Phytoremediation Guide

United States Solid Waste and EPA 542-B-99-003
Environmental Protection Emergency Response June 1999

Agency (5102G) www.epa.gov/tio
clu-in.org
Phytoremediation Resource
Guide
EPA 542-B-99-003
June 1999
Phytoremediation Resource Guide
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
Technology Innovation Office
Washington, DC 20460
Notice
This resource guide was prepared by: Environmental Management Support, Inc., 8601 Georgia
Avenue, Suite 500, Silver Spring, MD 20910 under contract 68-W6-0014, work assignments 73 and
94, with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Mention of trade names or commercial products
does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. For more information about this project
contact: Dawn Carroll, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (5102G), Technology Innovation Office,
401 M Street, SW, Washington, DC 20460, 703-603-1234, e-mail: [email protected].
FOREWORD
Identifying and accessing pertinent information resources that will help site cleanup managers evaluate
innovative technologies is key to the broader use of these technologies. This Guide is intended to
increase awareness about technical information and specialized resources related to phytoremediation
technologies.
Specifically, this document identifies a cross section of information intended to aid users in remedial
decision-making, including abstracts of field demonstrations, research documents, and information to
assist in the ordering of publications. In addition, the look-up format of this document allows the user
to quickly scan available resources and access more detailed abstracts.
Please let us know about additional information that could make this Guide (and others in the series)
more useful to you. This and the other reports listed below are available to the public from the
Technology Innovation Office Home Page: http://www.epa.gov/tio.
Bioremediation Resource Guide

Groundwater Treatment Technology Resource Guide
Physical/Chemical Treatment Technology Resource Guide
Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE) Enhancement Technology Resource Guide
Soil Vapor Extraction Treatment Technology Resource Guide
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
HOW TO ORDER DOCUMENTS LISTED IN THIS GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY AND MATRIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
ABSTRACTS OF PHYTOREMEDIATION RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Publications Containing Multiple Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Organic Contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Overviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Field Studies and Demonstrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Publications Containing Multiple Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Inorganic Contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Overviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Field Studies and Demonstrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Publications Containing Multiple Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Internet Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
ii
INTRODUCTION
EPA is committed to identifying the most effective and efficient means of addressing the thousands of
hazardous waste sites in the United States. Therefore, the Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response’s (OSWER’s) Technology Innovation Office (TIO) is working in conjunction with the EPA
Regions and research centers and with industry to identify and encourage the further development and
implementation of innovative treatment technologies.
One way to encourage the use of these technologies is to ensure that decision-makers are aware of the
most current information on technologies, policies, and other sources of assistance. This Guide was
prepared to help identify documents that can directly assist Federal and State site managers,
contractors, and others responsible for the evaluation of technologies. Specifically, this Guide is
designed to help those responsible for the remediation of RCRA, UST, and CERCLA sites that may
employ phytoremediation technologies.
This Guide provides abstracts of over 100 phytoremediation overviews, field studies and
demonstrations, research articles, and Internet resources. It also provides a brief summary of
phytoremediation. Finally, a matrix is also provided to allow easy screening of the abstracted
references.
To develop this Guide, a literature search using relevant terms was conducted on a variety of
commercial and Federal databases including:
& National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
& Energy Science and Technology
& Enviroline
& Water Resources Abstracts
& Pollution Abstracts.
In addition, Internet resources yielded numerous citations. These Internet resources include:
& U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
http://www.epa.gov
& U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Phytoremediation Research
http://www.wes.army.mil/EL/phyto
& U.S. Army Environmental Center
http://aec-www.apgea.army.mil:8080
& Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence
http://www.afcee.brooks.af.mil
& U.S. Department of Energy
http://www.doe.gov
& U.S. Department of Agriculture
http://www.usda.gov
& The Hazardous Waste Clean-Up Information Home Page
http://clu-in.org
& The Ground Water Remediation Technologies Analysis Center
http://www.gwrtac.org
iii
& The Remediation Technologies Development Forum
http://www.rtdf.org
& The Great Plains/Rocky Mountain Hazardous Substance Research Center
http://www.engg.ksu.edu/HSRC
& The Phytoremediation Electronic Newsgroup Network
http://www.dsa.unipr.it/phytonet
& The Interstate Technology and Regulatory Cooperation Working Group
http://www.sso.org/ecos/itrc
& Battelle
http://www.battelle.org
The selected references are not an exhaustive list of all available literature, but rather a representative
sample of available print and Internet resources. For a more extensive list of phytoremediation
resources, visit the Remediation Technologies Development Forum, Phytoremediation of Organics
Action Team’s Home Page at http://www.rtdf.org/public/phyto. The Remediation Technologies
Development Forum is a public-private partnership operated by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. The Phytoremediation of Organics Action Team includes representatives from industry and
government who share an interest in further developing and evaluating the use of plants and trees to
remediate contaminated soil and water. The Action Team has compiled a bibliography containing over
1,400 citations of peer-reviewed journal articles, presentations and posters from conferences, book
chapters, and articles from newspapers and magazines. The bibliography may be viewed or searched
online.
Due to the inherent lag time between document publication and subsequent listing in electronic
databases, there may be more recent references available than those included in the Guide. Most of the
references in the Guide are of documents published between 1994 and 1998. The documents selected
are available from suppliers such as EPA’s National Service Center for Environmental Publications, the
National Technical Information Service, document delivery services, and a variety of libraries.
Descriptions of specific technologies and methodologies in this Guide does not represent an
endorsement by EPA.
iv
HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE
When using this Guide to identify resource information on phytoremediation technologies, you may
wish to take the following steps:
1. Turn to the Phytoremediation Resource Matrix located on pages ix through xxii of this Guide.
This matrix lists all abstracted resources alphabetically by document type, identifies the type of
information provided by each document, and provides a document ordering number when
available. Documents in the matrix are divided into the following topical categories: general
information, organic contaminants, inorganic contaminants, and Internet resources.
2. Select the documents that appear to fit your needs based on the information in the matrix.
3. Check the page number provided in the matrix. This refers to the page number of the document
abstract in the Guide.
4. Review the abstract that corresponds to the document in which you are interested to confirm that
the document will fit your needs.
5. If the document appears to be appropriate, note the document number highlighted under the
abstract. For example:
EPA Document Number: EPA 542-R-97-004
[Note: Some documents do not have ordering numbers. These documents can be obtained through
local, technical, or university libraries.]
6. Turn to the section entitled “How to Order Documents Listed in this Guide” on page vi of this
Guide and order your document using the directions provided.
v
HOW TO ORDER DOCUMENTS LISTED IN THIS GUIDE
Documents listed in this Guide are available through a variety of sources. When ordering documents
listed in the Abstracts section of this Guide, use the number listed in the bar below the document title,
or refer to the source indicated as part of the citation. If using the Phytoremediation Resource
Matrix, use the page number listed with the document title to refer to the complete citation and
abstract. EPA 542 documents may be obtained through the National Service Center for Environmental
Publications (NSCEP), and EPA 530 documents may be obtained from the RCRA Information Center
(RIC). These document repositories provide in-stock documents free of charge, but document supplies
may be limited. Documents obtained through the National Technical Information Service (NTIS) are
available for a fee; therefore, prior to purchasing a document through NTIS, you may wish to review a
copy at a technical or university library, or a public library that houses government documents.
Document Type Document Source

Publication numbers with the following prefixes: National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
5285 Port Royal Road
AD Springfield, VA 22161
DE Tel: 1-800-553-NTIS
PB Fax: (703) 605-6900
Internet: http://www.ntis.gov/
NTIS provides documents for a fee.
Publications numbers beginning with: National Service Center for Environmental

Publications (NSCEP)
EPA 542 P.O. Box 42419
Cincinnati, OH 45242-2419
Tel: 1-800-490-9198
Fax: (513) 489-8695
Internet: http://www.epa.gov/ncepihom/
A document title or number is needed to place an order with NSCEP.

Some out-of-stock documents may be purchased from NTIS.
Publications numbers beginning with: RCRA Information Center (RIC)

401 M St., SW Mailcode: 5305
EPA 530 Washington, DC 20460
Tel: (703) 603-9230
Fax: (703) 603-9234
Internet: http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/general/
ricorder.htm
vi
TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY
Phytoremediation is the direct use of living plants for in situ remediation of contaminated soil, sludges,
sediments, and ground water through contaminant removal, degradation, or containment. Growing and,
in some cases, harvesting plants on a contaminated site as a remediation method is an aesthetically
pleasing, solar-energy driven, passive technique that can be used to clean up sites with shallow, low to
moderate levels of contamination. This technique can be used along with or, in some cases, in place of
mechanical cleanup methods. Phytoremediation can be used to clean up metals, pesticides, solvents,
explosives, crude oil, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and landfill leachates.
Phytoremediation has been studied extensively in research and small-scale demonstrations, but full-
scale applications are currently limited in number. Further development and research of the
mechanisms described below likely will lead to wider acceptance and use of phytoremediation.
Phytoremediation is a general term for several ways in which plants are used to remediate sites by
removing pollutants from soil and water. Plants can degrade organic pollutants or contain and stabilize
metal contaminants by acting as filters or traps. Some of the methods that are being tested are described
below.
Phytoextraction Phytoextraction, also called phytoaccumulation, refers to the uptake and

translocation of metal contaminants in the soil by plant roots into the
aboveground portions of the plants. Certain plants called hyperaccumulators
absorb unusually large amounts of metals in comparison to other plants. One or
a combination of these plants is selected and planted at a site based on the type
of metals present and other site conditions. After the plants have been allowed
to grow for several weeks or months, they are harvested and either incinerated
or composted to recycle the metals. This procedure may be repeated as
necessary to bring soil contaminant levels down to allowable limits. If plants
are incinerated, the ash must be disposed of in a hazardous waste landfill, but
the volume of ash will be less than 10% of the volume that would be created if
the contaminated soil itself were dug up for treatment.
Rhizofiltration Rhizofiltration is the adsorption or precipitation onto plant roots or absorption

into the roots of contaminants that are in solution surrounding the root zone.
The plants to be used for cleanup are raised in greenhouses with their roots in
water rather than in soil. To acclimate the plants once a large root system has
been developed, contaminated water is collected from a waste site and brought
to the plants where it is substituted for their water source. The plants are then
planted in the contaminated area where the roots take up the water and the
contaminants along with it. As the roots become saturated with contaminants,
they are harvested and either incinerated or composted to recycle the
contaminants.
Phytostabilization Phytostabilization is the use of certain plant species to immobilize contaminants

in the soil and ground water through absorption and accumulation by roots,
vii
adsorption onto roots, or precipitation within the root zone. This process
reduces the mobility of the contaminant and prevents migration to the ground
water or air, and it reduces bioavailability for entry into the food chain. This
technique can be used to reestablish a vegetative cover at sites where natural
vegetation is lacking due to high metal concentrations in surface soils or
physical disturbances to surficial materials. Metal-tolerant species can be used
to restore vegetation to the sites, thereby decreasing the potential migration of
contamination through wind erosion, transport of exposed surface soils, and
leaching of soil contamination to ground water.
Phytodegradation Phytodegradation, also called phytotransformation, is the breakdown of

contaminants taken up by plants through metabolic processes within the plant,
or the breakdown of contaminants external to the plant through the effect of
compounds (such as enzymes) produced by the plants. Pollutants are degraded,
incorporated into the plant tissues, and used as nutrients.
Rhizodegradation Rhizodegradation, also called enhanced rhizosphere biodegradation,

phytostimulation, or plant-assisted bioremediation/degradation, is the
breakdown of contaminants in the soil through microbial activity that is
enhanced by the presence of the rhizosphere and is a much slower process than
phytodegradation. Microorganisms (yeast, fungi, or bacteria) consume and
digest organic substances for nutrition and energy. Certain microorganisms can
digest organic substances such as fuels or solvents that are hazardous to
humans and break them down into harmless products through biodegradation.
Natural substances released by the plant roots—sugars, alcohols, and
acids—contain organic carbon that provides food for soil microorganisms, and
the additional nutrients enhance their activity. Biodegradation is also aided by
the way plants loosen the soil and transport water to the area.
Phytovolatilization Phytovolatilization is the uptake and transpiration of a contaminant by a plant,

with release of the contaminant or a modified form of the contaminant to the
atmosphere from the plant. Phytovolatilization occurs as growing trees and
other plants take up water and the organic contaminants. Some of these
contaminants can pass through the plants to the leaves and volatilize into the
atmosphere at comparatively low concentrations.
viii
PHYTOREMEDIATION RESOURCE MATRIX
The Phytoremediation Resource Matrix displays summary information on references listed in the Abstracts section of the Guide with the
exception of publications containing multiple papers. Both the Matrix and Abstracts sections are organized using the same contaminant-based
categories. Internet Resources are listed in a separate matrix following printed references. The first column of the Matrix displays the
document title, ordering number (when applicable), and page number of the full abstract in the Abstracts section. The second column
(Technology Type) lists the technologies that the article addresses. Definitions for these technologies can be found in the Technology Summary
on page vii. Column three denotes the media treated, and column four denotes the contaminants treated.
Technology Media Contaminants

