual Analysis”, pp46-55.
Asuncion, N.M. (2019) et al. Readings in Philippine History. Philippines: C & E Publishing, Inc.,
Module 2, pp 45-158.
START
ACTIVITY 1: Let’s Diagnose Your Knowledge
The following items are about Content and Textual Analysis. Let us try what we have in store.
Encircle the letter of your choice.
1. Which of the following is a category of content analysis?

A. Conceptual framework C. Relational Analysis
B. Relational skills D. Conceptual chart
2. Content analysis is _______.
A. a practice for teachers C. a method for studying documents
B. a way of identifying errors D. all of the above
3. Which of the following questions answers the goal of content analysis?
A. How are the data defined? C. What is to be done?
B. What is the problem? D. all of the above
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INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT © 2020
4. It is a type of content analysis which builds on conceptual analysis by examining the

relationships among concepts in a text. Which one is it?
5. Which of the following is true about content analysis.

A. Can allow for both quantitative and qualitative operations
B. Allows closeness to text
C. Looks directly at communication via texts or transcripts
D. All of the given
DISCOVER
ACTIVITY 2: INQUIRY
Read and answer the following questions based on your prior knowledge about content and
textual analysis.
1. Why is it important to use content and contextual analysis in reading our history?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. Is it at our advantage if we use content and contextual analysis in reading our history?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. Are data analyses important in reading history? Why?

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
LEARN
ACTIVITY 3: EXPAND YOUR KNOWLEDGE
I. Content, contextual analysis of selected primary sources
A. Content/ Textual Analysis

Content analysis is a research method for studying documents and communication
artifacts, which can be texts of various formats, pictures, audio or video. Social scientists use
content analysis to quantify patterns in communication, in a replicable and systematic manner.
One of the key advantage of this research method is to analyze social phenomena in a non-
invasive way, in contrast to simulating social experiences or collecting survey answers.
Practices and philosophies of content analysis vary between scholarly communities. They all
involve systematic reading or observation of texts or artifacts which are assigned labels or
codes to indicate the presence of interesting, meaningful patterns. After labeling a large set of
media, a researcher is able to statistically estimate the proportions of patterns in the texts, as
well as correlations between patterns. Computers are increasingly used in content analysis, to
automate the labeling (or coding) of documents. Simple computational techniques can provide
descriptive data such as word frequencies and document lengths.
1. Goals of Content Analysis

Content analysis is best understood as a broad family of techniques. Effective
researchers choose techniques that best help them answer their substantive questions. That
said, according to Klaus Krippendorff, six questions must be addressed in every content
analysis: 1. Which data are analyzed? 2. How are the data defined? 3. From what population are
data drawn? 4. What is the relevant context? 5. What are the boundaries of the analysis? 6.
What is to be measured?
The simplest and most objective form of content analysis considers unambiguous
characteristics of the text such as word frequencies, the page area taken by a newspaper
column, or the duration of a radio or television program. Analysis of simple word frequencies is
limited because the meaning of a word depends on surrounding text. A further step in analysis
is the distinction between dictionary-based (quantitative) approaches and qualitative
approaches. Dictionary-based approaches set up a list of categories derived from the
frequency list of words and control the distribution of words and their respective categories
over the texts. While methods in quantitative content analysis in this way transform
observations of found categories into quantitative statistical data, the qualitative content
analysis focuses more on the intentionality and its implications. There are strong parallels
between qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis.
2. Kinds of Texts
There are five types of texts in content analysis:
1. written text, such as books and papers
2. oral text, such as speech and theatrical performance
3. iconic text, such as drawings, paintings, and icons
4. audio-visual text, such as TV programs, movies, and videos
5. hypertexts, which are texts found on the Internet
3. Types of Content Analysis

