2023 2023

AGRICULTURE
STUDENT TEXTBOOK
GRADE 11
Writers:
Seid Ali (MSc)
Shimelis Gizachew (PhD)
Editors:
Bimrew Asmare (PhD) (Content Editor)
Fetene Regassa (PhD) (Curriculum and Instruction Editor)
Tamene Kitila (PhD) (Language Editor)
Illustrator
Yonas Azene (MSc)
Designer:
Ephrem Alamrew (MSc)
Reviewers:
Taye Tolemariam (Professor, PhD)
Teramage Tesfaye (PhD)
Evaluators:
Daniel Taddesse (PhD)
Serawit Handiso (PhD)

FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA HAWASSA UNIVERSITY

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
First Published August 2023 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Educa-
tion, under the General Education Quality Improvement Program for Equity (GEQIP-E) supported
by the World Bank, UK’s Department for International Development/DFID-now merged with the
Foreign, Common wealth and Development Office/FCDO, Finland Ministry for Foreign Affairs,
the Royal Norwegian Embassy, United Nations Children’s Fund/UNICEF), the Global Partnership
for Education (GPE), and Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, through a Multi Donor Trust Fund.

© 2023 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Education. All rights
reserved. The moral rights of the author have been asserted. No part of this textbook
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The Ministry of Education wishes to thank the many individuals, groups and other bodies
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Hawassa University for their huge contribution in the development of this textbook in
collaboration with Addis Ababa University, Bahir Dar University and Jimma University.
Copyrighted materials used by permission of their owners. If you are the owner of copy-
righted material not cited or improperly cited, please contact the Ministry of Education,
Head Office, Arat Kilo, (P.O.Box 1367), Addis Ababa Ethiopia.

ISBN: 978-99990-0-076-5
 Agriculture Grade 11
Contents
Unit 1 Introduction to Crop Production 1
1.1 Definition of common terms used in 2
crop production 3
1.2 The origin of domesticated crops 5
1.3 Status of crop production 8
1.4 Classification of crop plants 8
1.5 Cropping systems
1.6 Indigenous knowledge in crop production 14

Unit 2 Field Crops Production and Management 19

2.1 Cereal crops production and management 20
2.2 Pulse crops production and management 29

Unit 3 Industrial Crops Production and Management 36

3.1 Oil crops production and management 37
3.2 Fiber crops production and management 39
3.3 Sugar crops production and management 42

Unit 4 Introduction to Farm Animals 47

4.1 Farm animal species 48
4.2 Importance of animal production
57
4.3. Constraints in animal production and
their mitigation strategies 60
4.4. Animal production systems 62

Unit 5 Animal Feeds and Feeding Practices 69

5.1 Feed resources in Ethiopia 70
5.2 Classification of feed resources 75
5.3. Nutrient requirement of farm animals 77
5.4 Feed formulation practices 80
5.5. Feed conservation and compound feed
manufacturing 83

Contents I
Agriculture Grade 11

Unit 6 Animal Genetics and Breeding Practices 94

6.1 Introduction to animal genetics and breeding 95
6.2 Breed improvement methods 96
6.3 Farm animal reproductive technologies 101
6.4 Animal identification and record keeping
106

Unit 7 Farm Animals Housing 108

7.1 Significance of farm animal house
110
7.2 Types of farm animal housing 111
7.3 Guidelines for site selection and house construction 116

Unit 8 Basic Animal Health and Disease Control 123

8.1 Introduction to animal health and
disease control 124
8.2 Major diseases of farm animals 125
8.3 Internal and external parasites of farm animals 127
8.4 Effects of diseases and parasites in animal
production 128
8.5 Prevention and control of common farm
animal diseases 129

Unit 9 Dairy Cattle Production and Management 135

9.1 Introduction to dairy cattle production and
management 136
9.2 Dairy cattle breeds and thier selection 137
9.3 Feeding management of dairy cattle 144
9.4 Milk production and processing 146
9.5 Dairy cattle housing management 155
9.6 Major diseases of dairy cattle and their control
methods 157
9.7 Profitability in dairy business 159

II Contents
 Agriculture Grade 11

Unit 10 Introduction to Natural Resources 163

10.1 Definition and importance of natural
resources 164
10.2 Major types of natural resources 164
10.3 Causes and consequences of degradation
of natural resources 169
Unit 11 Management of Natural Resources 182
183
11.1 Concepts of natural resource use
11.2 Soil management 184
11.3 Agricultural water management 187
11.4 Forest and wildlife management 189
11.5 Environmental management 191
11.6 Types of indigenous knowledge’s applicable
in natural resources management practices 192
Unit 12 Concepts of Biodiversity 197
12.1 What is biodiversity? 198
12.2 The scope of biodiversity 198
12.3 Values and services of biodiversity 199
12.4 Threats to biodiversity 200
12.5 Biodiversity conservation and its status in
Ethiopia 203

Unit 13 Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation 211

13.1 Definition of climate change and its variability 212

13.2 Climate change and its effects 214
13.3 Climate change mitigation strategies
216
13.4 An overview of climate change adaptation
strategies of Ethiopia 217
13.5 Indigenous knowledge in climate change
mitigation strategies 218

Contents III
Agriculture Grade 11
Unit 14 Mechanized Farming 225
14.1 Introduction to mechanized farming 227
14.2 Types of farm tools and equipment 228
14.3 Uses of some farm tools and equipment 229

Unit 15 Introduction to Human Nutrition 235

15.1 Definition of basic terms in human nutrition

236
15.2 Nutrients and their functions 237
15.3 Food groups and their sources
240
15.4 Food and nutrition security
243
15.5 Agriculture-nutrition linkage and
245
nutrition-sensitive agriculture
246
15.6 Malnutrition and its causes in Ethiopia

Unit 16 Diversified Food Production and Consumption 254

16.1 Importance of diversified food production 255
16.2 Dietary diversification strategies 256
16.3 Nutrient enrichment strategies 257
16.4 Indigenous knowledge in nutrition sensitive
agriculture 261

IV Contents
 Agriculture Grade 11

Introduction to Crop
Production

Contents Learning Outcomes

1.1. Definition of common terms At the end of this unit, you will be
used in crop production able to:
1.2. The origin of domesticated  define crop production related
crops terms/phrases
1.3. Status of crop production  explain origin of different
domesticated crops
1.4. Classification of crop plants
 describe the status of crop
production
1.5. Cropping systems
 classify crop plants
1.6. Indigenous knowledge in  analyze different cropping
crop production systems and principles of crop
husbandry
 explain indigenous knowledge
used related to crop production

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Agriculture Grade 11
1.1. Definition of Common Terms Used in Crop Production

Brainstorming 1.1
1.2.
Answer the following questions independently before reading the
notes and share your answers with your classmates
1. What is agriculture?
2. How do you think agriculture started?
3. What practices does the term agriculture include?
4. What is the difference between agriculture and farming?