Type
Ground Water
Radionuclides
Explosives
Herbicides
Pesticides/
Document Title
Organics
Metals
Document Ordering Number
Soil
[Abstract Page Number in Guide]
GENERAL INFORMATION
The 1998 United States Market for Phytoremediation [1] Unspecified q q q q
The Advancement of Phytoremediation as an Innovative Unspecified
Environmental Technology for Stabilization, Remediation, or
Restoration of Contaminated Sites in Canada: A Discussion Paper
q q q q
[2]
Bioremediation and Phytoremediation Glossary [2] Unspecified q q q q

A Citizen’s Guide to Phytoremediation [2]
EPA 542-F-98-011
Unspecified
q q q q q q
Compost-Enhanced Phytoremediation of Contaminated Soil [2]
EPA 530-R-98-008
Unspecified
q q q
Introduction to Phytoremediation [2] Unspecified q q q q
ix
Type
Ground Water
Radionuclides
Explosives
Herbicides
Pesticides/
Document Title
Organics
Metals
Soil
Legal and Social Concerns to the Development of Bioremediation Unspecified
Technologies [3] q q q q
DE96015254
Phytoremediation [3]
EPA 625-K-96-001
Unspecified
q q q q
Phytoremediation [3] Unspecified q q q q
Phytoremediation: A Clean Transition from Laboratory to
Marketplace? [3]
Phytoremediation: A New Technology Gets Ready to Bloom [3] Unspecified q q q q

Phytoremediation Bibliography [4] Unspecified q q q q
Phytoremediation Field Demonstrations in the U.S. EPA SITE
Program [4]
Phytoextraction
q q q q
Phytoremediation: It Grows on You [4] Unspecified q q q q
Phytoremediation on the Brink of Commercialization [4] Unspecified q q q q
Phytoremediation: Technology Overview Report [5] Unspecified q q q q
Phytoremediation: Using Green Plants to Clean Up Contaminated
Soil, Groundwater, and Wastewater [5]
Phytostabilization
q q q q
Remediation Technologies Screening Matrix and Reference Guide
[5]
Unspecified
q q q q
x
Type
Ground Water
Radionuclides
Explosives
Herbicides
Pesticides/
Document Title
Organics
Metals
Soil
Stemming the Toxic Tide [5] Phytoextraction q q q q
Technology Evaluation Report: Phytoremediation [6] Unspecified q q q q
Using Phytoremediation to Clean Up Contamination at Military Unspecified
Installations [6] q q q q q
DE97007971
xi
Type
Ground Water
Radionuclides
Explosives
Herbicides
Pesticides/
Document Title
Organics
Metals
Soil
ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS
Overviews
Mechanisms of Phytoremediation: Biochemical and Ecological
Interactions Between Plants and Bacteria [7]
Rhizodegradation
q q
Phytoremediation of TCE in Groundwater Using Populus [8] Phytodegradation
Phytovolatilization q q
Field Studies and Demonstrations
Demonstration Plan for Phytoremediation of Explosive-Contamina- Phytodegradation
ted Groundwater in Constructed Wetlands at Milan Army
Ammunition Plant, Milan, Tennessee. Volumes 1 and 2. Final q q
Report [8]
ADA311121/8/XAB, ADA311122/6/XAB
Evaluation of Various Organic Fertilizer Substrates and Hydraulic Phytodegradation

Retention Times for Enhancing Anaerobic Degradation of
Explosives-Contaminated Groundwater While Using Constructed
Wetlands at the Milan Army Ammunition Plant, Milan, Tennessee q q
[8]
ADA349293
Field Scale Evaluation of Grass-Enhanced Bioremediation of PAH

Contaminated Soils [8]
Rhizodegradation
q q
Friendly Forests [9] Phytostabilization
Phytodegradation q q q
Rhizodegradation
xii
Type
Ground Water
Radionuclides
Explosives
Herbicides
Pesticides/
Document Title
Organics
Metals
Soil
Groundwater Phytoremediation Test Facility, University of
Washington [9]
Rhizofiltration
q q
Phreatophyte Influence on Reductive Dechlorination in a Shallow
Aquifer Containing TCE [9]
Rhizodegradation
q q
Phytoremediation of Dissolved-Phase Trichloroethylene Using
Mature Vegetation [10]
Phytovolatilization
q q
Phytoremediation of Groundwater at Avesta Sheffield Pipe [10] Unspecified q q q
Phytoremediation of Organic and Nutrient Contaminants [10] Phytodegradation q q q q
Pilot-Scale Use of Trees to Address VOC Contamination [10] Phytodegradation q q
Screening of Aquatic and Wetland Plant Species for Phytoremedia- Phytodegradation
tion of Explosives-Contaminated Groundwater from the Iowa Army
Ammunition Plant. Final Report [10] q q
ADA322455/7/XAB
Screening Submersed Plant Species for Phytoremediation of Phytodegradation

Explosives-Contaminated Groundwater from the Milan Army q q
Ammunition Plant, Milan, Tennessee. Final Report [11]
Research
Adsorption of Naphthalene onto Plant Roots [11] Phytostabilization q q
Aromatic Nitroreduction of Acifluorfen in Soils Rhizospheres and
Pure Cultures of Rhizobacteria [11]
Rhizodegradation
q q
xiii
Type
Ground Water
Radionuclides
Explosives
Herbicides
Pesticides/
Document Title
Organics
Metals
Soil
Bacterial Inoculants of Forage Grasses that Enhance Degradation of
2-Chlorobenzoic Acid in Soil [11]
Rhizodegradation
q q
Bioremediation Bacteria to Protect Plants in Pentachlorophenol-
Contaminated Soil [12]
Rhizodegradation
q q
Decreased Transpiration in Popular Trees Exposed to 2,4,6-
Trinitrotoluene [12]
Phytovolatilization
q q
Degradation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls by Hairy Root Culture of
Solanum nigrum [12]
Phytodegradation
q q
Detoxification of Phenol by the Aquatic Angiosperm, Lemna gibba
[12]
Phytodegradation
q q
Effect of Hybrid Poplar Trees on Microbial Populations Important
to Hazardous Waste Bioremediation [13]
Rhizodegradation
q q q
Effects of Ryegrass on Biodegradation of Hydrocarbons in Soil [13] Rhizodegradation q q
A Field Facility for Phytoremediation Research [13] Phytodegradation q q q
Greenhouse Evaluation of Agronomic and Crude Oil-
Phytoremediation Potential Among Alfalfa Genotypes [13]
Phytodegradation
q q
The Influence of Planting and Soil Characteristics on
Mineralization of 2,4,5-T in Rhizosphere Soil [14]
Rhizodegradation
q q
Mineralization of 2,4-Dichlorophenol by Ectomycorrhizal Fungi in
Axenic Culture and in Symbiosis with Pine [14]
Rhizodegradation
q q
xiv
Type
Ground Water
Radionuclides
Explosives
Herbicides
Pesticides/
Document Title
Organics
Metals
Soil
Phytoremediation Experimentation with the Herbicide Bentazon
[14]
Phytodegradation
q q
Phytoremediation: Modeling Removal of TNT and Its Breakdown
Products [14]
Phytodegradation
q q
Phytoremediation of 1,4-dioxane by Hybrid Poplars [14] Phytovolatilization
Rhizodegradation q q
Phytoremediation of Hazardous Wastes [15] Phytodegradation q q q
Phytoremediation of Organic Contaminants: A Review of
Phytoremediation Research at the University of Washington [15]
Phytodegradation
q q q
Phytoremediation of Pesticide-Contaminated Soils [15] Rhizodegradation q q
Phytoremediation of Trichloroethylene with Hybrid Poplars [16] Rhizofiltration q q
Phytoremediation, Plant Uptake of Atrazine and Role of Root
Exudates [16]
Rhizodegradation
q q
Phytotreatment of TNT-Contaminated Groundwater [16] Phytodegradation q q
Plant Cell Biodegradation of a Xenobiotic Nitrate Ester,
Nitroglycerin I [16]
Phytodegradation
q q
Plant-Enhanced Remediation of Petroleum Contaminated Soil [17] Phytodegradation
Rhizodegradation q q
Plant-Enhanced Subsurface Bioremediation of Nonvolatile
Hydrocarbons [17]
Rhizodegradation
q q
xv
Type
Ground Water
Radionuclides
Explosives
Herbicides
Pesticides/
Document Title
Organics
Metals
Soil
Potential of Phytoremediation as a Means for Habitat Restoration
and Cleanup of Petroleum Contaminated Wetlands [17]
Phytodegradation
q q
Rhizosphere Microbial Populations in Contaminated Soils [17] Rhizodegradation q q
Transformation of TNT by Aquatic Plants and Plant Tissue
Cultures [18]
Phytodegradation
q q
Uptake and Fate of Organohalogens from Contaminated
Groundwater in Wood Plants [18]
Phytodegradation
Phytovolatilization q q
xvi
Type
Ground Water
Radionuclides
Explosives
Herbicides
Pesticides/
Document Title
Organics
Metals
Soil
INORGANIC CONTAMINANTS
Overviews
Emerging Technologies for the Remediation of Metals in Soils:
Unspecified
q q
Literature Review: Phytoaccumulation of Chromium, Uranium,
Plutonium in Plant Systems [19]
Phytoextraction
q q q
Remediation of Metal-Contaminated Sites Using Plants [19] Phytoextraction q q
Restoration of Mined Lands—Using Natural Processes [19] Unspecified q q
Status of In Situ Phytoremediation Technology [19] Phytoextraction
EPA 542-R-97-004 Phytostabilization q q
Rhizofiltration
Field Studies and Demonstrations

Phytoaccumulation of Trace Elements by Wetlands Plants: I.
Duckweed [20]
Phytoextraction
q q
Relationship Between Sulfur Speciation in Soils and Plant
Availability [20]
Phytoextraction
q q
Removal of Uranium from Water Using Terrestrial Plants [20] Rhizofiltration q q
Research
Differences in Root Uptake of Radiocesium by 30 Plant Taxa [20] Phytoextraction q q
xvii
Type
Ground Water
Radionuclides
Explosives
Herbicides
Pesticides/
Document Title
Organics
Metals
Soil
Enhanced Accumulation of Pb in Indian Mustard by Soil-Applied
Chelating Agents [21]
Phytoextraction
q q
Evaluation of Tamarisk and Eucalyptus Transpiration for the
Application of Phytoremediation [21]
Phytoextraction
q q
Feasibility of Using Plants to Assist in the Remediation of Heavy Phytoextraction
Metal Contamination at J-Field, Aberdeen Proving Ground, q q
Maryland. Final Report [21]
Lead-Contaminated Sediments Prove Susceptible to