There are two general categories of content analysis: conceptual analysis and
relational analysis.
 Conceptual analysis can be thought of as establishing the existence and

frequency of concepts in a text.
 Relational analysis builds on conceptual analysis by examining the relationships
among concepts in a text.
a. Conceptual Analysis
Traditionally, content analysis has most often been thought of in terms of conceptual analysis.
In conceptual analysis, a concept is chosen for examination and the number of its occurrences
within the text recorded. Because terms may be implicit as well as explicit, it is important to
clearly define implicit terms before the beginning of the counting process. To limit the
subjectivity in the definitions of concepts, specialized dictionaries are used.
As with most other research methods, conceptual analysis begins with identifying research
questions and choosing a sample or samples. Once chosen, the text must be coded into
manageable content categories. The process of coding is basically one of selective reduction,
which is the central idea in content analysis. By breaking down the contents of materials into
meaningful and pertinent units of information, certain characteristics of the message may be
analyzed and interpreted.
An example of a conceptual analysis would be to examine a text and to code it for the
existence of certain words. In looking at this text, the research question might involve
examining the number of positive words used to describe an argument, as opposed to the
number of negative words used to describe a current status or opposing argument. The
researcher would be interested only in quantifying these words, not in examining how they are
related, which is a function of relational analysis. In conceptual analysis, the researcher simply
wants to examine presence with respect to his/her research question, i.e. whether there is a
stronger presence of positive or negative words used with respect to a specific argument or
respective arguments.
b. Relational Analysis
As stated above, relational analysis builds on conceptual analysis by examining the

relationships among concepts in a text. And as with other sorts of inquiry, initial choices with
regard to what is being studied and/or coded for often determine the possibilities of that
particular study. For relational analysis, it is important to first decide which concept type(s) will
be explored in the analysis. Studies have been conducted with as few as one and as many as
500 concept categories. Obviously, too many categories may obscure your results and too few
can lead to unreliable and potentially invalid conclusions. Therefore, it is important to allow the
context and necessities of your research to guide your coding procedures. There are many
techniques of relational analysis available and this flexibility makes for it's popularity.
Researchers can devise their own procedures according to the nature of their project. Once a
procedure is rigorously tested, it can be applied and compared across populations over time.
The process of relational analysis has achieved a high degree of computer automation but still
is, like most forms of research, time consuming. Perhaps the strongest claim that can be made is
that it maintains a high degree of statistical rigor without losing the richness of detail apparent in
even more qualitative methods.
4. How to Use Content Analysis
1. The first step involves preparing a coding schedule. This consists of a table where
each row is a unit for which data is being collected (e.g. an assignment or discussion
contribution might be a unit of data collection). Each column is a dimension or theme for the
analysis that will depend on your evaluation questions. For a discussion contribution for
example these dimensions might be the type of contribution, the contributor, the timing of the
contribution. There shotild be no overlap in dimensions. Themes are therefore predefined,
unlike the qualitative approach of template analysis where themes may emerge during the
analysis.
2. A coding manual is then produced to accompany the coding schedule, listing the
codes for each of the categories that are valid for each dimension to ensure reliability and
consistency in the coding. For example, for the contributor dimension, valid codes and
categories might be 1- student, 2-tutor. There should be no overlap in the categories. Codes
for each observation of a category are entered into the appropriate cells in the schedule.
3. Elements of the content are described and organized using these categories. This
process is called coding and, particularly if appropriate software is used to aid the process,
enables more efficient sorting and retrieval of data by each category.
4. Categories are used to describe the information that is emerging from this data. The
unit of analysis may be different than that used for data collection. This is the level at which
data is analyzed and findings reported. In the example of the discussion forum already used,
the purpose of the analysis is to provide insight into the interaction between the participants
and therefore analysis at the level of a single contribution would be meaningless. The unit of
analysis would need to be the whole discussion.
5. The coded content is quantitatively analyzed for trends, patterns, relationships,

similarities, differences etc. This may suggest further avenues of inquiry using qualitative
approaches that seek insight intpo possible reasons for these relationships and trends.
(University of Sheffield, 2014)
5. Issues of Reliability and Validity

