Principles of irrigation

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF IRRIGATION

Definition: Irrigation is the science of artificial application of water to the land, in
accordance with the crop requirements throughout the crop period for full nourishment of
the crops.
It is the Engineering of controlling and harnessing the various natural sources of water,
by construction of dams & reservoirs, canals & head works and finally distributing the
water to agricultural fields.

Water is normally supplied to the plants by nature through the rains. However, the total
rainfall in a particular area may be either insufficient, or ill-timed. In order to get the
maximum yield it is essential to supply the optimum quantity of water and to maintain
correct timing of water. This is possible only through systematic irrigation system by
collecting water during the periods of excess rainfall and releasing it to the crops as when
it is needed.
Generally the following are some of the factors that necessitate irrigation.
inadequate rainfall
uneven distribution of Rainfall
increasing the yield of the crops
growing a number of crops
to insure against drought.
to grow perennial crops.

Scope of irrigation engineering

Irrigation Engineering is not only confined to the application of water to the land for
raising crops. It includes all aspects and problems extending from the watershed to the
agricultural fields. It deals with hydrology, river Engineering, the design and construction
of dams, weirs, canals and various other hydraulic and irrigation structures. It also deals
with surface and sub surface drainage system, soil reclamation, water-soil –crop
relationships. Other allied sciences such as flood control, hydropower, and inland
navigation are also studied in IRRIGATION Engineering.

Various aspects of irrigation Engineering is:

1. Water resources and hydrology aspect – to locate various water sources and to
study the hydrology of the region. This includes study of meteorology,
precipitation, stream flow, floods, river engineering, reservoirs and flood control.
The following information are required while designing various irrigation
structures.

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Principles of irrigation

 The quantity of water that will be available at a reservoir site for storage.
 Maximum discharge at a river site.
 Reservoir capacity that ensures adequate Quantity of water for various
purposes.
 Quantity of ground water which can be economically exploited
2. Engineering Aspect - involves the development of a source of water for
irrigation and construction of various irrigation structures.
 Dams and water power Engineering
 Diversion and Distribution structures
 Minor irrigation schemes (well, Tank / Pond, inundation Irrigation).
3. Agricultural aspect – Involves irrigation practice and the study of agricultural
Characteristics of the land.
4. Management Aspect- deals with successful implementation and efficient
management of engineering aspects and agricultural works.

1.2 BENEFITS AND ILL-EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION

There are various direct and indirect advantages of irrigation.

- Increase in food production: Irrigation helps in increasing crop yields through
controlled and timely supply of water to the crop.
- Optimum benefits: optimal utilization of water is made possible by irrigation.
Optimum utilization implies obtaining maximum crop yield with any amount of
water. In other words, yield will be smaller for any quantity lesser than or in
excess of optimum quantity.
- Elimination of mixed cropping in areas where irrigation is not ensured,
generally mixed cropping is adapted. Mixed cropping is growing two or more
crops simultaneously in the same field. If the weather condition is not suitable to
one of the crops it may be suitable for the other; and thus at least some yield is
obtained. Mixed cropping can be adopted when irrigation facilities are not
available, but if irrigation is assured it can be eliminated. Mixed cropping is
generally not acceptable, because different crops require different types of field
preparations and different types of manures, amount of water etc.
- General prosperity: Revenue returns are sometimes quite high and helps in all
round development of the country
- Generation of hydroelectric power: cheaper power generation can be obtained
on objects primarily designed for irrigation alone. Also falls on irrigation channels
can be utilized to generate electricity which may help in industrializing the rural
area and so in solving the problem of fuel shortage.
- Domestic water supply:- irrigation helps in augmenting the town water supply
where water is available with great difficulty. It also provides water for swimming
bathing, cattle drinking etc.
- Facilities of communication: Irrigation channels are generally provided with
embankments and inspection roads. These inspection paths provide a good road
way to the villagers for walking, cycling or even motoring.
- In land navigation

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Principles of irrigation

Ill-effects of irrigation

Ill-effects of irrigation occur only when the scheme is not properly designed and
implemented. Most of these are due to excess irrigation water application. Some of the
common ill-effects are
1. Waterlogging
when cultivators apply more water than actually required by the crops, excess
water percolates in to the ground and raises the water table. Water logging occurs
when the water table reaches near the root zones of the crops. The soil pores
become fully saturated and the normal circulation of air in the root zones of the
crop is stopped and the growth of the crops is decreased. Thus crop yield
considerably reduces. When the water table reaches the ground surface, the land
becomes saline.