Phytoextraction
q q
Lead Uptake and Effects on Seed Germination and Plant Growth in
a Pb Hyperaccumulator Brassica pekinensis Rupr. [22]
Phytoextraction
q q
Metal Accumulation by Aquacultured Seedlings of Indian Mustard
[22]
Phytoextraction
q q
Phytoextraction of Cadmium and Zinc from a Contaminated Soil
[22]
Phytoextraction
q q
Phytoextraction of Zinc by Oat (Avena sativa), Barley (Hordeum
vulgare), and Indian Mustard (Brassica juncea) [23]
Phytoextraction
q q
Phytoextraction: the Use of Plants to Remove Heavy Metals from
Soils [23]
Phytoextraction
q q
Phytofiltration of Hazardous Cadmium, Chromium, Lead and Zinc
Ions by Biomass of Medicago sativa (Alfalfa) [23]
Rhizofiltration
q q
xviii
Type
Ground Water
Radionuclides
Explosives
Herbicides
Pesticides/
Document Title
Organics
Metals
Soil
Phytoremediation of a Radiocesium-Contaminated Soil: Evaluation Phytoextraction
of Cesium137 Bioaccumulation in the Shoots of Three Plant Species q q
[23]
Phytoremediation of Lead-Contaminated Soils: Role of Synthetic
Chelates in Lead Phytoextraction [24]
Phytoextraction
q q
Phytoremediation of Selenium Laden Soils: A New Technology
[24]
Phytoextraction
q q
Phytoremediation of Uranium-Contaminated Soils: Role of Organic
Acids in Triggering Uranium Hyperaccumulation in Plants [24]
Phytoextraction
q q
Potential for Phytoextraction of 137Cs from a Contaminated Soil [25] Phytoextraction q q
Potential Remediation of 137Cs and 90Sr Contaminated Soil by
Accumulation in Alamo Switchgrass [25]
Phytoextraction
q q
Rhizofiltration: the Use of Plants to Remove Heavy Metals from
Aqueous Streams [25]
Rhizofiltration
q q
The Role of EDTA in Pb Transport and Accumulation by Indian
Mustard [25]
Phytoextraction
q q
A Search for Lead Hyperaccumulating Plants in the Laboratory [26] Rhizofiltration
Phytoextraction q q
Selenium Accumulation by Brassica Napus Grown in Se-laden Soil
from Different Depths of Kersterson Reservoir [26]
Phytoextraction
q q
xix
Type
Ground Water
Radionuclides
Explosives
Herbicides
Pesticides/
Document Title
Organics
Metals
Soil
Test Plan for the Phytoremediation Studies of Lead-Contaminated Phytoextraction
Soil from the Sunflower Army Ammunition Plant, Desoto, Kansas.
Vol. 1 and Vol. 2 [26] q q
ADA342667, ADA342668
Toxicity of Zinc and Copper to Brassica Species: Implications for

Phytoextraction
Phytostabilization q q
Toxic Mercury Reduction and Remediation Using Transgenic
Plants with a Modified Bacterial Gene [27]
Phytoextraction
Phytostabilization q
Zinc and Cadmium Accumulation in the Hyperaccumulator Thlaspi Phytoextraction
Caerulescens in Response to Limestone and Compost Applications
to a Heavy Metal Contaminated Site in Palmerton, Pennsylvania q q
[27]
xx
Media Contaminants
Ground Water
Inorganics
Web Site Title
Organics
URL
Soil
INTERNET RESOURCES
Advanced Applied Technology Demonstration Facility (AATDF)
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~aatdf [27]
q q
Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence (AFCEE)
http://www.afcee.brooks.af.mil [27]
q q
Alternative Treatment Technology Information Center (ATTIC)
http://www.epa.gov/attic [28]
q q q q
CLU-IN: Hazardous Waste Clean-Up Information
http://clu-in.org [28]
q q q q
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP)
http://www.estcp.org [28]
q q q q
Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable
http://www.frtr.gov [28]
q q q q
GNET: The Global Network of Environment and Technology
http://www.gnet.org [28]
Great Plains/Rocky Mountain Hazardous Substance Research Center

http://www.ecc.ksu.edu/HSRC [28]
q q q
Ground Water Remediation Technologies Analysis Center (GWRTAC)
http://www.gwrtac.org [29]
q q q q
xxi
Media Contaminants
Ground Water
Inorganics
Web Site Title
Organics
URL
Soil
Innovative Treatment Remediation Demonstration (ITRD)
http://www.em.doe.gov/itrd [29] q q q
Interstate Technology and Regulatory Cooperation Working Group (ITRC)
http://www.sso.org/ecos/itrc [29] q q
PHYTONET - Phytoremediation Electronic Newsgroup Network
http://www.dsa.unipr.it/phytonet [29] q q q q
Remediation Technologies Development Forum (RTDF)
Phytoremediation of Organics Action Team q q q
http://www.rtdf.org/public/phyto [29]
Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP)

http://www.serdp.gov [30] q q
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Phytoremediation Research
http://www.wes.army.mil/EL/phyto [30] q q
U.S. Army Environmental Center (USAEC)
http://aec-www.apgea.army.mil:8080 [30] q q q q
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
http://www.usda.gov [29] q q q q
xxii
ABSTRACTS OF PHYTOREMEDIATION RESOURCES
The resources below describe the contents of pertinent phytoremediation documents and Internet resources. The
references and resources are organized alphabetically within each of the following categories:
General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Publications Containing Multiple Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Organic Contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Overviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Field Studies and Demonstrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Publications Containing Multiple Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Inorganic Contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Overviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Field Studies and Demonstrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Publications Containing Multiple Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Internet Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
To quickly identify documents and resources pertinent to your interest area, see the Phytoremediation Resource
Matrix on pages ix-xxii of this Guide. The documents and resources in the matrix are organized alphabetically
within the categories identified above. Listings in the matrix can be cross-referenced with the abstracts by referring
to the page number provided in the matrix. In an effort to limit the number of resources listed here, documents
published prior to 1990 are not included. These abstracts were obtained from several databases, including the
National Technical Information Service, Energy Science and Technology, Enviroline, Water Resources Abstracts,
and Pollution Abstracts as well as several Internet resources.
General Information private and industrial site owners, regulators, and the
environmental engineering community. This report
includes a technology summary, commercial company
The 1998 United States Market for profiles, research group profiles, an industry analysis
Phytoremediation and market forecast, summaries of several completed
Glass, D.J. and ongoing phytoremediation projects, a review of the
D. Glass Associates, Inc., Needham, MA 140 pp April advantages and disadvantages of the technology, and a
1998 glossary.
Phytoremediation, the use of plants, trees, and other

vegetation to remove, sequester, or degrade
environmental contaminants, has attracted a great deal
of interest in recent years. Drawing on the abilities of
plants to accumulate metals and other substances or
take up and transpire large amounts of water,
phytoremediation is an effective, low-cost treatment
technology that is beginning to gain the attention of
1
The Advancement of Phytoremediation as an Compost-Enhanced Phytoremediation of
Innovative Environmental Technology for Contaminated Soil
Stabilization, Remediation, or Restoration of U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Contaminated Sites in Canada: A Discussion Paper Response
McIntyre, T. and Lewis, G.M. Published in Analysis of Composting as an
Journal of Soil Contamination v 6:3 p 227(15) May Environmental Remediation Technology p 87(12)
1997 April 1998
Environment Canada's Environmental Technologies EPA Document Number: EPA 530-R-98-008

Advancement Division is exploring the potential of
phytoremediation as a major, long-term technology Phytoremediation is a developing technology in which
approach. The benefits and limitations of higher plants and microorganisms associated with plant
phytoremediation and its potential for bioremediation roots are the active agents for uptake and/or
of soil and ground water in Canada are discussed. degradation of toxic inorganic and organic compounds
Research issues that will need to be addressed to further in soil and water. Plants can also provide containment
phytoremediation technology are examined. Other by reducing the erosional transport of contaminated
regulatory, legal, commercial, and social issues are soil. Numerous reports indicate that plants can take up
considered briefly. and degrade toxic organic compounds in soil, while
other work indicates microorganisms in the rhizosphere
are very competent degraders of soil-borne organics.
Bioremediation and Phytoremediation Glossary This process might be suitable for soil remediation
Bentjen, S. and/or inexpensive confinement of shallow
Available at contaminated water. Phytoremediation of
http://members.tripod.com/~bioremediation metal-contaminated soil relies on the ability of plants to
accumulate metals at concentrations substantially above
This glossary lists terms related to bioremediation those found in the soil in which they grow.
(microbial degradation) and phytoremediation Phytoremediation has very large economic advantages
(remediation using green plants) of environmental over mechanically intensive technologies.
pollutants. Links to other environmental glossaries
appear at the bottom of the page.
Introduction to Phytoremediation
U.S. EPA, National Risk Management Research
A Citizen’s Guide to Phytoremediation Laboratory
U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency To be issued in 1999
Response To be available at http://www.rtdf.org
6 pp August 1998
Available at http://clu-in.org This handbook is the work of the EPA
Phytoremediation Handbook Team in conjunction with
EPA Document Number: EPA 542-F-98-011 the Remediation Technologies Development Forum
(RTDF) Phytoremediation Action Team. It was
EPA’s Technology Innovation Office has published a developed to provide a tool for site regulators, owners,
Technology Fact Sheet that describes what neighbors, and managers to evaluate the applicability of
phytoremediation is, how it works, what its limitations phytoremediation to a site. Phytoremediation projects
are, and where to find additional information. have been proposed or applied to ecosystem restoration
and soil, surface water, ground water, and sediment
remediation. This document identifies, defines, and
provides a framework to evaluate these
phytoremediation applications, although it is not a
design guide. It also presents case studies illustrating
field applications of phytoremediation.
2
Abstracts of Phytoremediation Resources General Information
Legal and Social Concerns to the Development of Phytoremediation, a cost-effective plant-based approach
Bioremediation Technologies to remediation, takes advantage of the ability of plants
Bilyard, G.R.; et al. to concentrate elements and compounds from the
150 pp Sep 1996 environment and to metabolize various molecules in
their tissues. Several field trials have confirmed the
NTIS Document Number: DE96015254 feasibility of using plants for environmental cleanup.
This review concentrates on the most developed subsets
The social and legal framework within which of phytoremediation technology and on the biological
bioremediation technologies must be researched, mechanisms that make phytoremediation work.
developed, and deployed in the U.S. are discussed in
this report. Discussions focus on policies, laws and
regulations, intellectual property, technology transfer, Phytoremediation: A Clean Transition from
and stakeholder concerns. These discussions are Laboratory to Marketplace?
intended to help program managers, scientists and Boyajian, G.E. and Carreira, L.H.
engineers understand the social and legal framework Natural Biotechnology v 15:2 p 127(2) 1997
within which they work, and be cognizant of relevant
issues that must be navigated during bioremediation In recent years, the potential of plants for
technology research, development, and deployment environmental cleanup—phytoremediation—has been
activities. While this report focuses on the legal and recognized, and U.S. government agencies and private
social environment within which the DOE operates, the corporations have responded by increasingly supporting
laws, regulations and social processes could apply to research in this area. The report in this issue by Goel et
other sites nationwide. This report identifies specific al. both advances our basic knowledge of plant
issues related to bioremediation technologies, including biochemistry and demonstrates that plants are indeed
those involving the use of plants; native, naturally capable of tackling such exotic xenobiotic contaminants
occurring microbes; non-native, naturally occurring as nitroglycerin.
microbes; genetically engineered organisms; and
microbial products (e.g., enzymes, surfactants,
chelating compounds). Phytoremediation: A New Technology Gets Ready to
Bloom
Bishop, J.
Phytoremediation Environmental Solutions v 10:4 p 29(6) May-June 1997
Rock, S. and Pope, D.
Published in Seminars: Bioremediation of Hazardous Phytoremediation is the use of selected crop plants or
Waste Sites: Practical Approaches to Implementation p trees to extract or promote degradation of toxic
8.1(9) 1996 substances in soils, ground water, surface water,
wastewater and sediments. It may be possible in some
EPA Document Number: EPA 625-K-96-001 cases to harvest such contaminants as heavy metals that
have been taken up by plants and recover them for
Chapter eight of the seminar publication contains a recycling. In other variations, plants stimulate the
description of the different aspects of phytoremediation, growth of naturally occurring microbial populations,
applications and examples, a bibliography, and which then degrade organic contaminants, such as
illustrations from the poster session. petroleum hydrocarbons, in soils. At appropriate sites,
the cost of applying phytoremediation techniques may
range from half to less than 20% of the cost of using
Phytoremediation physical, chemical, or thermal techniques.
Salt, D.E.; Smith, R.D.; and Raskin, I.
Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant
Molecular Biology v 49 p 643(26) 1998
3
Phytoremediation Bibliography Phytoremediation: It Grows on You

Available at http://www.rtdf.org Boyajian, G. E. and Devedjian, D.L.
Soil & Groundwater Cleanup p 22(5) February-March
This searchable bibliography of over 1,400 citations is 1997
the work of the EPA Phytoremediation Handbook Team
in conjunction with the Remediation Technologies Phytoremediation is a small but growing subset of in
Development Forum (RTDF) Phytoremediation Action situ remediation technologies for contaminated soil.
Team. The bibliography is updated frequently. Plants can be effective remediators by reaching
contaminants through their root systems, their ability to
accumulate metals and degrade organic compounds,
Phytoremediation Field Demonstrations in the U.S. and their reduced cost compared with other approaches.
EPA SITE Program However, only those plants having the appropriate
Rock, S. and Beckman, S. biochemical pathways are effective for soil cleanup.
In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation: Volume 3 Identification of appropriate plants for remediation of
Battelle Press, Columbus, OH p 323 [abstract only] organic compounds and heavy metals is discussed.
1998
U.S. EPA National Risk Management Research Phytoremediation on the Brink of