Agriculture is defined as the deliberate cultivation of crops and rearing

of animals.

Before the introduction of agriculture, societies survived by hunting animals

and gathering plants for food. Studies indicate that hunter-gatherers had to
be insightful in order to survive. Today, hunting animals and gathering
plants for food may be viewed as primitive and unskilled activities.
However, the hunter-gatherer life-style has not completely disappeared
with the expansion of agriculture. Even today, there are hunter-gatherers in
areas where the land and climate conditions do not favour deliberate crop
culture. Desert areas, Arctic region and pockets of tropical rain forest are
examples of such places. Agriculture involves the deliberate cultivation
of crops and the rearing of animals. Before development of agriculture,
people started to domesticate animals mainly for food production. Later,
people started to breed animals in order to produce non-food materials.
Crop and livestock production has gradually become the major means of
survival for societies.

Shifting cultivation: is a form of agriculture in which an area of ground

is cleared of vegetation and cultivated for a few years and then abandoned
for a new area.

Early crop production involved temporary cultivation of land called

shifting cultivation. This required clearing trees and cultivating the land
for just one or two seasons. Abandoning the land cultivated after it had
been cultivated once and shifting to a new location was common. Unlike
the familiar practice known today, crop cultivation and animal rearing
2 Introduction to Crop Production
 Agriculture Grade 11
continued without requiring the application of scientific knowledge.

Settled agriculture: the practice of using the same plot of land

continuously over a long period to grow crops or rear livestock.

In a settled agriculture, the land is cultivated continuously. The cultivation

of land in a settled agriculture involves the use of yield enhancing
practices. Crop management practices such as using manure, fertilizer, the
construction of soil bunds for erosion control, and the optimized use of
water have now become associated with cultivation of land in a settled
agriculture. This means that a settled agriculture is a more advanced
activity than traditional shifting cultivation.

Subsistence farming: the practice of growing crops and raising livestock

sufficient only for one’s own use, without any surplus for trade.

Subsistence farming refers to a situation in which a farmer produces crops

and livestock sufficient only for household use without any surplus for trade.
The major aim of this type of farming is to produce crops and animals for
the farmer’s own consumption. Subsistence farming often requires simple
techniques that often do not go beyond a household capacity. If there is
any excess production, it might be stored for times of poor harvest or sold
to generate income for the household.

1.2. The Origin of Domesticated Crops

It is not possible to know the exact place and time that agriculture began.
However, growing crops and rearing animals in a specific area is a
deliberate activity that took a long time to develop. Evolution of agricultural
economies transformed wild plant species to the fully domesticated ones.
It is possible that religion may have influenced agriculture as particular
animals and plants were kept as they were required for religious practices.
There may be many reasons why the hunter-gatherer culture gradually
changed to agriculture and this change took place over thousands of years.
No strong evidence is available on how hunter-gatherers chose their
food sources. A fair estimate could perhaps be that the hunter-gatherers
were influenced by certain features of the plant species they selected
as food sources. This selection as food source probably influenced
Introduction to Crop Production 3
Agriculture Grade 11

the domestication process of the plant species. Ease of harvest, wide

availability and ease of transport to the desired place could have been
some useful features hunter-gatherers considered in their plant selection.
Plants selected for food could also have been those available with high
predictability and seasonal distribution. Possessing climatic tolerance,
having good flavour and suitable grain size could also have been other
desirable characteristics of plants considered for selection. The wild plant
species that hunter-gatherers consumed include wild rice, grass species,
wild oats and legumes. Legumes used by hunter gatherers are known to
have been toxic. This suggests that the societies detoxified and used the
legumes as food. Their detoxifying skills were based on trial and error.
Presumably, they used the poisonous substances they extracted from such
toxic legumes as poisons on arrowheads in hunting. This discovery may
suggest that in hunter-gatherer life style survival required insight.
Root crops were widely used as food by hunter-gatherers particularly in
the tropical region. Wild onions and sweet potatoes were also important
food sources for hunter-gatherers. Hunter-gatherers used hunted animals
and plant species such as coconut, oil palm and olive as sources of oil.

Activity 1.1.
Group discussion
• In a small group, discuss the criteria that hunter-gatherers
could have used to select their food sources.

4 Introduction to Crop Production

 Agriculture Grade 11

1.3. Status of Crop Production

Brainstorming 1.2
Crop production
Discuss the following questions in pairs and share your ideas with
your class mates
 What do you think are the major activities in crop
production? Discuss with your partner and then share your
ideas with the class.
 List the major differences between the ancient and the
modern crop productions in terms of yield.

Agriculture provides food and other goods for society. Crop plants
provide food for humans and feed for livestock. Crop production is mainly
determined by the crop type, and the environment in which it is grown.
Agriculture involves selection of a crop species, selection of specific types
of crop and land preparation before planting. It also involved planting at
the right time, protecting the crop from diseases and pests and adopting
techniques to increase productivity. Primitive agriculture used primitive
tools that had a low efficiency and were not easy to operate. Over time,
agriculture has evolved into a more complex process with enormous
technological advancement. The technological advancement in agriculture
resulted in:

ƒ access to improved seeds

ƒ better production practices
ƒ better harvesting and storage facilities
Modern agriculture also involves crop rotation (rotating or shifting between
different crops in different growing seasons, as opposed to planting the
same crop on the same plot every year), fallowing (leaving a plot of land
free of crop growth for 2 or three seasons for soils to recover) and use
of various soil conservation practices to control soil erosion. The use of
efficient technologies to improve production also characterizes modern
agricultural practices. Efficient technologies include the use of machinery,
Introduction to Crop Production 5
Agriculture Grade 11
agrochemicals, irrigation, biotechnology and genetic improvement of
plants (plant breeding). These have enhanced the productivity of modern
agriculture. Regions with better economic capacities are able to adopt
advanced technologies in agriculture.