The issues of reliability and validity are concurrent with those addressed in other research
methods. The reliability of a content analysis study refers to its stability, or the tendency for
coders to consistently re-code the same data in the same way over a period of time;

reproducibility, or the tendency for a group of coders to classify categories membership in the
same way; and accuracy, or the extent to which the classification of a text corresponds to a
standard or norm statistically.
The overarching problem of concept analysis research is the challengeable nature of

conclusions reached by its inferential procedures. The question lies in what level of implication
is allowable, Le. do the conclusions follow from the data or are they explainable due to some
other phenomenon? For occurrence-specific studies, for example, can the second occurrence
of a word carry equal weight as the ninety-ninth? Reasonable conclusions can be drawn from
substantive amounts of quantitative data, but the question of proof may still remain
unanswered. The generalizability of one's conclusions, then, is very dependent on how one
determines concept categories, as well as on how reliable those categories are. It is imperative
that one defines categories that accurately measure the idea and/or items one is seeking to
measure. Akin to this is the construction of rules. Developing rules that allow one, and others,
to categorize and code the same data in the same way over a period of time, referred to as
stability,, is essential to the success of a conceptual analysis. Reproducibility, not only of
specific categories, but of general methods applied to establishing all sets of categories,
makes a study, and its subsequent conclusions and results, better.
6. Advantages of Content Analysis

Content analysis offers several advantages to researchers who consider using it. In
particular, content analysis:
a. looks directly at communication via texts or transcripts, and hence gets at the central
aspect of social interaction
b. can allow for both quantitative and qualitative operations
c. can provides valuable historical/cultural insights over time through analysis of texts
d. allows a closeness to text which can alternate between specific categories and
relationships and also statistically analyzes the coded form of the text
e. can be used to interpret texts for purposes such as the development of expert
systems (since knowledge and rules can both be coded in terms of explicit statements
about the relationships among concepts)
f. is an unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions
g. provides insight into complex models of human thought and language use
h. when done well, is considered as a relatively "exact" research method (based on hard
facts, as opposed to Discourse Analysis).
7. Disadvantages of Content Analysis

Content analysis suffers from several advantages, both theoretical and procedural. In
particular, content analysis:
a. can be extremely time consuming is subject to increased error, particularly when
relational analysis is used to attain a higher level of interpretation c. is often devoid of
theoretical base, or attempts too liberally to draw meaningful inferences about the
relationships and impacts implied in a study d. is inherently reductive, particularly when
dealing with complex texts e. tends too often to simply consist of word counts f. often
disregards the context that produced the text, as well as the state of things after the text is
produced can be difficult to automate or computerize
B. Contextual Analysis
A contextual analysis is an analysis of a text (in whatever medium, including multi-
media) that helps us to assess that text within the context of its historical and cultural
setting, and also in terms of its textuality — or the qualities that characterize the text as a
text.
A contextual analysis combines features of formal analysis with features of "cultural
archeology," or the systematic study of social, political, economic, philosophical, religious,
and aesthetic conditions that were (or can be assumed to have been) in place at the time
and place when the text was created. While this may sound complicated, it is in reality

deceptively simple: it means "situating" the text within the milieu of its times and assessing
the roles of author, readers (intended and actual), and "commentators" (critics, both
professional and otherwise) in the reception of the text. (Behrendt, 2008)
1. How to Use Contextual Analysis

A contextual analysis can proceed along many lines, depending upon how complex one
wishes to make the analysis. But it generally includes several key questions:
a. What does the text reveal about itself as a text?
„ Describe (or characterize) the language (the words, or vocabulary) and the rhetoric (how
the words are arranged in order to achieve some purpose). These are the primary
components of style.
b.. What does the text tell us about its apparent intended audience(s)?
„ What sort of reader does the author seem to have envisioned, as demonstrated by the
text's language and rhetoric?
„ What sort of qualifications does the text appear to require of its intended reader(s)? How
can we tell?
„ What sort of readers appear to be excluded from the text's intended audiences? How can
we tell?
„ Is there, perhaps, more than one intended audience?
c. What seems to have been the author's intention?
„ Why did the author write this text? And why did the author write this text in this particular
way, as opposed to other ways in which the text might have been written?
„ Remember that any text is the result of deliberate decisions by the author. The author has
chosen to write (or paint, or whatever) with these particular words and has therefore
chosen not to use other words that she or he might have used. So, we need to consider:
d. What is the occasion for this text? That is, is it written in response to:
„ some particular, specific contemporary incident or event?
„ some more "general" observation by the author about human affairs and/or experiences?
„ some definable set of cultural circumstances? 5. Is the text intended as some sort of call
to - or for - action?
„ If so, by whom? And why?
„ And also, if so, what action(s) does the author want the reader(s) to take?
e. Is the text intended rather as some sort of call to - or for - reflection or
consideration rather than direct action?
„ If so, what does the author seem to wish the reader to think about and to conclude or
decide?
„ Why does the author wish the readers to do this?
„ What is to be gained, and by whom?
f. Can we identify any non-textual circumstances that affected the creation and
reception of the text?
„ Such circumstances include historical or political events, economic factors, cultural
practices, and intellectual or aesthetic issues, as well as the particular circumstances of the
author's own life. (Behrendt, 2008)
Importance of Context in Analysis and Interpretation