Laboratory’s SITE program is evaluating Commercialization
phytoremediation’s efficacy and cost at field scale Watanabe, M.E.
demonstrations on sites in Oregon, Utah, Texas, and Environmental Science & Technology v 31:4 p 182A(4)
Ohio. The Superfund Innovative Technology 1997
Evaluation (SITE) Program is a part of EPA’s research
into alternative cleanup methods for hazardous waste Academic, government, and corporate researchers have
sites. The EPA teamed with USAF, USGS, Ohio EPA, a body of data on the ability of certain plants to either
Chevron USA, Phytotech, Inc., and Phytokinetics, Inc. remove pollutants from the environment or render them
to accomplish these demonstrations. At a wood treater harmless, and they are looking for ways to improve
in Portland, Oregon, shallow soil contaminated with these traits through plant breeding and molecular
PCP and PAHs is being treated with a perennial techniques. In the past three years, at least three new
ryegrass. In Ogden, Utah, a combination of poplar companies have formed to use plants to clean sites
trees, juniper trees, alfalfa, and fescue has been planted contaminated with heavy metals or organics.
to remediate a petroleum spill which has polluted both Phytoremediation is a natural process carried out by
the soil and the ground water. On an Air Force facility plants, especially those that are able to survive in
near Fort Worth, Texas, cottonwood trees are being contaminated soil and water. Hyperaccumulators are
used to intercept a part of a large TCE ground water plants that can absorb high levels of contaminants with
plume. In Ohio, the shallow soil of a former metal their roots and concentrate them either there or in
plating facility is the site for a demonstration of shoots and leaves. Researchers have found
phytoextraction of lead, cadmium, and hexavalent hyperaccumulator species by collecting plants in areas
chromium using Indian mustard. Each demonstration where soil contains greater than usual amounts of
includes monitoring the soil, ground water, and plant metals or other potentially toxic compounds because of
material. The sites were planted in 1996, and will be geological factors or pollution. Among the plants that
monitored until at least 1999. [Abstract only. have been collected and used in field trials are species
Additional information is available at http://clu-in.org from the genus Thlaspi, or Alpine pennycress, which
under the SITE Demonstration Program page.] accumulate zinc, cadmium, or lead, and Alyssum
species, which accumulate nickel. Both genera belong
to the mustard family Brassicaceae. Plants from other
families also have been shown to remove cobalt,
copper, chromium, manganese, or selenium from
contaminated soils.
4
successful field demonstration of a plant bioreactor for

Phytoremediation: Technology Overview Report processing the salty wastewater from petroleum wells
Miller, R. and a greenhouse experiment on zinc uptake in hybrid
Groundwater Remediation Technologies Analysis poplar (Populus sp.). Because the roots sequester most
Center, Pittsburgh, PA 26 pp 1996 of the contaminant taken up in most plants, a major
Available at http://www.gwrtac.org objective of this program is to determine the feasibility
of root harvesting as a method to maximize the removal
Phytoremediation uses plants to cleanup contaminated of contaminants from soils. Available techniques and
soil and ground water, taking advantage of plants' equipment for harvesting plant roots, including young
natural abilities to take up, accumulate, and/or degrade tree roots, are being evaluated and modified as
constituents of their soil and water environments. necessary for use.
Research results report it to be applicable to a broad
range of contaminants including numerous metals,
radionuclides, and various organic compounds (such as Remediation Technologies Screening Matrix and
chlorinated solvents, BTEX, PCBs, PAHs, Reference Guide
pesticides/insecticides, explosives, nutrients, and Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable
surfactants). According to information reviewed, Available at http://www.frtr.gov
general site conditions best suited for use of
phytoremediation include large areas of low to This reference guide provides a "yellow pages" of
moderate surface soil (0 to 3 feet) contamination or remediation technologies. It is intended to be used to
large volumes of water with low-level contamination screen and evaluate candidate cleanup technologies for
subject to low (stringent) treatment standards. Major contaminated installations and waste sites in order to
advantages reported for phytoremediation as compared assist remedial project managers (RPMs) in selecting a
to traditional remediation technologies include the remedial alternative. It incorporates cost and
possibility of generating less secondary wastes, minimal performance data to the maximum extent available and
associated environmental disturbance, and the ability to focuses primarily on demonstrated technologies. All
leave soils in place and in a usable condition following levels of remediation technologies are included in this
treatment. Cited disadvantages include the long lengths guide. These technologies are applicable at all types of
of time required (usually several growing seasons), site cleanups: Superfund, DoD, DOE, RCRA, state,
depth limitations (3 feet for soil and 10 feet for ground private, etc.
water), and the possibility of contaminant entrance into
the food chain through animal consumption of plant
material. Stemming the Toxic Tide
Dutton, G.
Compressed Air v 101:4 p 38(5) June 1996
Phytoremediation: Using Green Plants to Clean Up
Contaminated Soil, Groundwater, and Wastewater Phytoremediation, the use of plants to clean up toxic
Negri, M. C. and Hinchman, R.R. substances in soil and water, has been proposed as an
9 pp 1996 effective treatment for contaminated soil and sludge at
industrial locations, including Superfund sites. The
Phytoremediation, an emerging cleanup technology for approach represents a cost-effective alternative to
contaminated soils, ground water, and wastewater that conventional remediation methods. Elements being
is both low-tech and low-cost, is defined as the considered as targets of phytoextraction include nickel,
engineered use of green plants to remove, contain, or zinc, copper, selenium, cadmium, chromium, lead,
render harmless such environmental contaminants as cobalt, manganese, and several radionuclides. Specific
heavy metals, trace elements, organic compounds, and plants and processes being used to clean soil and water
radioactive compounds in soil or water. Current are identified. Problems with the approach include
research at Argonne National Laboratory includes a disposal issues and time and depth limitations.
5
phytoremediation system can be viewed as a biological,

solar-driven, pump-and-treat system with an extensive,
Technology Evaluation Report: Phytoremediation self-extending uptake network (the root system) that
Schnoor, J.L. enhances the soil and below-ground ecosystem for
Ground-Water Remediation Technologies Analysis subsequent productive use. Argonne National
Center Laboratory has been conducting basic and applied
43 pp October 1997 research in phytoremediation since 1990.
Available at http://www.gwrtac.org
Publications Containing Multiple Papers
Phytoremediation is best applied at sites with shallow
contamination by organic, nutrient, or metal pollutants. Phytoremediation of Soil and Water Contaminants
Phytoremediation is well-suited for use at very large Kruger, E.L.; Anderson, T.A.; and Coats, J.R. (eds.)
field sites where other methods of remediation are not Developed from a symposium sponsored by the
cost-effective or practicable; at sites with low Division of Agrochemicals and the Division of
concentrations of contaminants where only "polishing Environmental Chemistry at the 212th National
treatment" is required over long periods of time; and in Meeting of the American Chemical Society, August
conjunction with other technologies where vegetation is 25-29, 1996, Orlando, Florida.
used as a final cap and closure of the site. There are American Chemical Society, Washington, DC 318 pp
limitations to the technology that need to be considered 1997
carefully before it is selected for site remediation. These
include: limited regulatory acceptance, long duration of
time sometimes required for clean-up to below action Emerging Technologies in Hazardous Waste
levels, potential contamination of the vegetation and Management VII: The 7th ACS Special Symposium,
food chain, and difficulty establishing and maintaining 17-20 September 1995, Atlanta, Georgia
vegetation at some toxic waste sites. This detailed Tedder, D.W. (ed.)
report discusses the current status of phytoremediation American Chemical Society, Washington, DC 1352 pp
to treat soils and ground water. Several field 1995
demonstration summaries are presented, with such
information as: participants, compounds treated, site
characteristics, results, and contacts.
Bioremediation Through Rhizosphere Technology
Anderson, T.A. and Coats, J.R. (eds.)
American Chemical Society, Washington, DC 249 pp
Using Phytoremediation to Clean Up Contamination 1994
at Military Installations
Zellmer, S.D.; Hinchman, R.R.; Negri, M.C.;
Schneider, J.F.; and Gatliff, E.G. Bioremediation of Surface and Subsurface
19 pp July 1997 Contamination (Annals of the New York Academy
of Sciences, Vol. 829)
NTIS Document Number: DE97007971 Bajpai, R. and Zappi, M. (eds.)
1997
An emerging technology for cleaning contaminated
soils and shallow ground water is phytoremediation, an
environmentally friendly, low-cost, and low-tech In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation, Vol. 3
process. Phytoremediation encompasses all Alleman, B.C. and Leeson, A. (eds.)
plant-influenced biological, chemical, and physical Battelle Press, Columbus, OH 570 pp 1997
processes that aid in the uptake, degradation, and
metabolism of contaminants by either plants or
free-living organisms in the plant's rhizosphere. A
6
Abstracts of Phytoremediation Resources Organic Contaminants
Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Hazardous International Journal of Phytoremediation

Waste Research First Issue (v 1:1) to be published by CRC Press in
Great Plains/Rocky Mountain Hazardous Substance March 1999.
Research Center, Kansas State University, Manhattan,
KS
Tables of contents, abstracts, and selected papers from Phytoremediation
the 1994 Ninth Annual Conference onward are Terry, N. and Bañuelos, G.S. (eds.)
available at http://www.engg.ksu.edu/HSRC Ann Arbor Press, (In press. Release expected Summer
1999).
Proceedings of the International Seminar on Use of

Plants for Environmental Remediation (ISUPER) Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation
Council for Promotion of Utilization of Organic Program: Technology Profiles, 9th Edition
Materials (CPOUM), Kosaikan, Tokyo, Japan 1997
EPA Document Number: EPA 540-R-97-502
Annual International Conference on

Phytoremediation Organic Contaminants
International Business Communications, Overviews
Southborough, MA (1st:1996, 2nd:1997, 3rd:1998)
Mechanisms of Phytoremediation: Biochemical and
Ecological Interactions Between Plants and Bacteria
Proceedings of the 12th Annual Conference on Siciliano, S.D. and Germida, J.J.
Contaminated Soils: Analysis, Site Assessment, Fate, Environmental Reviews v 6:1 p 65(15) 1998
Environmental and Human Risk Assessment,
Remediation and Regulation, 20-23 October 1997, This review concentrates on plant-bacteria interactions
Amherst, MA that increase the degradation of hazardous organic
Kostecki, P. T. and Calabrese, E.J. (eds.) compounds in soil. Plants and bacteria can form
Environmental Health Sciences Program, School of specific associations in which the plant provides the
Public Health, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, bacteria with a specific carbon source that induces the
MA, 1997 bacteria to reduce the toxicity of the contaminated soil.
Alternatively, plants and bacteria can form nonspecific
associations in which normal plant processes stimulate
Journal of Soil Contamination the microbial community, which in the course of
v 7:4 July 1998 normal metabolic activity degrades contaminants in
soil. Plants can provide carbon substrates and nutrients,
as well as increase contaminant solubility. These
Soil & Groundwater Cleanup biochemical mechanisms increase the degradative
February-March 1999 activity of bacteria associated with plant roots. In
return, bacteria can augment the degradative capacity
of plants or reduce the toxicity of the contaminated soil.
Soil & Groundwater Cleanup
February-March 1998
7
Phytoremediation of TCE in Groundwater using NTIS Document Number: ADA349293

Populus
Chappell, J. This document describes studies conducted at the Milan
Status Report Prepared for the U.S. EPA Technology Army Ammunition Plant (MAAP) to improve the
Innovation Office, 1997 design, operation, and cost of gravel-based anaerobic
Available at http://clu-in.org cells when phytoremediating explosives-contaminated
ground water. A typical gravel-based wetland consists
This report is intended to provide a basic orientation to of an anaerobic cell for removing the bulk of the
phytoremediation and a review of its use for shallow explosive-contaminates, and an aerobic cell for
ground water remediation. It contains information removing CBOD-5, nutrients, total suspended solids,
gathered from a range of currently available sources, and small quantities of explosive by- products. The
including project documents, reports, periodicals, cells are connected in series with the anaerobic cell
Internet searches, and personal communication with being the first cell. Small-scale anaerobic test cells were
involved parties. No attempts were made to used to determine: (1) If the hydraulic retention time of
independently confirm the resources used. a large demonstration-scale anaerobic cell at MAAP
could be reduced, and (2) if other carbon sources could
Field Studies and Demonstrations be used as an anaerobic feedstock. The study results
indicate that: (1) The existing anaerobic cell's 7.5-day
Demonstration Plan for Phytoremediation of retention time should not be reduced since residual
Explosive-contaminated Groundwater in explosive by-products were present in the effluent of
Constructed Wetlands at Milan Army Ammunition treatments with a 3.5-day retention time. (2) Daily
Plant, Milan, Tennessee. Volumes 1 and 2. Final application of a relatively soluble substrate, such as
Report molasses syrup, will provide better explosives removal
Behrends, L.; Sikora, F.; Kelly, D.; Coonrod, S.; and than periodic application of less soluble substrates such
Rogers, B. as milk replacement starter and sewage sludge.
209 pp (Vol. 1), 496 pp (Vol. 2) Jan 1996
NTIS Document Number: ADA311121/8/XAB (Vol. 1) Field Scale Evaluation of Grass-Enhanced