Figure 1.1. a) manual soil cultivation b) animal drawn plough

One of the first technological changes in agriculture was the transfer of

some tedious manual work to draft animals. The draft animals were used
to prepare and plough land and transport materials. The development and
use of agricultural machineries has further reduced the labour requirement.
This enables an individual farmer to operate a large farm.
Agriculture in industrialized regions is often classified into three Eras:
ƒ Mechanical Era (1930 - 1950)
ƒ Chemical Era (1950 - 1970) and
ƒ Biotechnology/Information Technology Era (1970 - present)
Agricultural productivity in industrialized regions has increased as a result
of the use of industrial technologies. Land preparation and planting can be
completed at the best time with machinery. Crop diseases, weeds and pests
can be easily controlled with agricultural chemicals. These modern crops
have higher yields and improved resistance to diseases and pests, which
has contributed to improved agricultural productivity in these regions.
Agriculture in less developed regions, (e.g., in sub-Saharan Africa), is
often traditional with draft animals still in use for cultivation, transport
and other agricultural activities. As a result, agricultural productivity in
these regions remains very low compared to industrialized regions.

6 Introduction to Crop Production

 Agriculture Grade 11

Figure 1.2. a) Tractor spraying pesticides (Chemical Era) and b) tractor

cultivation (Mechanical Era)

Status of crop production in Ethiopia

Ethiopian crop agriculture is complex. There are different agro ecologies in
different regions of the country and a wide range of crop types are grown.
Ethiopia has about 51 million hectares of arable land, of which only about
20% is cultivated, mainly by smallholders. Five major crops constitute
approximately 75% of the country’s cultivated area:
ƒ teff
ƒ wheat
ƒ maize
ƒ sorghum and
ƒ barley
These grain crops supply approximately 64% of the calories consumed
in the country. Cereals are grasses cultivated for their grains. Table 1.1
shows the increase in production of cereals (million tons) from 1961 to
2019. As shown in the table, between 1961 and 2000, there was also an
increase in cultivated area (million ha). This can be associated mainly with
the expansion of cultivated area as shown in table 1.1 and to some extent,
increased use of agricultural inputs. However, there is limited evidence
to support a parallel increase in productivity per unit area cultivated. The
yield level is mainly limited by the recurrent droughts and climate changes.
Achieving food security requires an increase in yield and a decrease in
yields variability. The general yield level in the country is low compared to
the international standards. The principal factors responsible for low crop
yields in Ethiopia are:
Introduction to Crop Production 7
Agriculture Grade 11
ƒ soil degradation
ƒ traditional farming systems with little technology use
ƒ uncertain and variable rainfall
ƒ very low level of irrigation and
ƒ low use of inputs like improved seeds, fertilizers and pesticides
Table 1.1. Trends in cultivated area and yields of the major cereal crops
in Ethiopia
Cultivated area Production
Production year Yields in tons/ha
(million ha) (million tons)
1961-1970 6.23 0.73 4.53
1971-1980 5.25 0.90 4.63
1981-1990 4.89 1.15 5.63
1991-2000 5.87 1.18 6.88
2001-2009 8.24 1.30 10.68
2011-2019 10.5 1.57 16.5
Source: Food Balance Sheets Database http://faostat.fao.org/
Activity 1.2.
Group discussion
• Ethiopian agriculture is often characterized by low level of
crop yields or low productivity in general. Make a group
of 3 to 5 students and discuss the possible reasons for low
crop productivity in the country. Discuss your personal
experience of any of the factors that contribute to low yield
and how this may have affected you or your families or
the community in general. Report the summary of your
discussion orally to the whole class.

1.4. Classification of Crop Plants

Crop plants can be classified into four major categories: food crops, oil
crops, fiber crops and sugar crops.
1.4.1. Major food crops

Globally, the three most important food crops are wheat, rice and maize in
terms of volume of production. Other important crops include sorghum,
barley and oats. In the Ethiopian context, in terms of area of cultivation,
the top five major crops are teff, wheat, maize, sorghum and barley.

8 Introduction to Crop Production

 Agriculture Grade 11
Crops can be generally classified into monocots and dicots. Monocot
crops store food primarily in their endosperm. The endosperm contains
starch and small quantities of protein and other nutrients. On the other
hand, dicots such as legumes and oil seeds, store food in their cotyledons.
Legumes and oil seeds are used as grain crops. The cotyledons have high
amounts of protein, oil and some carbohydrates. The most important food
and feed legumes or oil seed grains are soybean, peanut, beans and peas.
However, protein in dicot plants is low in certain essential amino acids.

Figure 1.3. Major food crops in Ethiopia: a) teff, b) wheat and c) maize

Key terms
Monocots: grass and grass-like flowering plants whose seeds contain
only one embryonic leaf or cotyledon.
Dicots: these are flowering plants whose seeds contain two embryonic
leaves cotyledons.
Cotyledon: seed leaf within the embryo of the seed that serves as food
source for the plant embryo to germinate
Endosperm: tissue produced inside the seeds of flowering plants and
provides nutrition in the form of a starch. It is a source of nutrition in
animal diet.

1.4.2. Major Oil Crops

Oil crops or oil seed crops are grown in order to extract the oil contained in
their seeds. Major oil seeds include olive, linseed, sesame and sunflower.
Soybean, coconut, palm, maize and peanut are also oil seeds. Plant-derived
oils are used for food as well as for industrial purposes. Oils supply two

Introduction to Crop Production 9

Agriculture Grade 11
essential fatty acids: linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids. They also supply
vitamins A, K, D and E. Oils and fats are composed of triglycerides.
Triglycerides are composed of glycerine and three fatty acids. A fatty acid
is generally composed of long chains of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
atoms..
1.4.3. Major fibre crops
Plant fibres are used for making clothing and in textile industry. Cotton lint
is the most important fibre for cloth-making. Plant fibers can be obtained
from cotton, inner barks of certain plant species: stems (flax, jute, hemp,
ramie, Kenaf, nettle, bamboo). Fibers obtained from cotton are used to
manufacture sewing threads and cloth. Fibers from barks of certain plants
are often used to manufacture packaging materials. Vegetable fibers such
as jute are often hard and used in rope manufacturing.
1.4.4. Major forage crops
Forage crops are plants used as food for livestock or farm animals.
The major forage crops include alfalfa, Sesbania sesban, Leucaena
leucocephala, clovers and Timothy. Elephant grass, Desho grass, Rhodes
grass, Panicum grass, Sudan grass and Johnson grass are other forage
crops. Cereal grain crops at their early growth stages might be used as
livestock feed. Plants used as livestock feed are often grown for their
vegetative parts such as roots, shoots, shoot buds and leaves. Forage crops
may be selected for the protein, fiber and nutrients they provide. Some
forage crops can provide farm animals with vitamins A and E, sodium,
potassium, calcium, phosphorus and magnesium.