2. Long term application of pesticides under large scale irrigation system might
have a negative influence on soil microbar activities, on the quality of surface and
sub surface water resources and the survival of the surrounding vegetation.
Irrigation may contribute in various ways to the problem of pollution. One of
these is the seepage in to the ground of the nitrates that has been applied to the
soil as fertilizer. Sometimes up to 50% of the nitrates applied to the soil sink in to
the underground reservoir. The under ground water thus get polluted.

3. Irrigation may result in colder and damper climate causing outbreak of disease
like malaria.

4. Irrigation is complex and expensive in itself. Some times cheaper water is to be

provided at the cost of the government and revenue returns are low.

1.3 STANDARDS OF IRRIGATION WATER

Every water is not suitable for irrigation. The quality of irrigation water is very much
influenced by the continents of the soil, which is to be irrigated particular water may be
harmful for irrigation on a particular soil but the same water may be tolerable or even
useful on some other soil. Irrigation water may be said to be unsatisfactory for its
intended use if it contains:
 Chemicals toxic to plants or the persons using plant as food
 chemicals that react with the soil to produce unsatisfactory moisture
characteristics
 Bacteria injurious to persons or animals eating plants irrigated with water.

There are two main causes of salinity: Salinity caused by the supply of irrigation water
and Salinity caused by the upward movement of water and salts, related to high water
tables and lack of drainage; it is only indirectly related to salts in the irrigation water The

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Principles of irrigation

general solution to these problems is to remove the salts from the soil by providing extra
water, which dissolves the salts and percolates to the saturated zone. Where it is removed
by drainage. This is one of the reasons why irrigation systems also require drainage
systems.The process is called leaching.

a. Sediment: its effect depends upon the type of irrigated land when fine sediment
from water is deposited on sandy soils the fertility is improved on the other hand
if the sediment has been derived from the eroded areas it may reduce the fertility
or decrease the soil permeability. Sediment water creates troubles in irrigation
canals as it increases their siltation and maintenance costs. In general ground
water or surface water from reservoirs, etc does not have sufficient sediment to
cause any serious problems in irrigation.

b. Total concentration of soluble salts: Salts, when present in excessive quantities,

reduce osmotic activities of the plants and may prevent adequate aeration causing
injuries to plant growth. The effect of salts on plant growth depends largely upon
the total amount of salts in the soil solution. The salinity concentration of the soil
solution (Cs) after the consumptive use (Cu) has been extracted from the soil is
given by
CxQ
Cs=
Q  (Cu  Peff )
where Q is quantity of water applied
Cu is consumptive use of water i.e. the total amount of water used up by the plant
for its growth.
Peff is useful rainfall
Cu-Peff is used up irrigation water
C concentration of salt in irrigation water
CQ is the total salt applied to the soil with Q amount of water.

Concentration of salt is measured in PPM (mg/l). Concentration of salt above 2000

PPM is generally harmful for almost all crops. Salt concentration is measured by
determining electrical conductivity.

Low Conductivity (low salinity) 100-250 micromhos/cm

Medium conductivity 250-750 micromhos/cm
High conductivity 750-2250 micromhos/cm
Very high conductivity >2250 micromhos at 250C

C. Proportion of sodium ions to other cat-ions small quantities of sodium ions are
present in most soils relative to other cat-ions. If its percentage increases it has an
influence on the aggregation of soil grains i.e. breaks down. The soil becomes less
permeable and of poorer tilth. It starts crusting when dry and its PH increases towards
that of an alkaline soil. High sodium soils are therefore, plastic, sticky when wet, and
are prone to form clods and they crust on drying.

The proportion of sodium ions present in the soil is generally measured by a

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Principles of irrigation

factor called sodium-absorption ratio (SAR) and represents the sodium hazards
of water. SAR is defined as:

SAR=

Na

C
a  M g 
2

Where the concentration of the ions is expressed in equivalent per million (epm)
epm is obtained by dividing the concentration of salt in mg/1 or PPM by its
combining weight (i.e. atomic weight valence)