ADA311122/6/XAB (Vol. 2) Bioremediation of PAH Contaminated Soils
Sorensen, D.L.; Sims, R.C.; and Qiu, X.
This plan demonstrates the technical and economic EPA Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory’s 20th
feasibility of using phytoremediation in an artificial, Annual Research Symposium, 15-17 March 1994,
constructed wetlands for treatment of Cincinnati, OH p 92(3)
explosives-contaminated ground water at Milan Army
Ammunition Plant. Validated data on cost and A field pilot-scale study was launched to assess the
effectiveness of this demonstration will be used to potential of prairie grasses to enhance bioremediation
transfer this technology to the user community. of PAH-contaminated soils. The ongoing research is
designed to test the hypothesis that the deep, fibrous
root system of the grasses improves aeration in soil and
Evaluation of Various Organic Fertilizer Substrates degradative capability in the rhizosphere. Average
and Hydraulic Retention Times for Enhancing phenanthrene levels declined dramatically in both
Anaerobic Degradation of Explosives-Contaminated vegetated and unvegetated plots. Acenaphthylene also
Groundwater While Using Constructed Wetlands at declined in both sites with time and was detected in
the Milan Army Ammunition Plant, Milan, higher concentrations in unvegetated shallow soil
Tennessee relative to vegetated shallow soil. Preliminary data
Behrends, L.L.; Almond, R.A.; Kelly, D.A.; Phillips, indicate slow degradation in test plots and provide
W.D.; and Rogers, W.J. some evidence that Buffalo grass sod planting
383 pp May 1998 enhanced degradation in the near surface.
8
Friendly Forests poplar trees with no detectable TCE or CT emissions.

Miller, J. A. The GWPTF test beds allow easy monitoring of
Third International Conference on Health, Safety, influent and effluent mass fluxes of chlorinated
Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and solvents. A permit is required to conduct
Production, 9 June-12 Sep 1996, New Orleans, demonstrations. Technology developers and the site
Louisiana manager work together to file the permit. It takes about
Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE), Inc., six months to obtain a permit. State and local
Richardson, TX p 717(6) 1996 regulations apply. Permission to add injectants for
remediation may be granted on a case-by-case basis.
Trees can be used to extract ground water from aquifers
and serve as a natural pumping system for
contaminated ground water plume control. Phreatophyte Influence on Reductive Dechlorination
Simultaneously, the trees create a rhizosphere in a Shallow Aquifer Containing TCE
biodegradation zone and extract hydrocarbons through Lee, R.W.; Jones, S.A.; Kuniansky, E.L.; Harvey, G.J.;
uptake in the transpiration stream. Phytoremediation and Eberts, S.M.
has been proposed for Bioremediation and Phytoremediation: Chlorinated
cleanup of historical petroleum hydrocarbon and and Recalcitrant Compounds
chlorinated hydrocarbon contamination as an in situ Battelle Press, Columbus, OH p 263(6) 1998
treatment method of reasonable cost that requires little
maintenance. The initiative of one major oilfield At Carswell Field, Fort Worth Naval Air Station Joint
service company at a Louisiana site is described. The Reserve Base in Texas, a phytoremediation
demonstration began in June 1995 with the planting of demonstration project is being conducted to determine
92 hybrid poplar trees for the purposes of (1) if eastern cottonwood trees are effective in remediating
controlling ground water movement; (2) taking up shallow trichloroethylene-contaminated ground water.
constituents from soil and ground water; and (3) Two tree plots were prepared and planted in April
enhancing bioremediation of soil and ground water in 1996, and baseline sampling began shortly thereafter.
the rhizosphere. Results to date are reported. A stand of whips (cuttings) and a stand of 1- to
2-year-old trees are included in the study. After 18
months, the root systems were not sufficiently
Groundwater Phytoremediation Test Facility, established to alter the chemistry and microbiology of
University of Washington the ground water. However, a nearby mature
Contact: Stuart E. Strand, Research Associate Professor cottonwood tree was found to have changed ground
Box 352100, College of Forest Resources, University of water chemistry, causing oxygen consumption, iron
Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 reduction, methane production, and reductive
Tel/Fax: 206-543-5350 E-mail: dechlorination of TCE in the vicinity of the root
[email protected] system. Ground water levels and TCE concentrations in
the aquifer will be monitored to establish baseline
The Ground water Phytoremediation Test Facility conditions and to map changes within the aquifer
(GWPTF) was constructed in 1994 in Fife, throughout the life of the demonstration. Costs
Washington. The facility covers about one-quarter acre associated with the planting and cultivation of each tree
and is equipped with 12 double-lined test beds, each 12 stand will be compared to help assess the practicability
ft x 18 ft x 4.5 ft deep. The site has equipment for of phytoremediation as a cleanup technology.
handling, mixing, and delivering synthetically Demonstration sampling will continue until the year
contaminated water and for decontaminating the 2000.
effluent water using carbon adsorption units. The test
facility has been used to provide the first near-full-scale
testing of phytoremediation of chlorinated
hydrocarbons in ground water. Results indicate nearly
complete uptake of TCE and carbon tetrachloride by
9
Phytoremediation of Dissolved-Phase inexpensive cleanup of certain hazardous waste sites.

Trichloroethylene Using Mature Vegetation Remediation using plants is best suited to sites with
Doucette, W.J.; Bugbee, B.; Hayhurst, S.; Plaehn, shallow contamination (<15 ft depth); moderately
W.A.; Downey, D.C.; Taffinder, S.A.; and Edwards, R. hydrophobic pollutants (BTEX compounds, chlorinated
Bioremediation and Phytoremediation: Chlorinated solvents, nitrotoluene ammunition wastes), or excess
and Recalcitrant Compounds nutrients (nitrate, ammonium, and phosphate). The
Battelle Press, Columbus, OH p 251(6) 1998 technology has been used effectively in a number of
full-scale and pilot studies that are mentioned in the
At a study site at Cape Canaveral Air Station, FL, article.
transpiration gas and tissues of live oak, castor bean,
and saw palmetto growing above a trichloroethylene
(TCE)-contaminated ground water plume were Pilot-Scale Use of Trees to Address VOC
collected and analyzed for TCE and its metabolites. Contamination
Results showed that measurable levels of TCE were Compton, H.R.; Haroski, D.M.; Hirsh, S.R.; and
detected in seven of 15 transpiration-gas samples. Wrobel, J.G.
Trichloroethylene, 2,2,2-trichloroethanol, Bioremediation and Phytoremediation: Chlorinated
2,2,2-trichloroacetic acid, and 2,2-dichloroacetic acid and Recalcitrant Compounds
were detected in all plant tissue types from all three
species. Generally, metabolite concentrations were Battelle Press, Columbus, OH p 245(6) 1998
higher than TCE concentrations. Highest TCE At the Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, significant
concentrations were found in the roots, while highest levels of VOCs have been detected in the ground water,
metabolite concentrations were detected in leaf and primarily in the surficial aquifer, at depths to
stem samples. approximately 12 m. A study was conducted to assess
phytoremediation as a viable alternative for
remediating the shallow ground water contamination.
Phytoremediation of Groundwater at Avesta Over a 4000-m2 plot, 183 hybrid poplar trees were
Sheffield Pipe planted, and seasonal transpiration gas and water
Glanders, G.A. and Lundquist, J.B. samples were analyzed. The data revealed that the trees
Iron and Steel Engineer v 75:5 p 39(3) May 1998 were removing or degrading VOCs at the site as
indicated by the presence of VOCs and their
Ground water contaminated with volatile organic degradation products in transpiration gas, condensate,
compounds and nitrate from spent pickle liquor is and leaf tissue. A gradient of ground water flow has
being remediated by a phytoremediation process using formed toward the phytoremediation test plot, with a
limpograss. Limpograss is a high protein, ground water depression of approximately 0.1 m.
nitrate-loving grass that also serves as a valuable source Analysis of nematode samples suggested that the soil
of animal feed. habitat is improving due to the presence of the trees.
Phytoremediation of Organic and Nutrient Screening of Aquatic and Wetland Plant Species for
Contaminants Phytoremediation of Explosives-Contaminated
Schnoor, J.L.; Licht, L.A.; McCutcheon, S.C.; Wolfe, Groundwater from the Iowa Army Ammunition
N.L.; and Carreira, L.H. Plant. Final Report
Environmental Science & Technology v 29:7 p 318A(6) Best, E.P.; Zappi, M.E.; Fredrickson, H.L.; Sprecher,
1995 S.L.; and Larson, S.L.
74 pp January 1997
Phytoremediation, the use of vegetation for the in situ
treatment of contaminated soils and sediments, is an NTIS Document Number: ADA322455/7/XAB
emerging technology that promises effective and
10
Munitions material such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) that for tall fescue roots, but fescue roots were present
and hexahydro-1,3,5- trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) and in much greater quantities in the soil compared with
their combustion and decomposition products can enter alfalfa. Naphthalene adsorption on the roots of both
the environment from production activities, field usage, plant species increased with plant age.
and disposal. The capabilities of plants to absorb,
accumulate, and metabolize, directly or indirectly,
various organic substances suggest their use in the Aromatic Nitroreduction of Acifluorfen in Soils
phytoremediation of contaminated environments. Rhizospheres and Pure Cultures of Rhizobacteria
Zablotowicz, R.M.; Locke, M.A.; and Hoagland, R.E.
Agricultural Research Service September 1996
Screening Submersed Plant Species for
Phytoremediation of Explosives-Contaminated Reduction of the nitro group in acifluorfen (a
Groundwater from the Milan Army Ammunition nitrodiphenyl ether herbicide) to aminoacifluorfen is a
Plant, Milan, Tennessee. Final Report major catabolic transformation of this herbicide in
Best, E.P.; Sprecher, S.L.; Fredrickson, H.L.; Zappi, soils, rhizospheres, and pure cultures of certain
M.E.; and Larson, S.L. bacteria. Aromatic nitroreduction occurs more rapidly
89 pp November 1997 in rhizosphere soils compared to root-free soil, with a
rapid incorporation into unextractable humic soil
Phytoremediation systems are being considered as an components. Factors affecting acifluorfen-
alternative to other ground water extraction and surface nitroreductase activity in cell suspensions and cell-free
treatment techniques due to their ability to enhance extracts of these bacteria were studied. Microbial
removal of potentially toxic or mutagenic munitions aromatic nitroreductase activity in soils and
material such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT), rhizospheres can be an important biotransformation in
hexahydro-1,3,5- trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), and the degradation of acifluorfen and other nitroaromatic
their degradation products. This study evaluated the herbicides.
relative ability of ten species to decrease levels of TNT
and RDX explosives and related contaminants in
ground water at the Milan Army Ammunition Plant, Bacterial Inoculants of Forage Grasses That
Milan, Tennessee. Enhance Degradation of 2-Chlorobenzoic Acid in
Soil
Research Siciliano, S.D. and Germida, J.J.
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry v16:6 p
Adsorption of Naphthalene onto Plant Roots 1098(7) June 1997
Schwab, A. P.; Al-Assi, A. A.; and Banks, M. K.
Journal of Environmental Quality v 27:1 p 220(5) A study was conducted to examine the potential of
January-February 1998 rhizosphere inoculants to enhance the degradation of
contaminants in soil. 2-Chlorobenzoic acid was used as
During phytoremediation, PAHs that are resistant to the model contaminant, along with 11 bacterial strains
degradation may adsorb to the surfaces of plant roots, and 16 forage grass species. Results showed that three
making the roots an important sink for specific PAHs. of the forage species—Bromus biebersteinii, Elymus
Tall fescue and alfalfa were grown in a greenhouse dauricus, and Agropyron riparum—grew well in the
under controlled conditions, and roots were harvested 2-chlorobenzoic acid-contaminated soil and also
at three growth stages: vegetative, flowering, and enhanced the disappearance of the compound. The best
mature. Naphthalene adsorption to the various plant bacterial inoculants proved to be Pseudomonas
roots was then evaluated. Results show that the mass of aeruginosa strain R75 and P. savastoanoi strain CB35.
naphthalene volatilized was the largest component of The inoculation of the forage grasses with either
the mass balance (32-45%). The mass in solution was bacterial strain increased significantly the
usually greater than that adsorbed to the roots. The
affinity of naphthalene for alfalfa roots was greater than
11
disappearance of 2-chlorobenzoic acid over that of exhibited a tolerance for TNT that was higher than that
unplanted controls. of duckweed and similar to that of yellow nutsedge.
Bioremediation Bacteria to Protect Plants in Degradation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls by Hairy