Figure 1.4. a) Sunflower (oil crop), b) cotton (fibre crop) and c) tropical
grass (forage crop)

10 Introduction to Crop Production

 Agriculture Grade 11
1.4.5. Classification of crops into C3 and C4 plants
Crop plants transform carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere into
carbohydrates by the process of photosynthesis.

Key term:
Photosynthesis: is a process by which plants use sunlight, water and
carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of sugar.

Depending on their photosynthetic pathway, crop plants can be classified

into either C3 or C4 types. In the C3 photosynthetic pathway, the first stable
carbon compound formed from assimilation of carbon dioxide contains 3
carbon atoms. In the C4 photosynthetic pathway, the first stable carbon
compound formed from CO2 assimilation contains 4 carbon atoms. For
C3 plants, rates of photosynthesis increases with increased levels of CO2.
C4 plants have a mechanism to accumulate CO2 inside the chloroplast and
therefore their photosynthetic rates do not increase with an increase in CO2
levels. This means that C4 plants can reach higher photosynthetic rates
at low levels of CO2 while C3 plants cannot. This is because C3 plants
do not possess a CO2 accumulation mechanism. Moreover, C4 plants are
more efficient in using water and require less nitrogen compared to C3
plants. Generally, C4 plants have higher photosynthetic rates at a given
temperature, compared to C3 plants. Examples of C3 crops include: wheat,
barley, teff, soy bean, ground nut and sweet potato. Examples of C4 plants
are: sorghum, maize, sugar cane and most weed species.
Activity 1.3.
Group task
• Make a group of 3 to 5 students and visit a nearby market.
List the types of grain crops available at the market.
• Classify these grain crops in to the different categories and
submit the report to your teacher
• Climate change results from increased concentration of
CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. How
do C3 and C4 plants respond to increased CO2 that results
from climate change? Why? Submit written answers to
your teacher

Introduction to Crop Production 11

Agriculture Grade 11
1.5. Cropping Systems
Brainstorming 1.3
Answer the following questions. Compare your answers with your
classmates’.
1. What is a cropping system?
2. What are the major crops grown in your locality? Are the crops
grown every year on the same plot of land similar? Why?

Cropping system refers to the types and sequences of crops and the
different practices used to grow them. Different cropping systems require
different types of management and possess their own advantages and
disadvantages. There are several forms of cropping systems, including
mono cropping, mixed cropping (including intercropping and relay
planting) relay planting and crop rotation.
1.5.1. Mono cropping
Mono cropping is growing a single crop type in a given plot of land.
Mono cropping is commonly practiced in large scale commercial crop
production. Some smallholder crop production systems may also practice
mono cropping. In this system, a single crop species occupies the whole
farm. One disadvantage of mono cropping is the risk of total crop failure, as
a result of crop pests and diseases. Mono cropping also results in reduced
soil fertility. On the other hand, mono cropping has the advantage that it
enables farmers to use uniform management and increases the efficiency
of practices like planting and harvesting.
1.5.2. Mixed cropping
Mixed cropping is growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same
piece of land. Mixed cropping reduces the risk of total yield loss as the
farmer is not dependent on the yield of only one crop. Mixed cropping also
allows for more efficient use of soil nutrients, water and light radiation.
In addition, mixed cropping helps to break the cycle of crop pests and
diseases which are very common in mono cropping systems. The most
common types of mixed cropping are intercropping and relay planting.

12 Introduction to Crop Production

 Agriculture Grade 11
Intercropping
Intercropping is the planting of more than one crop in regular rows on the
same field at the same time. As shown in Figure 1.5, intercropping often
involves the planting of cereal crops such as maize alongside legumes.
Relay and intercropping systems provide better soil cover and reduce soil
erosion. Crop diseases also spread less rapidly in relay and intercropping
systems compared to the mono cropping systems.

Figure 1.5. Intercropping

Relay planting
Relay planting is where a second crop is planted after the first crop has
grown alone for a certain period. This system reduces the risk of total crop
failure as the farmer doesn’t depend on the yield of one crop only.
1.5.3. Crop rotation

Crop rotation is the practice of growing different crop species on the same
plot of land sequentially. For example, planting maize in the first season can
be followed by bean production in the next season, and cultivation of teff
in the third season. The sequence might be repeated many times. Rotations
could also involve more crop species depending on the environment. The
objectives in crop rotation include improving soil fertility, especially if
legumes are included in the rotation, and controlling of some crop pests
and diseases. On the other hand, crop rotation may also develop resistant
diseases and weeds. Besides, changing climates may be a challenge to crop
rotation.
Introduction to Crop Production 13
Agriculture Grade 11
1.6. Indigenous Knowledge in Crop Production
Brainstorming 1.4
Discuss the following questions in pairs.
1. What is indigenous knowledge? How different is indigenous
knowledge from scientific knowledge?
2. What indigenous knowledge is used in your locality to produce
crops?
3. Is indigenous knowledge sufficiently exploited in your locality?
If not, what are the reasons?
Indigenous knowledge is traditional or local knowledge. It is the knowledge
that local communities have accumulated over generations of living in
a particular geographic location. It is often referred to as ‘home grown’
or ‘local knowledge’ that is unique to a particular culture. Indigenous
knowledge often develops independently of scientific knowledge. It often
includes beliefs and traditions intended to preserve, communicate, and
contextualize indigenous relationships with culture and landscape over
time.
Indigenous knowledge often develops from agricultural production related
problems. These problems might include land becoming less fertile (land
degradation), soil erosion, changes to the climate, as well as working with
the natural physical features of an area (topography). Other issues such
as farmers having only small landholdings along with social and cultural
settings of the community.