by Grace Fleming, edited by Stacy Jagodowski January 28, 2018
Historical context is an important part of life and literature and without it, memories,
stories and characters have less meaning. But what exactly is historical context? It's essentially
the details that surround an occurrence. In more technical terms, historical context refers to the
social, religious, economic, and political conditions that existed during a certain time and place.
Basically, it's all the details of the time and place in which a situation occurs, and those
details are what enable us to interpret and analyze works or events of the past, or even the
future, rather than merely judge them by contemporary standards. A strong understanding of
the historical context behind a work's creation can give us a better understanding of and
appreciation for the narrative. In analyzing historical events, context can help us understand
what motivates people to behave as they did. Put another way, context is what gives meaning
to the details. It's important, however, that you don't confuse context with cause. "Cause" is

the action that creates an outcome; "context" is the environment in which that action and
outcome occurs. (Fleming, 2010)
...Whether dealing with fact or fiction, historical context is important when interpreting
behavior and speech. (Fleming, 2010) ...No Work of literature can be fully appreciated or
,understood without historical context What may seem nonsensical or even offensive to
contemporary sensibilities, might actually be interpreted in a completely different manner by
considering the era it is from.(Fleming, 2010) ...
Scholars and educators rely on historical context to analyze and interpret works of art,
literature, music, dance, and poetry. Architects and builders rely' on it. when designing new
structures and restoring existing buildings.. judges may use it to interpret thethe law, historians
to understand the past. Anytime critical analysis is required, you may need to consider historical
context as well Without historical context, we are only seeing a piece of the scene and not fully
understanding the influence of the time and place in which a situation occurred. (Fleming, 2010)
C. Subtext
The subtext of a document or object refers to its secondary and implied meanings. The
subtext embraces the emotional or intellectual messages embedded in, or implied by the
document or object.
The epic poems of the ancient Greeks, for instance, which glorify prowess and physical
courage; in battle, suggest that such virtues are exclusively male. _The state portraits of
Napoleon Bonaparte carry the subtext of unassailable and absolute power. s. Andy 'Warhol's
serial adaptation of soup cans and Coca-Cola bottles offer wry commentary on the
supermarket mentality of postmodern Amerkart culture. Identifying the implicit message of an
artwork helps us to determine the values and customs of the age in which it was produced and
to assess those values' against others.
II. Identification of the historical importance of the text
A. Historical Significance
What is historical significance? Historical significance is the process used t evaluate
what was significant about selected events, people, and developments in the pas Historians
use different sets of criteria to help them make judgements about significance Significance has
been called the forgotten concept in history, no doubt because i can be challenging for both
teacher and students. (Northern Ireland Council for Integrate Education, n.d.) "Teachers often
tell students what is important instead of asking them to conside what is significant. The key to
understanding significance is to understand the distinction between teaching significant history
and asking students to make judgements about significance." (Bradshaw, 2004) The past
consists of everything that ever happened to everyone everywhere, bu there is much too much
history to remember or to learn. Consequently, at the core of the study of history are questions
about what events and people from the past are important and why they are important. In other
words, when considering historical significance we ask: What and who should be remembered,
researched and taught? Historians, authors and educators must select what and whom to
study, decide what details to include in their descriptions and determine how important these
events and people are in relation to other aspects of the past. So how do we make choices
about what is worth remembering?