When SAR between 0-10 it is low sodium water

10-18 medium ,,
18-26 High ,,
>26 very high ,,
Low sodium water is suitable for irrigation except in crops, which are sensitive to
sodium like fruit trees, avocados etc where as medium sodium water is hazardous
in fine textured soils. Very high sodium water is generally not suitable for
irrigation.
SAR value can be reduced by adding gypsum (CaSo4)
d. Potentially toxic elements: elements like Boron, Selenium, etc may be toxic to
plants.
Concentration of Boron exceeding 0.3 PPM may be toxic to certain plants.
>0.5 PPM dangerous to nuts, citrus fruits.
Dates. Beets, asparagus are quite tolerant. Even for the most tolerant crops its
concentration should not exceed 4 PPM . Boron is present in various soaps.
Wastewater containing soap, etc should be used with great care in irrigation.
Guidelines for the interpretation of water quality for irrigation water
(FAO,1976)

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Principles of irrigation

Irrigation problem Degree of problem

No Increasing Severe
problem problem problem
Salinity <0.75 0.75-3.0 >3.0
(affects water uptake)
Ecw (mmhos/cm)
Permeability (affects water
infiltration and availability)
Ecw (mmhos/cm) >0.5 0.5-0.2 <0.2
Adj.SAR
Montmorilonite Hlite- <6 6-9 >9
vermiculite <8 8-16 >16
Kaolimite-sesquioxides <10 16-24 >24
Specific ion toxicity
(affects sensitive crops)
sodium (adj. SAR) <3 3-9 >9
Chloride(meq/1) <4 4-10 >10
Boron (mg/1) 0.75 0.75-2.0 >12
Miscellaneous effects
(affects susceptible crops)
No3-Nor NH4-N(mg/1) <5 5-30 >30
Hco3(meq/1) <1.5 1.5-85 >8.5
PH
(Normal range 6.5-8.4)

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Principles of irrigation

Chapter 2

2. SOIL- PLANT -WATER RELATIONSHIPS

Soil- Plant Water relationships relate the properties of soil that affect the movement,
retention and use of water. It can be divided & treated as:

 Soil-water relation
 Soil-plant relation
 Plant-water relations

2.1 Soil Suitability for agricultural practices

Soil is a very important agricultural complement with out which no agricultural is

possible. It is important to study the soil characteristics to say a particular soil type is
suitable for agriculture or not. The process whereby the suitability of land for different
uses such as agriculture is assessed is known as land evaluation.

Land evaluation for agricultural purpose provides information for deciding ‘which crops
to grow where’ and other related crops. Hence, before a land is put certain land uses, its
suitability for that particular land use should be evaluated.

Soil map provides us with detailed information on soils that are utilized for land
capability classification. This indicates the suitability or unsuitability of the soil for
growing crops.

Land capability classification is an interpretive grouping of soils based on inherent soil

characteristics, external land features and environmental factors that may restrict the use
of the land for growing varieties of crops.

For land capability classification we need information on:

1) The susceptibility of the soil to various factors that cause soil damage & decrease in its
productivity.(we get this from soil map)
2) Its potential for crop production (obtained by growing crops).
Lands are first tentatively placed in different land capability groups on the basis of slope
of the land, erosion and depth of the soil.

The suitability of soil for agricultural practices may be affected by physical and chemical
soil characteristics. The physical characteristics include

1. Effective soil depth:- The depth of the soil which can be exploited by crops is very
important in selecting soils for agricultural purpose. Experience has shown that many
irrigated crops produce excellent yields with a well drained effective root depth of 90
cm.

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Principles of irrigation

2. Water Holding capacity:- This refers to the depth of water that can be held in the
soil and available for plants. A good soil from agricultural point of view should have
a very good water holding capacity. Clay soils have large water holding capacity,
because drainage water is high in these soils. Ideally loam soils are the best in this
regard. Since in sandy soils application losses are high and in clay soils drainage and
aeration is difficult.
3. Non – capillary porosity:- High values of non- capillary porosity is desirable,
because lower values of porosity and high values of bulk density hinders root
development and expansion.
4. Topography: - A leveled land is the most suitable for agriculture. Because, the water
for irrigation can easily be conveyed and less conservation and management practices
are required. Where as, in sloppy soils, the more is the land wasted in bunds and
channels in surface irrigation and there fore that cost for land development per unit
area will be high.
5. Texture:- It is the weight percentage of the mineral matter that occurs in each of
the specified size fractions of the soil. It is the relative proportions of sand silt and
clay, (Particles sized groups smaller than gravel i.e. < 2 mm in diameter). It is the
number and size of its mechanical particles after all compounds holding them
together have been destroyed. Loamy soils are the best texture for agriculture.
Deviation either into sandy or clayey texture will reduce the value of the land for
agriculture.
6. Soil Structure: It refers to the manner in which primary soil particles are arranged
into, secondary particles or peds or aggregates. Soil structure determines the total
porosity, the shape of individual pores and their size distribution, hence it affects: -
- Retention & transmission of fluids in the soil
- Germination, root growth,
- Tillage, Erosion etc.