Communities with indigenous knowledge possess knowledge about their

natural resources and environment based on a long period of observation
and experience. For example, indigenous knowledge about natural
resource management is vital among the Gumuz society. They believe that
natural resources are a gift, a blessing and creation of the Yamba (God).
They also believe that natural resources have been sources of livelihood
for the past, are sources of livelihood for the present generation and will
continue to be the sources for future generations. Conserving the natural
resource has an impact on the soil fertility, on the rainfall pattern and on
soil moisture and temperature. Overall, it improves crop productivity.

14 Introduction to Crop Production

 Agriculture Grade 11
Another popular example of indigenous knowledge is the traditional skills
in terracing demonstrated by the Konso people. Their land is extensively
terraced to protect against soil erosion. The Konso people also practice
traditional irrigation to supplement the unpredictable and variable
rainfall. These practices have helped to reduce soil erosion and maintain
soil quality.
Other examples of indigenous knowledge in agriculture include the
following:
ƒ Farmers in Bale prepare trench around potato plots to protect the
crop from porcupine attack.
ƒ In Gondar, farmers shift their barns from one farmland to another in
search of cow dung to fertilize the land.
ƒ Farmers in highland areas use kitchen ash to fertilize the soil and
reduce soil acidity and smoke to reduce frost damage

Activity 1.4.
Field Visit
• Visit villages in your vicinity in groups of 3 - 5 students
and ask the people (the elders, development agents, and/or
community leaders) about the indigenous knowledge they use
for crop production and how that has affected crop production.
Prepare a report on your findings and present it to the class for
discussion.

Introduction to Crop Production 15

Agriculture Grade 11

Unit Summary
In this unit you have learnt that:

 agriculture has gradually evolved from simple hunter-gatherer

form to a settled agriculture
 in shifting from primitive hunter-gatherer forms to a settled
agriculture, humans have selected crops for domestication based
on suitable features of the crops
 agriculture has passed through different phases of development
(Mechanical, Chemical, Biotechnology or Technology Era).
Each Era has had its own significant contribution to agricultural
productivity.
 low average national crop yields in Ethiopia are mainly attributed
to soil degradation, erosion, compaction, climate change and low
status of irrigation.
 crops are generally classified into food crops, oil crops, fiber crops
and forage crops depending on their end use.
 crop plants are also classified into C3 and C4 depending on their
photosynthetic pathways.
 C4 plants like maize and sorghum possess a mechanism
to accumulate CO2 in the chloroplast and can reach high
photosynthetic rates at low CO2 levels
 C3 plants cannot achieve high photosynthetic rates at low
concentration of CO2; they do not possess CO2 accumulation
mechanism.
 different cropping systems are recognized: mono cropping, mixed
cropping, relay planting and crop rotation.
 various indigenous knowledge practices that are very useful in
crop production as well as in agriculture in general exist in local
communities.

16 Introduction to Crop Production

 Agriculture Grade 11

Review Exercise
Part I: Choose the best answer from the given alternatives.
1. Which one of the following cereal grain crops is not grown widely in
in Ethiopia?
A. Teff C. Wheat
B. Maize D. Rice
2. What are the three major crops produced globally?
A. Maize, Teff and Wheat C. Maize, Barley and Wheat
B. Maize, Rice and Wheat D. Maize, Sorghum and Millet
3. Which one of the following crops is not a legume crop?
A. Lentil C. Beans
B. Teff D. A and C
4. Why are the national average yields of major cereals very low
compared to global yield levels?
A. Low soil fertility C. Low irrigation
B. Low fertilizer use D. All of these
5. Which one of these is not a major factor used in the selection of
crops for domestication?
A. Resistance to crop pests C. High yield
B. Attractive flavour D. Susceptible to crop pests
6. What is planting of two or more different crops on the same farm at
the same time called?
A. Crop rotation C. Relay cropping
B. Intercropping D. Mono cropping
7. Which one of the following is not a forage crop?
A. Alfalfa C. Cotton
B. Johnson grass D. Elephant grass
8. What is the name for knowledge that local people develop from
living in a particular location for long periods?
A. Modern knowledge C. Scientific knowledge
B. Indigenous knowledge D. Chemical knowledge

Introduction to Crop Production 17

Agriculture Grade 11
9. Which of the following is a C3 crop?
A. Sorghum C. Maize
B. Barley D. Sugar cane
10. What is the definition of forage crops?
A. A crop grown to provide animal feed
B. A crop grown to provide human food
C. Plants found by hunter-gatherers
D. Crops grown to produce industrial raw materials
Part II: Answer the following questions.
1. Write the definition of the following terms:
a. Agriculture
b. Shifting cultivation
c. Settled agriculture
d. Subsistence farming
2. Compare subsistence farming with commercial farming in terms of
inputs and outputs. Mention at least 4 points.
3. Over the last few decades, Ethiopian cereal production has generally
increased, but the yield per unit area has not increased as much as the
total yield. Explain why this is so?
4. What are the most common cropping systems? Describe the advantages
and disadvantages of each of these cropping systems.
5. How is indigenous knowledge useful in crop production? Give specific
examples.

18 Introduction to Crop Production

 Agriculture Grade 11

Field Crops Production

and Management

Contents Learning Outcomes

2.1. Cereal crops production and At the end of this unit, you will be
management able to:
2.2. Pulse crops production and  define field crops, cereal and
management pulse crops
 identify the major cereals and
pulses produced in Ethiopia,
describe their uses and
management
 describe the status of cereal and
pulse crops production
 explain the growth requirements
of the major cereals and pulses
produced in Ethiopia

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2.1. Cereal Crops Production and Management
Brainstorming 2.1.
Discuss the following questions in pairs.
1. What types of food crops do you know?
2. What are cereal crops? Give three examples.
3. Name cereal crops produced in your locality.
4. What uses of cereal crops do you know, apart from their
use as food?

Crop production is influenced by various factors. Some of the factors are

under the farmer’s control. Others cannot be fully controlled by the farmer.
Selection of crop site is the principal factor that determines crop production.
Crop selection requires knowledge of the crop requirement. Knowledge of
soil properties, water and other growth factors is important in crop site
selection. The soil type suitable for root or tuber crops is different from that
of cereal or legume crops. It is important to select the best crop type that
best fits the soil selected for the crop.

