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Chapter 1
Euler 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 |𝑒 𝑗𝜃 | = 1, ∠𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 𝜃
1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = (𝑒 𝑗𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (𝑒 𝑗𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 )
2 2𝑗

Geometric 𝑁 1 − 𝛼 𝑁+1 ∞ 1
∑ 𝛼 = 𝑘 ∑ 𝛼𝑘 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝛼| < 1
series 𝑘=0 1−𝛼 𝑘=0 1−𝛼

Signals CT DT
Energy 𝑡2 𝑛2
𝐸 = ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 𝐸 = ∑ |𝑥[𝑛]|2
𝑡1
∞ 𝑛=𝑛1
∞
𝐸∞ = ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
−∞ 𝐸∞ = ∑ |𝑥[𝑛]|2
𝑛=−∞

Power 1 𝑇 1
𝑁
𝑃∞ = lim ∫ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 𝑃∞ = lim ∑ |𝑥[𝑛]|2
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇 𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝑛=−𝑁

Signal with 𝑥(−𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏) 𝑥[−𝑛 + 𝑏]

time shift, Method 1: First shift left by b, then Method 1: First shift left by b, then reversal
time reversal scale/reversal -a
and/or time 𝑏 𝑥[−𝑛 + 𝑏] = 𝑥[−(𝑛 − 𝑏)]
𝑥(−𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏) = 𝑥(−𝑎 (𝑡 − ))
scaling 𝑎 Method 2: First reversal, then shift right by b.
Method 2: First scale/reversal -a, then
shift right by b/a.

Periodic A CT signal is periodic if there exists T, A DT signal is periodic if there exists N, such
such that 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑇) for all values that 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛 + 𝑁] for all values of n.
of t. The smallest positive value of N is called the
The smallest positive value of T is called fundamental period N0.
the fundamental period T0.

Note: Note:
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙) is periodic with 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔0 𝑛 + 𝜙) is periodic only if
2𝜋 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑚/𝑁 for some integers 𝑁 > 0 and
fundamental period 𝑇0 = |𝜔 |.
0 2𝜋 𝑁
m, or 𝜔 = 𝑚is a rational number.
0

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 is periodic with 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑛 is periodic only if 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑚/𝑁

2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑁
fundamental period 𝑇0 = |𝜔 |. for some integers 𝑁 > 0 and m, or 𝜔 = 𝑚 is
0 0
a rational number.
Unit impulse 𝑑𝑢(𝑡) 1, 𝑛 = 0
𝛿(𝑡) = 𝛿[𝑛] = {
function 𝑑𝑡 0, 𝑛 ≠ 0
𝑡
1, 𝑡 > 0
∫ 𝛿(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 = 𝑢(𝑡) = { 𝛿[𝑛] = 𝑢[𝑛] − 𝑢[𝑛 − 1]
−∞
0, 𝑡 < 0
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2δ(t-1)
δ(t) 2

1 δ[n] -0.5δ[n+1]
1
t t
1
n n
-1
-0.5

Unit step 1, 𝑡 > 0 1, 𝑛 ≥ 0

𝑢(𝑡) = { 𝑢[𝑛] = {
function 0, 𝑡 < 0 0, 𝑛 < 0
∞

𝑢[𝑛] = ∑ 𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑘]
𝑘=0

u(t) u[n]

1 1
...
t n
0 01 2
u(t+1)-u(t-1) u[n+1]-u[n-1]

1
1

t n
-1 0 1 -1 0

Sampling 𝑥(𝑡)𝛿(𝑡) = 𝑥(0)𝛿(𝑡) 𝑥[𝑛]𝛿[𝑛] = 𝑥[0]𝛿[𝑛]

property of 𝑥(𝑡)𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) = 𝑥(𝑡0 )𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) 𝑥[𝑛]𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ] = 𝑥[𝑛0 ]𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ]
delta
function

System Input CT Output DT

Input Output
properties x(t) System y(t) System
x[n] y[n]

Memoryless If y(t) depends ONLY on x(t) (present) If y[n] depends ONLY on x[n] (present) not on
not on x(t-t0) or x(t+t0) for t0>0 (past or x[n-n0] or x[n+n0] for n0>0 (past or future)
future)

Invertible If distinct inputs lead to distinct Same as CT

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outputs.