7. Soil Consistence: Is the resistance of the soil to deformation or rupture. It is

determined by the cohesive and adhesive properties of the entire soil mass. Structure
deals with size, shape and distinctness of natural soil aggregates, and consistence
deals with strength and nature of the force between particles. It is important for tillage
or traffic consideration.

Soil Consistence Terms: - Consistence is described for three moisture levels: wet, moist
& dry. For instance, a given soils may be sticky when wet, firm when moist and hard
when dry.
The terms to describe soil consistency include: -
1) Wet soil - non sticky, sticky, non plastic, plastic
2) Moist soil - loose, friable, firm
3) Dry soil - loose, soft, and hard.

8. Soil Permeability and Hydraulic Conductivity

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 Principles of irrigation

Permeability - is the ease with which liquids, gases and roots pass through the soil.
Hydraulic conductivity is the permeability of the soil for water. I.e. the ease with which
the soil pores permit water movement. It controls the soil water movement.

The major factors affecting hydraulic conductivity are texture and structure of soils. E.g.
Sandy soils have higher saturated conductivity than finer textured soils. Soils with stable
granular structure conduct water rapidly than those with unstable structural units, since
they will not break down when get wetted. Fine textured soils during dry weather because
of their cracks allow water rapidly then the cracks swell shut, and drastically reduce
water movement.

1. Salinity (soluble salt content) When the quantity of salts in irrigated land is too high,
the salts accumulate in the crop root zone. These salts create difficulty to crops in
extracting enough water from the salty solution. Thus, for the land to be of high value for
irrigation, the soluble salt content should be low as much as possible.

2. Amount of Exchangeable sodium:-When the amount of exchangeable sodium is

high in the soil, the soil will have large amount of Na+ in the form of colloid. This results
in tremendous reduction of the permeability of the soil. This in turn makes it difficult to
the cop to get sufficient water and causes crusting of seedbeds. Such a soil is called Black
alkali soil. Hence, the amount of exchangeable sodium should be low in agricultural
lands.
3. Soil Reaction (PH) PH of a soil is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity. It is a
measure of the concentration of hydrogen ion in a soil. Mathematically,

 1 
PH  log10   
 (H ) 
Excessively low or high pH values are not good for proper growth and adequate yield
production as they bring about acidity or alkalinity in the soil.
In general, in any ecosystem, (a farm, forest, regional water shed etc.) soils have five key
roles
1. Medium for plant growth: It supports the growth of higher plants by providing a
medium for plant roots and supplying nutrient elements that are essential to the entire plant.
2. Regulator of water supplies: Its properties are the principal factor controlling the fate of
water in the hydrologic system. Water loss, utilization, contamination, and
purification are all affected by the soil.
3. Recycler of raw materials: With in the soil, waste products and dead bodies of plants,
animals and people are assimilated, and their basic elements are made available for
reuse by the next generation of life.
4. Habitat for soil organisms: It provides habitats for living organism, from small
mammals and reptiles to tiny insects to microscopic cells.
5. Engineering medium: In human - built ecosystem, soil plays an important role as an
engineering medium. It is not only an important building material (earth fill, bricks)
but provides the foundation for virtually every road, airport, and house we build.

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 Principles of irrigation

In relation to irrigation:
 The capacity of the soil to accept, transmit or retain relatively large amounts of
water (Water holding capacity of the soil) in a relatively large amounts of water in
a relatively short time should be measured.
 The surface infiltration rates and the case of water movement through unsaturated
and through saturated layers (hydraulic conductivity) need to be measured
quantitively.
 The amount, kind and distribution of clay minerals (Soil chemical properties) are
specially important to water movement, relation and availability of plants.
 Studies of cracking and structural changes under different management practices
(helps surface sealing or a need of pre irrigation)
 Physical properties of soil matrix.

2.2 Soil- water relations

- It means that physical properties of soil in relation to water

- The rate of entry of water in to the soil and its retention, movement and
availability to plant roots are all physical phenomena. Hence it is important to
know the physical properties of soil in relation to water.

Classes of Soil Water Availability

Water can exist in either of the following forms in the soil.

Gravitational water: Water is rapidly drained from the soil profile by the force of
gravity. The term rapid is relative and in soil-water studies normally refers to time
periods of 24 to 48 hours.