a. Criteria on Assessing the Historical Significance of Sources

There are a number of criteria that historians' use that can be applied to establish the
significance of events. These criteria are interrelated with each other.
-Relevance Is it important/ relevant to people living at the

time? Is something still relevant to our
present lives even if it had only a passing
importance?
- Resonance Who were/have been affected by the event?
Why was it important to them? How were
people's lives affected? Do people like to
make analogies with it? It is possible to
connect with experiences, beliefs or attitudes
across time and place?
- Remarkable Was the event remarked on by people at the
time or since?
-Remembered Was the event/development important at
some stage within the collective memory of a
group or groups?
- Revealing Does it reveal some other aspects of the
past?
-Resulting in Change Does it have consequences for the future?
- Durability
For how long have people's lives been
affected? a day, a week, a year, or all their
lives?
- Quantity How many people were affected? Did the

event affect many, everyone, or just a few? a
whole barrio, a town, a province, a country,
or the entire race?
- Profundity Was the event superficial or deeply

affecting? How deeply people's lives were
affected? How were people's lives affected?
b. Issues on Assessing the Historical Significance

1. Our views about historical significance are often shaped by contemporary contexts
and can be dependent upon our own values, interests and knowledge.
2. History is written by the victor. Historical significance is how we define past events
that the current writer of history deems important/relevant.
3. Historical significance is relative and varies from location to location, generation to
generation or sometimes to ideological orientation or political affiliation of the one doing the
evaluation or assessment.
III. Examination of the author’s main argument and point of view
A. Determining the Author's Purpose

What is Author's Purpose? The author's purpose is the REASON the source was created. The
author's purpose is his or her reason for or intent in writing a text, a line, a paragraph, an essay,
a story, etc. There are many reasons why people write: it may be to amuse the reader, to
persuade the reader, to inform the reader, to satirize a condition and a lot more.

1. Purposes in Writing
When we look at why people write texts, we can categorize them into the following:
PURPOSE DEFINITION EXAMPLES

to Persuade The author wants you to believe, Advertisements, Campaign
do, or buy something This type of Speeches, Persuasive letters,
writing is called persuasive writing. opinions, etc.
to Inform That author wants to give you Documents, Contracts,
information or instructions, This Agreements, Law, Rules, Expository
type of writing is called expository Essay or articles, Instructions or
writing. Directions, Encyclopaedias or other
reference texts, Business letters,
textbooks; etc
to Narrate or The author wants to relate a story History texts, non-fiction books,
Recount or recount past events. This type biographies, anecdotes,
of writing is called narrative newspapers, etc
writing.
to Describe The author wants you to visualize „ Stories, Poems, Drama, Songs,
or experience what something or etc
someone looks like, sounds like, or
feels like. This type of writing is
called descriptive writing.
to Explain The author wants to tell you how Instructions, directions, step-by-
to do something or how something step procedures, How-to-recipes,
works. This type of writing falls Operations Manual, etc
under expository writing.
to Entertain The author wants to amuse you or Novels, Stories, Poems, Drama,
for you to enjoy the writing itself. Songs, etc
This type of writing falls under
creative writing
The author's purpose is not always clear. Sometimes, the author intentionally states the
purpose in the text itself, sometimes, not at all. But the author's purpose is always reflected in
the way he writes about the topic or subject matter. For example, if his purpose is to amuse, he
will use jokes or anecdotes in his writing. We can also find clues to an author's purpose through
its titles, prefaces, and the author's background.
b. A Combination of Purposes
Sometimes a text has more than one purpose, but a combination of two or more
purposes. Political cartoons both inform and entertain. Newspaper editorials can inform and at
the same time persuade. A TV commercial might be very informative or very entertaining, but its
primary purpose is to convince and persuade the viewers to eventually buy the product.
However, the combination of purposes has its limitations. The value of the information
in a political cartoon may be limited because it is made in such a way to make it funny. The
same can be true for the information in an editorial — you can definitely learn something from
the editorial, but take note that it was written to persuade you to think or to believe in a certain
way. In the same way, the information given in a TV commercial is very limited — just the good
side of it — because it is primarily intended to persuade its viewers to buy the product.
The first thing to take note of when you are determining the author's purpose is the genre you
are reading. You can usually identify the purpose correctly, if you are able to understand the
genre. ("Author's Purpose," n.d.) You should understand that Inform and Explain both go
together with the Nonfiction (Informational) text genre. However, explaining is more like a how-
to or procedural text, and informing is when the writer wants you to learn information from
them. It is important to note that when you explain, you are still informing. ("Author's Purpose,"
n.d.) Persuasive text is used to persuade or convince the reader of something. You may still do