The farmer also needs to decide the amount of land to allocate for a
specific crop and the types of management needed for a maximum yield.
The management practices include;

ƒ appropriate planting time

ƒ deciding planting distance
ƒ pest control strategies
ƒ deciding when to harvest
ƒ post-harvest management
The farmer is also able to control the type and amounts of agricultural
inputs to use. This could include:

ƒ fertilizer to improve the nutrients available in the soil

ƒ irrigation to supplement rainfall
ƒ adding lime to modify the acidity of the soil.
However, there are crop production factors that cannot be manipulated by
the farmer. For example, the unexpected end of favorable weather may
20 Field Crops Production and Management
 Agriculture Grade 11

result in a huge crop loss. Similarly, a locust invasion cannot be planned

for ahead of time.

Field crops

Field crops are crops grown on a wide scale mainly for human consumption.
These crops are annuals which means that they complete a life cycle in a
single season. The major field crops are classified into two major groups
called cereals and pulses (legumes).
Cereals are crops with grass characteristics grown mainly for their edible
seeds. Cereals can grow in a wide range of environmental conditions, from
low lands to highlands and in different soil types and climates. Cereal
crops are monocots, which means that their seeds have a single cotyledon
(embryonic leaf). As a result, during emergence they produce a single leaf.
These crops contain:
 carbohydrates
 proteins
 fats
 fibers

The five major cereal crops produced in Ethiopia are teff, maize, wheat,
barley and sorghum.

2.1.1. Teff (Eragrostis abyssinica (Zucc.) Trotter)

Teff is a cereal crop that is native to Ethiopia where it is used as staple

food. It is used as livestock feed in South Africa. Teff is a very nutritious
cereal crop preferred by many people to other cereal crops. Moreover, teff
does not contain gluten, which causes allergy in some people. Maize and
sorghum are other examples of cereals that do not contain gluten. Teff is
now a high value cereal food crop being used even outside Ethiopia. In
addition to the seeds that are consumed as food by humans, teff straw is
also a valuable feed for animals. It is a high value crop with high price
compared to other cereals and has a high acceptability by consumers. Also,
teff can be stored for a long time. Compared to other cereals, teff is less
affected by pests and diseases. These qualities make the crop reliable with

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Agriculture Grade 11

low levels of risk compared to other cereals.

Production and management

Teff can grow in wide range of environments including low fertility soils,
soils with excessive moisture content and areas with moisture shortage.
The crop can grow at altitudes ranging from the sea level to 2800 meters
above the sea level. The major teff producing areas have altitudes between
1500 and 2800 meters above the sea level. Teff performs well on loam and
clay soils, which have high nutrient contents and water storage capacity.
Teff ranks first in terms of the area of production in Ethiopia.

Land preparation: teff has smaller grain size than most cereals. As a
result, it requires very smooth seed bed. For teff production, the soil is
usually cultivated 4 or 5 times and leveled before planting. Soils used for
teff production should be free from weeds and other crop pests. Due to the
small size of the seeds, teff plots should be smooth with no large soil clods.
Usually animals are driven on the surface to achieve the smooth seedbed
that teff requires.

Planting: teff is often planted by broadcasting seeds (seeds are randomly

spread over the farm) on the smooth plots. Row planting, where seeds are
planted on the plots with regular spacing, is also becoming common these
days using a spacing of 20 cm between rows and drilling the seeds inside
planting rows. After planting, branches could be dragged across or flock
of animals could be driven on the surface of the soil to cover the seeds.
Shallow furrows are usually made at an interval of 3 to 6 meters for draining
(removing) excess moisture from the teff plots. The most common planting
time is July/August. Teff is usually harvested in November/December in
the highland areas and earlier in mid and lowland areas.

Fertilization: 60 kg nitrogen and 26 kg phosphorus per hectare is usually

applied for teff production. Fertilizer application should be determined by
the soil fertility level of the teff plots. Fertile soils may not require as much
fertilizer.

Weed and disease management: teff competes poorly with weeds

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 Agriculture Grade 11
particularly at early seedling stage. This means early weeding is important
to ensure good growth of the crop. Usually manual weeding is done about
a month after planting. Chemicals are also used to control different types
of weeds. For example, the herbicide 2,4-D is used to control broad leaf
weeds in teff fields. Teff could also be affected by fungal diseases when
excess water accumulates in the soil.

Harvesting:teff crop is ready for harvest when the stems and panicle turn
yellow. Average national yield for teff is about 14.6 quintals (1.46 t) per
hectare. Nutritionally, teff is a rich source of carbohydrates, proteins and
fats. The crop is also a good source of mineral nutrients like iron, calcium
and magnesium.

2.1.2. Maize (Zea mays L.)

Maize most likely originated in Central America. From there, it was

introduced to other parts of the world including Latin American and Africa.
Maize is widely produced in various agro ecologies. It has the following
beneficial features:

 gives high yield per unit area

 the seeds are covered by husk, protecting it from rain and birds
 does not shatter (lose seeds up on drying) so can be harvested at
late maturity as there is no shattering loss

Maize is mainly produced for its seeds to be used as a staple food. It is also
used as animal feed when green or after drying. Maize residues (the straw
and cobs) are used as firewood in rural areas. Maize is also used in the
production of starch and oil in industries.

Production and management

Maize grows in a wide range of environments with suitable altitudes

varying from 500 to 2400 meters above sea level. In Ethiopia, maize yields
per unit area are the highest compared to other cereals. Maize ranks second
to teff in area of production in Ethiopia. Loam soils that do not accumulate
excess moisture are better for maize production. Maize is planted as a
mono crop or as a mixed crop with legumes such as haricot beans and
cereals, such as teff.
Field Crops Production and Management 23
Agriculture Grade 11

Land preparation: usually the soil is plowed 2 or 3 times before planting

maize. Sometimes, planting can be done after plowing the soil only once
or twice if chemicals are used to control weeds.

Planting: row planting is usually used at a spacing of 25 cm between seeds

and 75 cm between planting rows. Depth of seed sowing is from 5 to 7 cm.
The most common maize planting time is at the start of the rainy season
(March to April).

Fertilization: farmers usually apply 41 kg nitrogen and 20 kg phosphorus

per hectare for maize. However, fertilization rates should be determined by
the level of fertility of the soils used for maize production.