Pentachlorophenol-Contaminated Soil Root Culture of Solanum nigrum
Pfender, W.F. Mackova, M.; Macek, T.; Kucerova, P.; Burkhard, J.;
Journal of Environmental Quality v 25:6 p 1256(5) Pazlarova, J.; and Demnerova, K.
November-December 1996 Biotechnology Letters v 19:8 p 787(4) August 1997
Pseudomonas strain SR3, a known pentachlorophenol- Hairy root cultures of Solanum nigrum proved capable
degrader, was added to a pentachlorophenol- of transforming PCBs under controlled conditions. The
contaminated soil, and the ability of the bacteria to impact of several different plant growth regulators on
protect Proso millet sown in the soil was cell growth and transformation of PCBs are analyzed.
assessed. Plants were removed from the soil 28 days Plant cells proved capable of transforming PCBs even
after planting with roots, shoots, and soil analyzed for after growth had stopped. A 20% reduction in PCB
pentachlorophenol. Seedling emergence was found to conversion efficiency was observed in young inoculum
be 50 and 62% for bacteria-treated and control seeds, (16 days), as compared against older inocula (37 and
respectively, in pentachlorophenol-contaminated soil. 68 days). The PCB transformation rate was stimulated
In uncontaminated soil, emergence rates were 100 and with increasing size of inoculum.
87%, respectively. Bacterial treatment greatly increased
final plant biomass in contaminated soil, bringing root
and total plant weights to nearly the same as those Detoxification of Phenol by the Aquatic Angiosperm,
observed for plants grown in uncontaminated soil. In Lemna gibba
contaminated soil planted with bacteria-treated seeds, Barber, J.T.; Sharma, H.A.; Ensley, H.E.; Polito, M.A.;
the final pentachlorophenol level was only 3 mg/kg, as and Thomas, D.A.
compared to 5 and 157 mg/kg for the millet-only and Chemosphere v 31:6 p 3567(8) September 1995
nonplanted contaminated soils, respectively.
In many cases, plants have the ability to metabolize
organic pollutants by transformation and conjugation
Decreased Transpiration in Poplar Trees Exposed to reactions followed by compartmentalizing products in
2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene their tissues. The toxicity and fate of phenol in the
Thompson, P.L.; Ramer, L.A.; Guffey, A.P.; and angiosperm Lemna gibba were investigated. Over a 16
Schnoor, J.L. day growth period, almost 90% of the applied phenol
Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry v 17:5 p disappeared from solution. While the disappearance of
902(5) May 1998 phenol was attributed to plant uptake, the appearance of
additional compounds in the media indicated that
Poplar trees were exposed to 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene metabolism occurred, with the release of the
(TNT), and the effects on transpiration were examined. metabolites back to the media. The primary metabolite
The TNT concentrations used were 0, 1, 3, 5, 10, and was identified as phenyl-(gr)b-D-glucoside, which was
15 mg/l. Levels of TNT uptake reached the detection found to be approximately half as toxic as the parent
limit of 4 ppm after only 1 hour of exposure, with TNT compound.
removed at a relatively rapid rate. TNT concentrations
of greater than 5 mg/l were toxic to the trees, with the
decrease in biomass attributed to the inhibition of leaf
growth. This level decreased transpiration significantly
after 11 days of exposure. Overall, the hybrid poplar
12
Effect of Hybrid Poplar Trees on Microbial A Field Facility for Phytoremediation Research
Populations Important to Hazardous Waste Rhykerd, R.L.; Hallmark, M.T.; and Munster, C.L.
Bioremediation The 1998 ASAE Annual International Meeting, 11-16
Jordahl, J.L.; Foster, L.; Schnoor, J.L.; and Alvarez, July 1998, Orlando, Florida
P.J.J. American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St.
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry v 16:6 p Joseph, MI 1998
1318(4) June 1997
A recently developed phytoremediation computer
Microbial populations from the rhizosphere of model may be extremely useful in predicting the fate of
seven-year-old hybrid poplar trees were characterized recalcitrant hydrocarbons in soil. A field facility for
in terms of five specific phenotypes: total heterotrophs; phytoremediation research has been constructed to
denitrifiers; pseudomonads; degraders of benzene, provide empirical data to validate and calibrate the
toluene, and xylenes (BTX); and atrazine degraders. model. Trinitrotoluene (TNT);
The concentrations of these phenotypes were measured 2,2',5,5'-tetrabromobiphenyl (PBB); and chrysene have
in three rhizosphere samples and in three control soil been tested. Due to the hazardous nature of these
samples taken from an adjacent corn field. All types of hydrocarbons, the soil-contaminant mixture was
microbial populations were higher in the poplar isolated from the field environment using two lysimeter
rhizosphere than in the surrounding soil. Highest designs. Soil in both the box and column lysimeters
concentrations were found for total heterotrophs, were contaminated with 10 mg of each contaminant per
followed by denitrifiers, pseudomonads, BTX kg of soil. Vegetation treatments consisted of fallow,
degraders, and atrazine degraders. These findings are warm season grass (Johnsongrass), cool season grass
discussed in relation to bioremediation potential. (Canadian wild-rye grass), and a warm/cool season
grass rotation (Johnsongrass/Canadian wild-rye grass).
Both the box and column lysimeters functioned well in
Effects of Ryegrass on Biodegradation of collecting parameters necessary to validate and
Hydrocarbons in Soil calibrate the computer model.
Gunther, T.; Friedrich-Schiller-Universitat J.;
Dornberger, U.; and Fritsche, W.
Chemosphere v 33:2 p 203(13) July 1996 Greenhouse Evaluation of Agronomic and Crude
Oil-Phytoremediation Potential Among Alfalfa
The influence of ryegrass on the biodegradation of Genotypes
applied aliphatics and PAHs was investigated using a Wiltse, C. C.; Rooney, W. L.; Chen, Z.; Schwab, A. P.;
series of laboratory soil-column experiments. A defined and Banks, M. K.
mixture of saturated, unsaturated, and branched-chain Journal of Environmental Quality v 27:1 p 169(5)
aliphatics and PAHs was added to the soil columns. January-February 1998
Results show that the artificially applied aliphatic
hydrocarbons disappeared faster and to a greater extent Twenty alfalfa plants were evaluated in terms of their
in ryegrass-planted columns than in the non-root agronomic performance and phytoremediation potential
systems. The enhanced disappearance of the pollutants for crude oil-contaminated soil. Among the genotypes,
in the rhizosphere was accompanied by higher values differences were observed in total forage yield,
for microbial plate counts and soil respiration rates for maturity, plant height, and leaf-burn rating. Total
the vegetated systems, which indicated the primary role petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations in soil after 12
of microbial degradation. In contrast to the aliphatics, months ranged 3799-5754 mg/kg for soils with the
the amount of PAHs decreased rapidly in both systems, alfalfa plants and averaged 4610 mg/kg in the
and the differences between planted and unplanted soil unvegetated control. When each genotype was
were insignificant. considered separately, two genotypes had total
petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations that were
significantly lower than that of the unvegetated control.
Plants growing in contaminated soil, however,
13
exhibited later maturation and shorter heights than Phytoremediation Experimentation with the
those growing in uncontaminated soil. Herbicide Bentazon
Conger, R.M. and Portier, R.J.
Remediation v 7:2 p 19(19) 1997
The Influence of Planting and Soil Characteristics
on Mineralization of 2,4,5-T in Rhizosphere Soil An experiment was performed on six species of trees to
Boyle, J.J. and Shann, J.R. determine the feasibility of remediating ground water
Journal of Environmental Quality v 27:3 p 704(6) contaminated with an agricultural herbicide, bentazon,
May-June 1998 at a site in southern Louisiana. Fate studies on
bentazon support that it is translocated to the plant
Soils from an abandoned pasture, a forest, and a leaves where it is degraded to lower-order derivative
floodplain near Cincinnati, OH, were used as substrate compounds within short periods of time. Both
for timothy grass, red clover, and sunflower, and transpiration observations and dosing tests suggest that
evaluated in terms of their mineralization of both the most favorable phreatophyte and species
2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T). Microbial tolerant of bentazone exposure was the black willow
activity, biomass, and mineralization of 2,4,5-T in (Salix nigra).
rhizosphere soil were determined before and after
planting. Results showed that microbial activity and
biomass were dependent upon soil type in the unplanted Phytoremediation: Modeling Removal of TNT and
plots. In soils with lower values, planting significantly Its Breakdown Products
increased biomass and/or activity, independent of plant Medina, V.F. and McCutcheon, S.C.
species. Overall, soil type was the most significant Remediation v 7:1 p 31(15) Winter 1996
determinant of microbial biomass, activity, and
xenobiotic degradation. The success of phytoremediation techniques for the
treatment of TNT-contaminated ground water and
wastewater is evaluated. Two different
Mineralization of 2,4-Dichlorophenol by phytoremediation techniques are examined: controlled
Ectomycorrhizal Fungi in Axenic Culture and in reactors and constructed wetlands. The benefits offered
Symbiosis with Pine by controlled reactors include: greater control over
Meharg, A.A.; Cairney, J.W.G.; and Maguire, N. operating parameters, reduced chances of contaminant
Chemosphere v 34:12 p 2495(10) June 1997 migration, and reduced chances that animals will feed
on the plants. Constructed wetlands are generally less
The fungal mycelium associated with mycorrhizal expensive and often provide aesthetic and ecological
plants provides a means of enhancing the volume of benefits. A first-order, nonreversible reaction,
rhizospheric soil compared to bulk soil, which can plug-flow, finite-difference model was used to predict
enhance soil remediation. Two ectomycorrhizal fungal the disappearance of TNT from a constructed wetland.
species—Suillus variegatus and Paxillus
involutus—were evaluated in terms of their ability to
degrade 2,4-dichlorophenol in batch culture and in Phytoremediation of 1,4-dioxane by Hybrid Poplars
association with Pinus sylvestris. Results indicate that Aitchison, E.W.; Schnoor, J.L.; Kelley, S.L.; and
2,4-dichlorophenol was readily degraded by both Alvarez, P.J.J.
species, but P. involutus proved to be much more Proceedings of the 12th Annual Conference on
efficient than S. variegatus. In the presence of pine Hazardous Waste Research, 20-22 May 1997, Kansas
seedlings, mycorrhizal symbiosis increased City, Missouri
mineralization by both species, but the increase was
much more dramatic for S. variegatus, which under The suspected carcinogen 1,4-dioxane has a half-life in
these conditions became the more efficient degrader of soils and ground water of several years, while its
2,4-dichlorophenol. half-life in the atmosphere in the presence of NO and
14
hydroxyl radicals is several hours. The researchers Studies to determine the potential for phytoremediation
examine 1,4-dioxane volatilization into the atmosphere of fully chlorinated compounds, brominated
via plant transpiration, evaluating the capacity of compounds, and nonhalogenated compounds are
rooted cuttings of hybrid poplar trees to take up and underway. When using phytoremediation, it is
translocate 1,4-dioxane. Study results indicate that important to select not only a plant that is capable of
poplar uptake of 1,4-dioxane far exceeds its degrading the pollutant in question, but also one that
degradation by indigenous root-zone microorganisms. will grow well in that specific environment. One way to
The majority of 1,4-dioxane taken up into the plant was supplement the arsenal of plants available for remedial
volatilized, with the remaining mass concentrated actions is to utilize genetic engineering tools to insert
primarily in the stem. Rapid uptake of 1,4-dioxane by into plants those genes that will enable the plant to
hybrid poplar trees makes phytoremediation an metabolize a particular pollutant. Hybrid technologies,
attractive treatment alternative at such as using plants in pumping and irrigation systems,
dioxane-contaminated sites, and research into this also enable plants to be used as a remedial method
treatment methodology will continue. when the source of the pollutant is beyond the reach of
plant roots, or when planting space directly over the
pollutant is unavailable or restricted. Thus, the
Phytoremediation of Hazardous Wastes potential uses of phytoremediation are expanding as the
McCutcheon, S.C.; Wolfe, N.L.; Carreria, L.H.; and technology continues to offer new, low-cost remediation
Ou, T.Y. options.
Innovative Technologies for Site Remediation and
Hazardous Waste Management: Proceedings of the
National Conference, 23-26 July 1995, Pittsburgh, Phytoremediation of Pesticide-Contaminated Soils
Pennsylvania Kruger, E.L.; Anderson, T.A.; and Coats, J.R.
American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, NY p Air & Waste Management Association’s 89th Annual
597(8) 1995 Meeting, 1996, Nashville, Tennessee
Available at http://www.awma.org
Analyzing the effectiveness of phytoremediation
involves rigorous pathway analyses, mass balance Screening tests of rhizosphere soils from 15 plant
determinations, and identification of specific enzymes species were conducted to determine their ability to
that break down trinitrotoluene (TNT), other explosives mineralize two common herbicide contaminants:
(RDX and HMX), nitrobenzene, and chlorinated atrazine and metolachlor. Mineralization of
14
solvents (such as TCE and PCE). For example, TNT is C-atrazine or 14C-metolachlor, applied at 50 ppm
completely and rapidly degraded by nitroreductase and each, was monitored. Kochia rhizosphere soil exhibited
laccase enzymes. As part of the natural lignification the greatest mineralization of 14C-atrazine. Other
process, the aromatic ring is broken and the carbon in rhizosphere soils that exhibited the ability to mineralize
the ring fragments is incorporated into new plant fiber. high concentrations of atrazine included musk thistle,
The use of created wetlands and other catnip, foxtail barley, witchgrass, and lambsquarters.
phytoremediation applications guided by rigorous field None of the rhizosphere soils tested exhibited a positive
biochemistry and ecology promises to be a vital part of response for 14C-metolachlor mineralization.
a newly evolving field, ecological engineering. Mineralization of atrazine was considerable after 36
days, while mineralization of metolachlor was minimal.
The percentage of extractable atrazine for kochia
Phytoremediation of Organic Contaminants: A vegetated soils was significantly less than from
Review of Phytoremediation Research at the nonvegetated soil. Combustion of plants revealed that
University of Washington 11% of the applied 14C was taken up by kochia. This
Newman, L.A.; Doty, S.L.; Gery, K.L.; Heilman, P.E.; research indicates that the use of plants in remediating
et al. soils looks promising.
Journal of Soil Contamination, v 7:4, p 531(12), 1998
15
Phytoremediation of Trichloroethylene with Hybrid microcosms showed slight stimulation and the addition
Poplars of ground-up root biomass revealed large stimulation of
Gordon, M.; Choe, N.; Duffy, J.; Ekuan, G.; Heilman, mineralization to 14CO2. This research indicates that
P.; Muiznieks, I.; Newman, L.; Ruszaj, M.; Shurtleff, vegetative uptake and degradation in the rhizosphere
B.B.; Strand, S.; and Wilmoth, J. can play a major role in remediation at hazardous waste
Phytoremediation of Soil and Water Contaminants sites.
American Chemical Society, Washington, DC p 177(9)
1997
Phytotreatment of TNT-Contaminated Groundwater
The ability of hybrid plants to absorb trichloroethylene Rivera, R.; Medina, V.F.; Larson, S.L.; and
(TCE) from ground water was examined. Initial studies McCutcheon, S.C.
used axenic tumor cultures of H11-11 grown in the Journal of Soil Contamination, v 7:4, p 511(20), 1998
presence of 14C-TCE. These cells metabolized the TCE
to produce trichloroethanol, di- and trichloroacetic Phytoremediation is a viable technique for treating
acid. Some of the TCE was incorporated into insoluble, munitions-contaminated ground water and wastewater.
non-extractable cell residue, and small amounts were Continuous flow reactor studies were conducted at three
mineralized to 14C-CO2. Rooted poplar cuttings grown different influent concentrations of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene
in PVC pipes produced the same metabolites when (TNT): 1, 5, and 10 ppm. Retention times varied from
exposed to TCE. Mass balance studies indicate that the 12 to 76 days. Batch experiments were conducted to
poplars also transpire TCE. In addition one of the first confirm the phytodegradation of amino-derivatives of
controlled field trials for this technology is being TNT. Plant tissue was analyzed for TNT and
conducted. Trees were planted in cells lined with high breakdown products. Preliminary batch studies were
density polyethylene and exposed to TCE via an also conducted on the degradation of RDX. Initially,
underground water stream during the growing season. the control removed TNT as efficiently as the plant
Cells containing trees had significantly reduced TCE reactors. However, as time continued, the efficiency of
levels in the effluent water stream compared to control the control dipped below that of the plant reactors,
cells containing only soil. These results show that suggesting that adsorption was initially the mechanism
significant TCE uptake and degradation occur in of removal. Up to 100% of the TNT was removed.
poplars. Batch studies found that ADNT and
diaminonitrotoluene (DANT) were phytodegraded. The
batch studies indicated that the degradation of RDX
Phytoremediation, Plant Uptake of Atrazine and was slower than that for TNT. Different plants were
Role of Root Exudates more efficient at removing RDX than those for
Burken, J.G. and Schnoor, J.L. removing TNT, suggesting that there are differences in
Journal of Environmental Engineering v 122:11 p the removal mechanisms.
958(6) 1996
The potential of phytoremediation in the cleanup of Plant Cell Biodegradation of a Xenobiotic Nitrate
contaminated sites and prevention of non-point-source Ester, Nitroglycerin
pollution was examined with the pesticide atrazine in Goel, A.; Kumar, G.; Payne, G.F.; and Dube, S.K.
two experimental systems. Uptake was determined in Natural Biotechnology v 15:2 p 174(4) 1997
batch experiments with 14C ring-labeled atrazine and
hybrid poplar trees grown in two soil types. The ability of plants to metabolize glycerol trinitrate
Mineralization was studied utilizing soil microcosms (GTN, nitroglycerin), was examined using cultured
with the addition of root exudates. Results indicate that plant cells and plant cell extracts. Intact cells rapidly
poplar cuttings were able to uptake the majority of degrade GTN with the initial formation of glycerol
applied atrazine that was not tightly sorbed to the dinitrate (GDN) and the later formation of glycerol
organic fraction of the soil, with no detectable adverse mononitrate (GMN). Cell extracts were shown to be
effects to the trees. The addition of root exudate to
16
capable of degrading GTN with the simultaneous root-water uptake rate increases the contaminant
formation of GDN in stoichiometric amounts. The retardation factors because of the resulting low water
degradative activities of plant cells are only ten times content. The ability to simulate the fate of a
less than those reported for bacterial GTN degradation. hydrocarbon contaminant is essential in designing
These results suggest that plants may serve a direct technically efficient and cost-effective, plant-aided
degradative function for the phytoremediation of sites remedial strategies and in evaluating the effectiveness
contaminated by organic nitrate esters. of a proposed phytoremediation scheme.
Plant-Enhanced Remediation of Petroleum Potential of Phytoremediation as a Means for