this by informing the reader of facts or describing emotions, but their overall goal r is to
convince the reader of something. ("Author's Purpose," n.d.) The fiction genre and the author's
purpose of entertaining go together. Author's create works of fiction with the sole reason of
providing their reader with an entertaining story. ("Author's Purpose," n.d.) Literary Non-Fiction,
meaning Biographies, ' Autobiographies, Personal Narratives, and Memoirs, have a separate
intent. The author's purpose in these is to describe or share and express. They may seem like
they are informing you, but if you think about, an author telling you about someone else or their
own experiences during their lifetime actually describes who they are as a person OR it shares
their feeling with you (the reader) and expresses their emotions to you (the reader). Sometimes
non-fiction reads like fiction. This is when you have to pay close attention to author's and any
clues that will tell you what the genre is, like how much the story is zoomed, the language, or
the use of first rson point-of-view. ("Author's Purpose," n.d.)
You should be aware that the author's purpose does cross boundaries sometime-As an author,
I can entertain you, while I persuade you. However, you need to think about: the author's MAIN
intent overall. ("Author's Purpose," n.d.)
c. Persuasive Texts
You should be especially critical of persuasive texts. Sometimes they're hard to spot —
persuasive texts can be in the form of advertisements, sponsored articles on a news site, or
editorials in a newspaper. The purpose of persuasive texts is to convince you of something.
Either to believe an idea, or buy a product, or to do something. When you identify the purpose
of a text as persuasive, you have to be careful about what you take away from it. The authors
of these texts may be leaving out information, or only highlighting specific information, in order
to convince you of what they think. ("Determining Author's Purpose - EasyBib Blog," n.d.)
d. Why Identify Purpose?

When you understand why a source was created, it helps you think critically about what
information is there, what information is missing, and what you can expect to take away from
the source. ("Determining Author's Purpose - EasyBib Blog," n.d.) As a reader, knowing the
purpose or intent that the writer has for creating the piece of work helps you EVALUATE it
better. For example, if you know that an author is trying to persuade you, then, as a reader, you
would want to be cautious about believing everything they tell you. They could be using faulty
reasoning on you or tug at your heart strings to make you believe what they say. ("Author's
Purpose," n.d.) If I'm trying to learn more about Philippine History, I know that a comic strip on
the same subject, which was created primarily to entertain, is not going to be very informative.
e. How to Identify Purpose

Identifying the author's purpose can at times be challenging. There are a few questions you can
ask yourself as you read a text that will help you identify purpose.
Step 1
First, ask, "Why did the author create/write this text?"
Sometimes, the reason is very obvious. The author may state it or you may be able to tell from
the type of media used.
Step 2
If the author's purpose isn't obvious, ask "How did this make me feel?"
Author's usually try to elicit very specific emotions from their readers. Do you suddenly feel
compelled to go buy a product that was mentioned? Are you rolling on the floor laughing? How
you react to the text is a great hint as to the author's purpose. ("Determining Author's Purpose -
EasyBib Blog," n.d.)
Step 3
Look for Clue Words to find the author's purpose.
Compare: Author wants to show similarities between ideas Clue Words: both, similarly, in the
same way, like, just as
Contrast: Author wants to show differences between ideas Clue Words: however, but,
dissimilarly, on the other hand

Criticize: Author wants to give a negative opinion of an idea Clue Words: Look for words that
show the author's negative opinion. Judgment words like "bad," "wasteful," and
"poor" all demonstrate negative opinions.
Describe/Illustrate: Author wants to paint a picture of an idea Clue Words: Look for words that
provide descriptive detail. Adjectives like "red," "lusty," "morose," "striped,"
"sparkling," and "crestfallen" are all illustrative.
Explain: Author wants to break down an idea into simpler terms Clue Words: Look for words
that turn a complicated process into simple language. A "descriptive" text will use
more adjectives. An "explanatory" text will usually be used with a complicated idea.
Identify/List: Author wants to tell the reader about an idea or series of ideas Clue Words: Text
that identifies or lists, will name an idea or series of ideas without providing much
description or opinion.
Intensify: Author wants to make an idea greater Clue Words: Text that intensifies will add more
specific details to the idea. Look for superlative adjectives and "bigger" concepts. A
baby sadly crying is descriptive, but a baby mournfully howling red-cheeked for 30
minutes is more intense.
Suggest: Author wants to propose an idea Clue Words: "Suggest" answers are usually positive
opinions and try to sway the reader to believe. The author will provide a point, then
use details to prove it.
f. Underline Clue Words