Capillary water: is the water remaining after rapid drainage by gravity. This water may
be removed by forces greater than gravity such as those exerted by plant roots.

Hygroscopic water: water which adheres to soil particles which can not generally be
removed by forces generally found in nature. Hygroscopic water can be removed by
oven drying a soil sample, but can not be removed by plant roots.

Water may also be classified as unavailable, available and gravitational or superfluous.

Such a grouping refers to the availability of soil water to plants. Gravitational water
drains quickly from the root zone under normal drainage conditions. Unavailable water is
held too tightly by capillary forces and is generally not accessible to plant roots.
Available water is the difference between gravitational and unavailable water.

Water drains from the soil under the constant pull of gravity. Sandy soils drain readily,
while clay soils drain very slowly. Hence, one day after irrigating a sandy soil, most of
the gravitational water has drained out of the soil, where as clay may require 4 or more
days for gravitational water to drain.

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Principles of irrigation

2.3 Soil Moisture Constants

The following soil moisture contents are of significance importance in agriculture and are
termed soil moisture constants.

1. Saturation Capacity: - When all the micro and macro pore spaces are filled with
water, the soil is said to have reached its saturation capacity. At field capacity the
water is held loosely and tensions are almost nill. Thus, plants will not have any
difficulty in extracting moisture from soil.

2. Field capacity: - is the moisture content after the gravitational water has drained
down. At field capacity, the macro pores are filled with air & capillary pores filled
with water. Field capacity is the upper limit of available soil moisture. It is often
defined as moisture content in a soil two (light sandy soil) or three (heavy soil),
days after having been saturated and after drainage of gravitational water becomes
slow or negligible and moisture content has become stable.

- Larger pore spaces filled with air while the smaller ones with water
- At field capacity Soil Moisture Tension (SMT) is b/n 1/10 – 1/3 atm.

Some factors which influence FC.

- Soil texture
- Presence of impending layer (soil profile), arise from plaguing the same depth
yearly  hard pan.

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Principles of irrigation

The volumetric moisture content at field capacity is given by

fc =  b. m

- Field capacity can be determined by ponding water on a soil surface in an area of

about 2 to 5 m2 and allowing it to drain for one to three days preventing surface
evaporation. Then soil samples are taken from different depths and the moisture
content is determined as usual, which gives the field capacity.

3. Permanent Wilting Point: - is the moisture content beyond which plants can no
longer extract enough moisture and remain witted unless water is added to the
soil. The water beyond the permanent wilting point is tightly held to the solid
particles that plants cannot remove moisture at their normal rate to prevent wilting
of the plants. The soil moisture tension at PWP ranges from 7 to 32 atm,
depending on the soil texture, kinds of crops and salt content in the soil solution.

- Since the change in moisture content () is insignificant for changes in SMT
from 7 to 32 atm. Hence, 15 atm. is taken as SMT at PWP.
- At PWP the plant starts wilting, and if no water is given to the plant, then it
will die.
-
N. B v(wp) = b m(wp) (volumetric moisture content at Permanent wilting point)

Soil moisture ranges:

Total available water, TAW
The soil moisture b/n field capacity and permanent wilting point is called available water.
This is the water available for plant use. Fine grained soils generally have a wider range
of available moisture than course textured soil.

Moisture content (%) Available Depth of water

Soil type Fc Pwp water (%) per unit depth
(cm/m depth)
Fine sand 3-5 1-3 2 2-4
Sandy loam 5-15 3-8 2-7 4-11
Silty loam 12-18 6-10 6-8 6-13
Clayey loam 15-30 7-16 8-14 10-18
Clay 25-40 12-20 13-20 16-30

TAW = (v(fc) - v (wp))D. where D = Root Depth of the crop

- Not exact because crop roots do not extract water uniformly from the soil
profile.

Management allowed deficit, MAD.

The degree to which the volume of water in the soil is allowed to deplete before
the next irrigation is applied. That is portion of the available moisture which is

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Principles of irrigation

easily extracted by the plant roots. It is commonly 60 – 80 % of the available

water.
MAD = P*TAW P depends on type of crop and Crop growing stage.

Soil moisture deficit, SMD.

The depletion of soil moisture below field capacity at the time that particular soil
moisture content, v , is measured. That is the amount of water required to bring
the soil moisture back to the field capacity. Deficit = Fc – soil moisture at that
instant.
SMD = (v(fc) - v ) D

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Principles of irrigation

Fig. Soil moisture levels and available water ranges.

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