Weed, insect pest and disease management: weeds are controlled either
by manual weeding 2 to 3 times during the growing season or using chemical
herbicides to prevent and kill weeds. Two main types of herbicides are
used: pre emergence (such as Atrazine, which are used before the weeds
emerge aboveground) and post emergence (like 2,4-D, which are used after
the weed has emerged aboveground). Common insects that attack maize
include maize stalk borer, aphids, army worm and weevil.

Maize can also be affected by fungal (rust, gray leaf spot and blight) and
viral diseases such as strike virus. These can be controlled by using crop
rotation instead of mono cropping and modifying the planting time to
reduce the damage from these diseases.

Around a month after planting, earthing up (piling soil around the plants)
helps to reduce maize plants falling (lodging) due to wind.

Harvesting: There are different maize varieties which require different

times to reach maturity. Early maturing varieties could reach harvest in
3 months while late maturing ones could take up to 5 months to mature.
Maize is ready for harvest when the seeds develop a black layer at the
bottom tip. When harvested, maize grains often have a moisture content of
about 25% and for suitable storage, the grain moisture has to be reduced
to 13% or lower by harvesting when grain moisture content is close to this
value or drying the grains so that the required moisture content is achieved.
Average national yield of maize is 32.5 quintals (3.25 t) per hectare.
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 Agriculture Grade 11
Nutritionally, maize is an important source of carbohydrates, proteins and
fats.

Figure 2.1. a) Teff and b) maize crops.

2.1.3. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

Wheat is a cereal crop believed to have originated in the Asian continent
mainly in China, Pakistan and India, from where it spread to other parts
of the world. Globally, it is the most important cereal followed by rice and
maize. Wheat is an important food crop for humans as it is used to make
bread, macaroni, spaghetti and other food types.
Production and management

Wheat requires cool weather to grow. In Ethiopia, it grows widely at

altitudes ranging from 1800 to 3000 meters above sea level. Well drained,
loamy and fertile soils (black, red and brown soils) are suitable for wheat
production. Wheat is usually rotated with lentils, pea, teff and potato.

Land preparation: wheat is often planted after the soil has been cultivated
2 or 3 times.

Planting: Wheat is usually planted both as broadcast and using row

planting at a spacing of about 25 cm between planting rows. Seeds are
often sown at a depth of about 5 cm. The most common planting time is
between June and July.

Fertilization: farmers usually use 45 kg nitrogen and 25 kg phosphorus

per hectare. However, fertilization rates should be governed by the level
of soil fertility.

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Agriculture Grade 11
Weed, insect pest and disease management: wheat is affected by various
types of weeds. Weed control often involves manual weeding starting
about a month after planting and sometimes chemicals like 2,4-D are
used to control broad leaf weeds. Fungal diseases such as rust and smut
are common particularly in warm areas with high humidity. These can be
controlled by crop rotation, using wheat varieties which are resistant to
disease and modifying the planting time so that most susceptible stage of
the plant does not match with peak occurrence of a certain disease.
Harvesting: wheat is ready for harvest when it dries to a golden yellow
color and there are no green parts left on the plant. The national average
yield for wheat is 24.5 quintals (2.45 t) per hectare. Wheat is an important
source of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and fiber.
2.1.4. Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)

Barley is believed to have originated in the Middle East and spread to other
parts of the world. Growth requirements of barley are comparable to that
of wheat. Barley is used as human food, and its residue is used as livestock
feed. Barley is also used for malting during the production of alcoholic
beverages. Malting is a process of controlled germination for producing
enzymes that convert cereal starch to sugars. The sugars produced are
fermented to produce alcohol.

Production and management

Barley grows at altitudes ranging between 2200 and 3000 meters above
sea level. Well-drained loam soils are suitable for barley production.

Land preparation: barley requires soil to be cultivated 2 to 3 times before

planting, similar to wheat.

Planting: barley is planted either as broadcast or row planting where seeds

are drilled inside planting rows with 25 cm spacing between rows. Seeds
are planted at a depth of about 5 cm.

Fertilization: farmers usually use 60 kg nitrogen and 26 kg phosphorus

per hectare for food barley production. However, for barley used for
malting purpose, the nitrogen application rate has to be reduced because

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 Agriculture Grade 11
high levels of nitrogen application reduces the malt quality.

Weed, insect pest and disease management: most of the weeds and
diseases that affect wheat also affect barley. Therefore, the control measures
that are used to control these weeds and diseases are also usually similar,
including the use of resistant varieties, crop rotation and changing planting
times. Army worm, grasshopper and barley shoot fly are the major insect
pests affecting barley production..

Harvesting: barley usually matures in 3 to 4 months. As with wheat, the

indicator for maturity is drying and yellowing of the plant. The national
average yield of barley is 19 quintals (1.9 t) per hectare. Nutritionally,
barley is a source of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and fiber.

Figure 2.2. a) barley and b) wheat crops

2.1.5. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.)

Sorghum is a cereal crop which originated in Africa. It is a staple food crop

in the drier parts of Africa. Sorghum stalk is used as animal feed and for
construction of fences and houses in rural Ethiopia.

Production and management

Most sorghum producing areas in Ethiopia have altitudes ranging between

500 and 1500 meters above the sea level. The crop gives reasonable yields
on soils that are too poor for other crops. Well-drained, fertile clay soils are
suitable for sorghum production. This crop is well-adapted to drier parts
of the country. Sorghum has the capacity to remain dormant during dry
periods and resume growth as soon as soil moisture becomes sufficient. As
a result, this crop is usually called ‘the camel crop’. It is often rotated with
haricot bean, soybean, sesame and cotton.
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Agriculture Grade 11
Land preparation: it is necessary to cultivate the soil 2 or 3 times before
planting sorghum.

Planting: sorghum is planted either as broadcast or sown in planting rows

at a spacing of 0.5 to 1 meter between rows and about 40 cm between
plants. Seeds are sown at a depth of about 2.5 cm. The most common
planting time is March to May. Earthling up is usually done about a month
after planting to help the plant resist lodging due to wind.

Fertilization: 32 kg of nitrogen and 10 kg of phosphorus per hectare are

often used for sorghum production. Fertilization rates, however, should be
determined based on the local soil fertility levels.