It helps to use that pencil in your hand when you're reading if you're unsure what the
author's purpose is. As you read, underline the clue words in the text to help you get a better
idea. Then, either compose a sentence using the key words (compare, explain, illustrate) to
show why the author wrote the piece or select the best answer from the choices given.
B. Determining the Author's Main Argument

One of most the fundamental things we use language for is argument. Arguing means
claiming that something is true and trying to persuade other people to agree with your claim by
presenting evidence to substantiate it. An argument is statement with three components:
1. point of view, a claim, something we are arguing in favor of
2. The actual argument, the evidence we are using to argue with
3. A statement that links the initial claim to the argument and ensures that we
understand how the argument functions. The statement that connects the initial claim and the
argument is referred to as the warrant. The warrant is thus an argument for the connection
between the initial claim and the argument. (University of Bergen, University of Oslo, Norwegian
School of Economics and Bergen University College., 2014) Studying involves reading and
writing argumentative texts. Your task as a student includes analyzing the function of the
arguments in the texts you read. Understanding how a text sets forth its argumentation enables
you to see "what it is really saying." At the same time, you are learning to adopt a critical stance
to the texts you are reading.
1. Stephen Toulmin's Argument Model

Looking for argumentation in a text means asking the text certain types of questions
ask:
a. Claims (Thesis Statement/ Conclusion)
What claims are contained in the text? What is the author arguing in favor of? The claim may
also be referred to as the thesis statement. Sometimes the author will direct an open discussion
towards a claim. The claim can therefore also be referred to as the conclusion.
Often the author presents the claim early on ("I will argue that"), follows it by arguments
(discussion, debate, analysis, review) and then finally presents the claim again, this time as a
conclusion ("Against this background we may conclude that" or "As shown above").
b. Arguments (Evidence)
. What arguments are contained in the text? How do the authors substantiate their claims?
What evidence are the authors using to substantiate their arguments? An argument that
substantiates a claim is also known as evidence. What evidence do the authors have for

claiming that? Under what underlying assumptions do the arguments support the authors'
claims? Why do these arguments appear to be relevant in this context?
c. Warrant (Research Method)

The link between an argument and a claim is sometimes called a warrant. Another word is
research method (Rienecker, 2012, p.312). In scholarly (academic, scientific) texts, the warrants
will often point to general assumptions, basic principles or research methods in the relevant
field. Common to all fields are warrants along the lines of "research builds upon previous
research."
d. Counter Arguments/ Objections
What are the possible counter arguments or objections? .Do the authors take possible
counterarguments into account? Do they discuss both sides of the debate before reaching a
conclusion? Or do they argue one-sidedly in favor of their claim, only adducing such research
and empirical evidence (findings, data) as will support their claim? Do the authors adequately
justify their methods? If their arguments rely on data, are there enough data? Are the data
sufficiently representative? If they base their claims on interviews, did they conduct enough
interviews? Were the interviews sufficiently thorough? Or do the authors draw wider
conclusions than are justified by the scope of the underlying evidence?
e. Backing (Foundation/Support)
Ask whether the use of a method is adequately justified, analyze if the method presented has
sufficient backing. Look for this backing (also referred to as foundation or support) in various
places. When you ask what backing there is for a claim, this is the same as asking what
arguments exist in support of the claim or what evidence supports it. For each argument, ask:
"What is there to support this argument? What is the backing for this argument?" The term
"backing," however, is often reserved for questions about the backing that exists for the
warrant.
f. Qualifiers
What types of qualifiers are used by the authors when presenting the claim? Look for qualifiers
in the formulation of the argument. If arguments contain moderating expressions such as
"probably," "perhaps," "in most cases" or "as shown in some studies," you can criticize the claim
that follows if it does not include a qualifier that takes these modifications into account. You
can say: "The authors' claims exceed the evidence available to them." You could also level this
type of criticism if, for example, you are aware of studies other than those referred to by the
authors, which contradict the authors' claim. In that case you could say: "The authors should
have taken those studies into account. What they are claiming is more problematic than they
would lead us to believe." A thorough critique of a text must build upon a thorough reading
where you present your counterarguments in a balanced manner. (University of Bergen,
University of Oslo, Norwegian School of Economics and Bergen University College., 2014)
EXAMINE
ACTIVITY 4: ONE MORE TRY
Encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which of the following is a category of content analysis?