Contaminated Soil Habitat Restoration and Cleanup of Petroleum
Novak, J.T. and Al-Ghazzawi, Z. Contaminated Wetlands
Proceedings of the 1997 29th Mid-Atlantic Industrial Lin, Q. and Mendelssohn, A.
and Hazardous Waste Conference Phytoremediation of Soil and Water Contaminants
Technomic Publishing Co., Lancaster, PA p 605(9) American Chemical Society, Washington, DC 1997
1997
Oil spills in coastal wetlands often kill vegetation and
Phytoremediation is an easy and inexpensive method contaminate wetland sediment for many years. The
for treating petroleum-contaminated soils. The potential of phytoremediation for habitat restoration
phytoremediation mechanism is related to direct and cleanup of contaminated marshes was studied with
contaminant uptake or indirect plant mechanisms marsh mesocosms. Soil sods of Spartina alterniflora
which catalyze pollutant-microbe interaction in the and Spartina patens (common coastal marsh grasses)
rhizosphere. These mechanisms and their importance were dosed with crude oil. Two years after application
are studied. of the oil to the soil sods, these two Spartina species
were transplanted into oiled and unoiled sods to
determine the potential for habitat restoration and oil
Plant-Enhanced Subsurface Bioremediation of phytoremediation. The regrowth biomass was not
Nonvolatile Hydrocarbons significantly affected by oil for combined biomass of
Chang, Y.Y. and Corapcioglu, M.Y. the two species and significantly higher with oil for
Journal of Environmental Engineering v 124:2 p Spartina alterniflora, suggesting the potential for
162(8) February 1998 habitat restoration by transplanting after oil spills. Oil
degradation was enhanced by phytoremediation in
Phytoremediation has become a promising new area of combination with fertilization. The oil degradation rate
research for in situ cleanup of large volumes of slightly was negligible in the absence of vegetation, but it was
contaminated soils. A model that can be used as a significantly higher in the presence of transplanted
predictive tool in phytoremediation operations was vegetation and fertilizer. Whether increased
developed to simulate the transport and fate of a degradation of residual oil was due to the enhancement
residual hydrocarbon contaminant interacting with of soil microbial activity by the fertilizer or by
plant roots in a partially saturated soil. Time-specific phytoremediation is presently being investigated.
distribution of root quantity through soil, as well as root
uptake of soil water and hydrocarbon, was incorporated
into the model. In addition, the microbial activity in the Rhizosphere Microbial Populations in Contaminated
soil rhizosphere was modeled with a biofilm theory. Soils
The simulation results showed enhanced Nichols, T.D.; Wolf, D.C.; Rogers, H.B.; Beyrouty,
biodegradation of a hydrocarbon contaminant mostly C.A.; and Reynolds, C.M.
because of increased biofilm metabolism of organic Water, Air, and Soil Pollution v 95:1-4 p 165(14) 1997
contaminants in a growing root system of cotton.
Simulations also show that a high mean daily
17
Abstracts of Phytoremediation Resources Inorganic Contaminants
Rhizosphere microbial populations may enhance Uptake and Fate of Organohalogens from
bioremediation of soil contaminated with organic Contaminated Groundwater in Woody Plants
chemicals. A growth chamber study was conducted to Sytsma, L.; Mulder, J.; Schneider, J.; et al.
evaluate rhizosphere microbial populations in Proceedings of the 213th National Meeting of the
contaminated and non-contaminated soil. Alfalfa American Chemical Society, 13-17 April 1997, San
(Medicago sativa L.) and alpine bluegrass (Poa alpina Francisco, California
L.) were grown in soil containing a mixture of organic American Chemical Society, Washington, DC p 89
chemicals for 14 weeks. The equal mixture of 1997
hexadecane, (2,2-dimethylpropyl)benzene,
cis-decahydronaphthalene (decalin), benzoic acid, Phytoremediation uses green plants for low-cost,
phenanthrene, and pyrene was added at levels of 0 and low-tech remediation processes in which selected plants
2000 mg/kg. At nine weeks, the organic chemical and natural or engineered microorganisms work
degrader (OCD) populations were significantly higher together to metabolize, convert, absorb, accumulate,
in rhizosphere and contaminated soils than in bulk and sequester, or otherwise render harmless multiple
non-contaminated soils. Selective enrichment of OCD environmental contaminants. There is evidence that
populations was observed in contaminated rhizosphere plants can degrade a portion of many organic
soil. Higher numbers of OCD in contaminated contaminants and form less volatile compounds which
rhizospheres suggest potential stimulation of are sequestered in the plant tissue. The remainder of
bioremediation around plant roots. the contaminant is passed out of the leaf tissue with the
transpiration stream. Hybrid poplar plants fed by TCE-
and PCE-spiked nutrient solutions in a greenhouse
Transformation of TNT by Aquatic Plants and Plant showed elevated degradation product levels in the
Tissue Cultures leaves within a week, as well as evidence for
Hughes, J. B.; Shanks, J.; Vanderford, M.; Lauritzen, evapotranspiration of the TCE and PCE.
J.; and Bhadra, R.
Environmental Science & Technology v 31:1 p 266(6) Publications Containing Multiple Papers
1997
Bioremediation and Phytoremediation: Chlorinated
The ability of plants to uptake and transform and Recalcitrant Compounds: the First
2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) was investigated using the International Conference on Remediation of
aquatic plants Myriophyllum spicatum, axenic Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds,
Myriophyllum aquaticum, and Catharanthus roseus Monterey, California, May 18-21, 1998
hairy root cultures. Studies demonstrate that both Wickramanayake, G.B. and Hinchee, R.E. (eds.)
Myriophyllum and C. roseus transform TNT. Primary Battelle Press, Columbus, OH 301 pp 1998
products of transformation were not identified, and
mineralization was not observed. Mass balances Inorganic Contaminants
demonstrate that a large percentage of the unknown
TNT transformation products were associated with the Overviews
plant. This fraction could be at least partially recovered
from the plant tissue with methanol extraction. A Emerging Technologies for the Remediation of
soluble fraction was also present in the medium. The Metals in Soils: Phytoremediation
formation of soluble, uncharacterized transformation Interstate Technology and Regulatory Cooperation
products is a concern for potential phytoremediation Work Group (ITRC), Metals in Soils Work Team 15 pp
applications. 1998
Available at http://www.sso.org/ecos/itrc
Phytoremediation is a means of removing organic or