Weed, insect pest and disease management: a parasitic weed called

striga is the major weed affecting sorghum production. Striga weed causes
massive yield losses in sorghum producing areas. To reduce the damage,
hand weeding should be carried out before the sorghum starts producing
seeds. Manual weeding should be combined with crop rotation and the use
of varieties of sorghum that are resistant to pests. Sorghum is also affected
by insect pests and birds. Fungal diseases like smut also affect sorghum. In
general, pests and diseases control in sorghum production should involve
an integrated use of crop rotation, use of resistant varieties and chemical
methods.

Harvesting: sorghum matures in about 4 months. It is harvested when the

grains start to dry and often grain moisture content drops to about 30%
when the crop is mature. The average national yield for sorghum is 23
quintals (2.3 t) per hectare.

Figure 2.3. Different colored grains of Sorghum

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 Agriculture Grade 11

2.2. Pulse Crops Production and Management

Brainstorming 2.2.
Group discussion
1. What are pulse crops? Give three examples.
2. How are pulse crops different from cereals?
3. What pulse crops are produced in your localities?

Pulses are seeds of legume crops that are grown mainly for their edible
seeds. These crops are consumed as dry seeds rich in protein or as immature
pods used as vegetables. Pulses are also used as a source of animal feed.
Pulse crops are dicots, meaning that the seeds contain two cotyledons
(embryonic leaves). Many pulses assist with nitrogen fixation. This means
that these plants fix atmospheric nitrogen into the soil through their root
nodules. This nitrogen is then available for subsequent crops. For this
reason, pulses can be used in crop rotations to improve the fertility of soil.
Pulses can also be used in mixed cropping with cereals in order to improve
the yield of the cereal crop. In Ethiopia, pulses are mostly produced without
mineral fertilizer application. In some cases, organic fertilizers, such as
animal manure are used. Compared to cereals, soil cultivation is generally
minimal – soil may be cultivated once or direct planting takes place, with
no soil cultivation. These factors, together with poor weed control in grain
legumes, have resulted in low yields from these crops in Ethiopia. The
major pulse crops in Ethiopia are faba bean, field pea and haricot bean.
2.2.1. Faba bean (Vicia faba L.)
Faba bean is believed to have originated in the Mediterranean region and
spread to other parts of the world. It is mainly produced for its edible seeds.
Faba bean is also used as vegetable at the green stage. It grows well in
altitudes ranging from 1800 to 3000 meters above the sea level. Well-
drained clay soils are suitable for production of faba bean.
Planting: Faba bean is planted both by broadcasting and in rows at a
spacing of 40 cm between rows and 5 to 10 cm between plants.
Weed, insect pest and disease management: faba bean is affected by
weeds, fungal diseases and insects such as African ball worm and aphids.

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Agriculture Grade 11
Control measures should involve integrated use of hand weeding (twice
in 6 weeks after planting), crop rotation, ensuring a clean seedbed and the
use of chemicals.
Harvesting: faba bean is ready for harvest when the leaves fall off and the
pods (structures containing the seeds) dry and change color from green to
black. If faba bean is grown for use as vegetable, it should be harvested
when it reaches the green stage (immature pods). The average national
yield for faba bean is 19 quintals (1.9 t) per hectare.
2.2.2 Field pea (Pisum sativum L.)

field pea is produced for its edible seeds which are rich in protein. It is
also an important source of animal feed. It can be planted as a mono crop
or mixed with faba bean. It is usually grown in rotation with cereals like
teff, wheat and barley. It grows well in altitudes ranging between 1800 and
3000 meters above sea level.

Planting: field pea is often planted by broadcasting or using row planting

at a spacing of 30 cm between rows and 5 to 10 cm between plants.

Weed, insect pest and disease management: weeds, insect pests (aphids,
African ball worm) and fungal diseases affect the productivity of field peas
and integrated control involving manual weeding (starting around 4 weeks

after planting), crop rotation and chemical methods are used.

Harvesting: field pea is harvested once the pod is mature and the seeds
are sufficiently hard. Delay in harvesting time causes seed loss from pods
(shattering). The average national yield for field peas is 14 quintals (1.4 t)
per hectare.

30 Field Crops Production and Management

 Agriculture Grade 11

Figure 2.4: a) Faba bean plants, b) faba bean seeds, c) field pea plants and
d) field pea seeds
2.2.3. Haricot beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)
Haricot bean (common bean) originated in Mexico and spread to other
regions of the world. It is produced for its edible seeds. The immature
pods of the haricot bean are consumed as a vegetable. It can also be used
as animal feed. Haricot bean grows well in most soil types and in altitude
between 1400 and 2000 meters above sea level. Haricot bean is usually
grown as mono crop or mixed with cereals such as maize and sorghum. It
is grown in rotation with teff, maize and sorghum. Haricot bean seeds can
be red, brown, white or gray. It is an important export crop in Ethiopia.
Planting: haricot bean can be sown by broadcasting or in rows. When in
rows, commonly used spacing is 40 cm between rows and 10 cm between
plants. In intercropping, usually the spacing between plants is maintained
(10 cm) and the rows of haricot bean come between rows of maize or
sorghum. Animal manure is usually used for fertilization.

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Agriculture Grade 11
Weed and insect pest management: to control weed problems, the
seedbed should be clean and manual weeding should be carried out within 4
weeks of planting. The crop is susceptible to storage pests such as weevils.
To control storage pests, the grains are dried until the moisture content is
below 12% and chemical treatment of the grains is used.

Harvesting: haricot beans mature within 3 to 4 months. The crop is ready

for harvest when the leaves fall off and the pods turn yellow and start to
dry. If produced for use as vegetable, the pods should be harvested when
they are green (immature). The national average yield for haricot beans is
14 quintals (1.4 t) per hectare.

Figure 2.5: a) Haricot bean plants and b) Haricot bean seed

Activity 2.1.
Form a group of 3 to 5 students, and visit nearby
farmers.
• Ask about the types of crop they produce. Are these
crops all cereals? Are legumes produced in the
area? If yes, which ones?
• Ask about the farmers’ management practices (e.g.,
land preparation, seed selection, harvesting, etc.).
• Share the results of your visit with your classmates.

Activity 2.2.
Pair work
• In pairs, discuss the differences and similarities between
cereal and pulse crops. Give examples of each. Share
your discussion results with student pairs sitting next to
you.

32 Field Crops Production and Management