2. Content analysis is _______.
A. a practice for teachers C. a method for studying documents
B. a way of identifying errors D. all of the above
3. Which of the following questions answers the goal of content analysis?
A. How are the data defined? C. What is to be done?
B. What is the problem? D. all of the above

4. It is a type of content analysis which builds on conceptual analysis by examining the

relationships among concepts in a text. Which one is it?
5. Which of the following is true about content analysis.
A. Can allow for both quantitative and qualitative operations
B. Allows closeness to text
C. Looks directly at communication via texts or transcripts
D. All of the given
EVALUATE
ACTIVITY 5: Analyze the Author's Purpose
Analysis paper on the Author’s background and perspectives
Interact with a Historical Text
An author's purpose is the reason/s an author has for writing. Authors usually do not tell their
purposes, or reasons, for writing. You have to figure them out.
Read the autobiography of Gregoria de Jesus* and find out her purpose/s for writing.
Determine also the author's main arguments. Watch out for the clues within the text itself. Write
your findings, observations and analysis in an essay format on the space provided below.
*source from Solmerano, E.T. M (2018) et al. Readings in Philippine History. Philippines: Fastbooks Educational
Supply, Inc. Chapter 3 “Content and Contextual Analysis”, pp71-76.
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ANSWERS
Activity 1
1. C
2. C
3. A
4. C
5. D
Activity 2
1. …it is important to better scrutinize and analyze the truthfulness and validity of
our historical past, etc.
2. …Yes, because they are methods of data analysis in historical research, etc.
3. …Yes, because they are means to verify truth of our past, etc.
Activity 3
1. C
2. C
3. A
4. C
5. D


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LEARNING MODULE IN ge 2 (readings in Philippine history)

AGUSAN DEL SUR STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

Solmerano, E.T. M (2018) et al. Readings in Philippine History. Philippines: Fastbooks

1. Which of the following is a category of content analysis?

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

4. It is a type of content analysis which builds on conceptual analysis by examining the

5. Which of the following is true about content analysis.

3. Are data analyses important in reading history? Why?

ACTIVITY 3: EXPAND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

I. Content, contextual analysis of selected primary sources

A. Content/ Textual Analysis

1. Goals of Content Analysis

3. Types of Content Analysis

 Conceptual analysis can be thought of as establishing the existence and

As stated above, relational analysis builds on conceptual analysis by examining the

5. The coded content is quantitatively analyzed for trends, patterns, relationships,

5. Issues of Reliability and Validity

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

The overarching problem of concept analysis research is the challengeable nature of

6. Advantages of Content Analysis

7. Disadvantages of Content Analysis

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

1. How to Use Contextual Analysis

Importance of Context in Analysis and Interpretation

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

II. Identification of the historical importance of the text

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

a. Criteria on Assessing the Historical Significance of Sources

-Relevance Is it important/ relevant to people living at the

-Resulting in Change Does it have consequences for the future?

- Quantity How many people were affected? Did the

- Profundity Was the event superficial or deeply

b. Issues on Assessing the Historical Significance

III. Examination of the author’s main argument and point of view

A. Determining the Author's Purpose

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

PURPOSE DEFINITION EXAMPLES

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

d. Why Identify Purpose?

e. How to Identify Purpose

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

f. Underline Clue Words

B. Determining the Author's Main Argument

1. Stephen Toulmin's Argument Model

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

c. Warrant (Research Method)

1. Which of the following is a category of content analysis?

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

4. It is a type of content analysis which builds on conceptual analysis by examining the

Interact with a Historical Text

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

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