Causal If y(t) depends on x(t) (present) and x(t- If y[n] depends on x[n] (present) and x[n-n0]
t0) for t0>0 (past) for n0>0 (past)

Time If x(t- t0) generates y(t- t0) for all values If x[n- n0] generates y[n- n0] for all values of n0
invariant of t0 (identical time shift in output) (identical time shift in output)

Linear If ax1(t) + bx2(t) generates ay1(t) + by2(t) If ax1[n] + bx2[n] generates ay1[n]+ by2[n]
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Chapter 2
Convolution LTI LTI
x(t) y(t) x[n] y[n]
h(t) h[n]

ℎ(𝑡): impulse response of CT LTI ℎ[𝑛]: impulse response of DT LTI system

system

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) ∗ ℎ(𝑡) 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] ∗ ℎ[𝑛]

∞ ∞
= ∫ 𝑥(𝜏)ℎ(𝑡 − 𝜏)𝑑𝜏 = ∑ 𝑥[𝑘]ℎ[𝑛 − 𝑘]
−∞
𝑘=−∞

Convolution 𝑥(𝑡) ∗ 𝛿(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥[𝑛] ∗ 𝛿[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛]

with delta 𝑥(𝑡) ∗ 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) = 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) 𝑥[𝑛] ∗ 𝛿[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ] = 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ]
function
(sifting
properties)

Convolution
properties
Commutative 𝑥(𝑡) ∗ ℎ(𝑡) = ℎ(𝑡) ∗ 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥[𝑛] ∗ ℎ[𝑛] = ℎ[𝑛] ∗ 𝑥[𝑛]
Distributive 𝑥(𝑡) ∗ [ℎ1 (𝑡) + ℎ2 (𝑡)] 𝑥[𝑛] ∗ (ℎ1 [𝑛] + ℎ2 [𝑛])
= 𝑥(𝑡) ∗ ℎ1 (𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡) ∗ ℎ2 (𝑡) = 𝑥[𝑛] ∗ ℎ1 [𝑛] + 𝑥[𝑛] ∗ ℎ2 (𝑡)

Associative 𝑥(𝑡) ∗ [ℎ1 (𝑡) ∗ ℎ2 (𝑡)] 𝑥[𝑛] ∗ (ℎ1 [𝑛] ∗ ℎ2 [𝑛])

= [𝑥(𝑡) ∗ ℎ1 (𝑡)] ∗ ℎ2 (𝑡) = (𝑥[𝑛] ∗ ℎ1 [𝑛]) ∗ ℎ2 [𝑛]

LTI system
properties
Memoryless If ℎ(𝑡) = 𝐾𝛿(𝑡) If ℎ[𝑛] = 𝐾𝛿[𝑛]

Invertible If ℎ(𝑡) ∗ ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝛿(𝑡) If ℎ[𝑛] ∗ ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑣 [𝑛] = 𝛿[𝑛]

Causal If ℎ(𝑡) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0 If ℎ[𝑛] = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0

∞
Stable If ∫−∞|ℎ(𝜏)|𝑑𝜏 < ∞ If ∑∞
𝑘=−∞|ℎ[𝑘]| < ∞
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Chapter 3
Fourier series If 𝑥(𝑡) is periodic with fundamental If 𝑥[𝑛] is periodic with fundamental period
coefficients 2𝜋 2𝜋
period 𝑇 = 𝜔 : 𝑁=𝜔 :
0 0
∞

𝑥(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝜔0 𝑡 𝑥[𝑛] = ∑ 𝑎𝑘 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝜔0 𝑛

𝑘=−∞ 𝑘=<𝑁>
1 1
𝑎𝑘 = ∫ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑘 = ∑ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝜔0 𝑛
𝑇 𝑇 𝑁
𝑛=<𝑁>
< 𝑁 > represents a range of any N successive
integers
𝑎𝑘 is also periodic in k with period N

LTI System LTI LTI

x(t) y(t) x[n] y[n]
h(t) h[n]

The response of an LTI system to a The response of an LTI system to a complex

complex exponential input is the same exponential input is the same complex
complex exponential (same frequency) exponential (same frequency) with only a
with only a change in amplitude, i.e., change in amplitude, i.e., for input 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑧 𝑛 ,
for input 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 , output output
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐻(𝑠)𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝐻(𝑧)𝑧 𝑛

Frequency response of CT LTI system Frequency response of DT LTI system (set

(set 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 in 𝐻(𝑠)): 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔 in 𝐻(𝑧)):
∞ ∞
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = ∫ ℎ(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐻(𝑒 𝑗𝜔 ) = ∑ ℎ[𝑛]𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑛
−∞ 𝑛=−∞

𝑥(𝑡) is periodic with fundamental 𝑥[𝑛] is periodic with fundamental period 𝑁 =

2𝜋 2𝜋
period 𝑇 = 𝜔 : 𝜔
:
0 0
𝑥(𝑡) = ∑∞
𝑘=−∞ 𝑎𝑘 𝑒
𝑗𝑘𝜔0 𝑡
𝑥[𝑛] = ∑𝑘=<𝑁> 𝑎𝑘 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝜔0 𝑛

Then 𝑦(𝑡) is also periodic with Then 𝑦[𝑛] is also periodic with fundamental
2𝜋 2𝜋
fundamental period 𝑇 = 𝜔 : period 𝑁 = 𝜔 :
0 0
𝑦(𝑡) = ∑∞
𝑘=−∞ 𝑎𝑘 𝐻(𝑗𝑘𝜔0 )𝑒
𝑗𝑘𝜔0 𝑡
. 𝑦[𝑛] = ∑𝑘=<𝑁> 𝑎𝑘 𝐻(𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝜔0 )𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝜔0 𝑛
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The following two tables will be provided on the midterm:

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