inorganic contaminants from soils, sediments, and
ground water using plants. This document focuses on
18
issues related to the remediation of metals in soils. The metal ions from soils and store them in the plant itself.
technology, its applicability to sites and contaminants, To select the appropriate phytoremediation technology,
and associated costs are outlined. Several approaches to the technical feasibility, cost effectiveness, and
phytoremediation are explored. The document also availability of the suitable plant species must be
presents regulatory and stakeholder concerns and examined. Before phytoremediation can be exploited on
discusses research needs. a contaminated site, greenhouse-scale confirmatory
testing is necessary to measure plant uptake and
correlate shoot metal concentrations to available soil
Literature Review: Phytoaccumulation of metals. These tests also validate that the harvesting and
Chromium, Uranium, and Plutonium in Plant subsequent disposal of metal-containing plant tissues
Systems are environmentally safe and manageable.
Hossner, L.R.; Loeppert, R.H.; Newton, R.J.; and
Szaniszlo, P.J.
Amarillo National Resource Center for Plutonium, TX Restoration of Mined Lands—Using Natural
53 pp May 1998 Processes
Bradshaw, A.
Phytoremediation is an integrated approach to the Ecological Engineering v 8:4 p 255(15) August 1997
cleanup of contaminated soils that combines the
disciplines of plant physiology, soil chemistry, and soil In many countries legislation now requires that surface
microbiology. Removal of metals from contaminated soils disturbed by mining activities be conserved and
soils using accumulator plants is the goal of replaced, but there is a vast heritage of contaminated
phytoremediation. The emphasis of this review has land left by past mining. The processes of natural
been placed on chromium (Cr), plutonium (Pu), and succession demonstrate that unaided restoration can be
uranium (U). With the exception of Cr, these metals achieved along with the development of fully
and their decay products exhibit two problems: functioning soils. Plants can readily provide organic
radiation dose hazards and their chemical toxicity. matter, lower soil bulk density, bring mineral nutrients
Radiation dose hazards introduce the need for special to the surface, and accumulate them in an available
precautions in reclamation beyond that associated with form. Most importantly, some species can fix and
non-radioactive metals. The uptake of metals by plants accumulate nitrogen rapidly in quantities more than
occurs predominantly by way of channels, pores, and adequate for normal ecosystem functioning. Certain
transporters in the root plasma membrane. Most extreme soil conditions may occur that prevent plant
vascular plants absorb toxic and heavy metals through growth, particularly physical conditions, gross lack of
their roots to varying degrees. certain nutrients, and toxicity. However, ecosystem
restoration can be achieved at low cost, and the product
be self-sustaining in the long term.
Remediation of Metal-Contaminated Sites Using
Plants
Azadpour, A. and Matthews, J.E. Status of In Situ Phytoremediation Technology
Remediation v 6:3 p 1(18) 1996 U. S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response
The current technologies employed for removal of Published in Recent Developments for In Situ
heavy metals from soils often involve expensive ex situ Treatment of Metal Contaminated Soils p 31(12)
processes requiring sophisticated equipment for
removal, transportation, and purification of the soil. In EPA Document Number: EPA 542-R-97-004
situ bioremediation is receiving increasing attention
because of its relative effectiveness and low cost. This chapter offers an overview of different
Phytoremediation, a new type of bioremediation, uses phytoremediation approaches: phytoextraction,
metal-tolerant hyperaccumulator plants to take up
19
phytostabilization, and rhizofiltration, as well as a sulfate from organic sulfur, especially from ester
performance and cost summary, applications and future sulfate, also contributes to plant uptake of sulfur.
development analyses, and a list of metal
hyperaccumulating plants.
Removal of Uranium from Water Using Terrestrial
Field Studies and Demonstrations Plants
Dushenkov, S.; Vasudev, D.; Kapulnik, Y.; Gleba, D.;
Phytoaccumulation of Trace Elements by Wetland Fleisher, D.; Ting, K.C.; and Ensley, B.
Plants: I. Duckweed Environmental Science & Technology v 31:12 p
Zayed, A.; Gowthaman, S.; and Terry, N. 3468(6) December 1997
Journal of Environmental Quality v 27:3 p 715(7)
May-June 1998 Uranium (U) contamination of ground water poses a
serious environmental problem in uranium mining
The removal of trace elements by wetland vegetation is areas and in the vicinity of nuclear processing facilities.
enhanced by the use of appropriate plant species. Preliminary laboratory experiments and treatability
Results are presented from the first in a series of studies indicate that the roots of terrestrial plants can be
wetland-plant evaluations in terms of the removal of efficiently used to remove U from aqueous streams
trace elements from contaminated water. Duckweed (rhizofiltration). Almost all of the U removed from the
was considered for its phytoaccumulation of cadmium water in the laboratory using sunflower plants was
(Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), nickel concentrated in the roots. Rhizofiltration technology
(Ni), and selenium (Se). The data show that Cd was has been tested in the field with U-contaminated water
accumulated to the greatest levels, followed by Se, Cu, at concentrations of 21—874 )g/L at a former U
and Cr, and then Pb and Ni. processing facility in Ashtabula, OH. The pilot-scale
rhizofiltration system provided final treatment to the
site source water and reduced U concentration to <20
Relationship Between Sulfur Speciation in Soils and )g/L before discharge to the environment. System
Plant Availability performance was subsequently evaluated under
Shan, X.-Q.; Chen, B.; Zhang, T.-H.; Li, F.-L.; Wen, different flow rates permitting the development of
B.; and Qian, J. effectiveness estimates for the approach.
Science of the Total Environment v 199:3 p 237(10)
1997 Research
Both bench-scale experiments and field surveys were Differences in Root Uptake of Radiocesium by 30
conducted to investigate the relationship between sulfur Plant Taxa
speciation in soils and sulfur concentration in plants. Broadley, M.R. and Willey, N.J.
Soil sulfur was fractionated into water-soluble sulfate Environmental Pollution v 97:1-2 p 11(5) 1997
(S1), adsorbed sulfate (S2), carbonate-occluded sulfate
(S3), ester sulfate (S4) and carbon-bonded sulfur (S5). The concentration of Cesium (Cs) was measured in the
Water-soluble sulfate was the most easily available shoots of 30 plant taxa after exposing the roots to 0.1
form of soil sulfur, followed by adsorbed sulfate, ester )g/g radiolabelled Cs soil for 6 hours. The maximum
sulfate, carbon-bonded sulfur and carbonate-occluded accumulation differences were between Chenopodium
sulfate. Changes in concentrations of the different quinoa and Koeleria macrantha (20-fold in Cs
forms of soil sulfur after bench-scale experiments gave concentration and 100-fold in total Cs accumulated).
direct evidence to the order of availability. S1 and S2 The lowest Cs concentrations occurred in slow growing
decreased significantly, S4 also decreased, whereas S5 Gramineae and the highest in fast growing
and S3 remained almost unchanged. These results Chenopodiaceae. If radiocesium uptake by the
suggest that water-soluble and adsorbed sulfate are Chenopodiaceae during chronic exposures shows
directly available to plants, while the mineralization of similar patterns to those reported here after acute
20
exposure, then the food contamination implications and A greenhouse study was conducted to evaluate
the potential for phytoremediation of radiocesium phytoremediation using tamarisk and eucalyptus at a
contaminated soils using plants in this family may be site in East Palo Alto, CA, where the ground water was
worth investigating. contaminated with arsenic. The initial study assessed
whether the trees could tolerate arsenic and sodium
found in the ground water and soil. Over the course of
Enhanced Accumulation of Pb in Indian Mustard by the study, tamarisk used significantly more water than
Soil-Applied Chelating Agents eucalyptus, but eucalyptus water use was substantially
Blaylock, M.J.; Salt, D.E.; Dushenkov, S.; Zakharova, higher than tamarisk when normalized to shoot mass.
O.; Gussman, C.; Kapulnik, Y.; Ensley, B.D.; and Water use by both species was substantially lower for
Raskin, I. trees exposed to high sodium treatments, but tamarisk
Environmental Science & Technology v 31 p 860(6) was less affected than eucalyptus.
1998
Phytoremediation is emerging as a potential cost- Feasibility of Using Plants to Assist in the

effective solution for the remediation of contaminated Remediation of Heavy Metal Contamination at
soils. Because contaminants such as lead (Pb) have J-Field, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland. Final
limited bioavailability in the soil, a means of Report
solubilizing Pb in the soil and facilitating its transport Jastrow, J.D.
to plant shoots is vital to the success of 29 pp November 1995
phytoremediation. Indian mustard (Brassica juncea)
was used to demonstrate the capability of plants to Interest in the development of in situ bioremediation
accumulate high tissue concentrations of Pb when technologies has grown substantially over the last
grown in Pb-contaminated soil. A concentration of decade. The purpose of this project was to investigate
1.5% Pb in the shoots of B. juncea was obtained from the potential for using plants to remediate soils
soils containing Pb (600 mg/kg) amended with contaminated with heavy metals. Phragmites australis,
synthetic chelates such as EDTA. The accumulation of one of the dominant species in the Toxic Burning Pits
Pb in the tissue (TBP) area and other contaminated sites within J-Field,
corresponded to the concentration of Pb in the soil and appears to be both tolerant of heavy metal contaminated
the concentration of EDTA added to the soil. The soil conditions and capable of producing large amounts
accumulation of Cadmium, Copper, Nickel, and Zinc of biomass. Consequently, this project has concentrated
from contaminated soil amended with EDTA and other on characterizing heavy metal accumulation by
synthetic chelators was also demonstrated. The research Phragmites australis growing in the TBP area relative
indicates that the accumulation of metals in the shoots to soil concentrations and availabilities. This type of
of B. juncea can be enhanced through the application of information is necessary to determine the feasibility of
synthetic chelates to the soil, facilitating high biomass using this species to assist in the remediation of metal
accumulation as well as metal uptake. contaminated soils at J-Field.
Evaluation of Tamarisk and Eucalyptus Lead-Contaminated Sediments Prove Susceptible to

Transpiration for the Application of Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation Goldsmith, W.
Tossell, R.W.; Binard, K.; Sangines-Uriarte, L.; Soil and Groundwater Cleanup p 15(3)
Rafferty, M.T.; and Morris, N.P. February/March 1998
Bioremediation and Phytoremediation: Chlorinated [Also available at http://www.bioengineering.com
and Recalcitrant Compounds under the title Phytoremediation Potential for Lead-
Battelle Press, Columbus, OH p 257(6) 1998 Contaminated River Sediments]
21
Most conventional technologies for removal or capping metals from contaminated water over a range of
of lead-contaminated river sediments are neither environmentally relevant metal concentrations.
technically nor economically practicable. Engineered Seedlings concentrated the divalent cations Lead(II),
wetlands for removal of lead from riverine sediments Strontium(II), Cadmium(II), and Nickel(II) 500-2000
appear to offer a sound approach to cleanup via times and concentrated monovalent Cesium(I) and
phytoextraction followed by harvesting. Plants have hexavalent Chromium(IV) 100-250 times from
been identified that grow in this type of environment contaminated water containing the competing ions Ca,
and possess a documented ability to take up lead into Mg, K, SO4, and NO3. At the lowest Cadmium (Cd)
leaves, roots, and stems. Recent research suggests that concentration studied, Cd levels were reduced to below
phytoremediation conducted over a period of years can 10 ppb ()g/L). In the absence of competing ions, Cd
offer significant benefits in sediment cleanup. accumulation in seedlings increased 47-fold. This
suggests that a better understanding of the biological
processes governing uptake and accumulation of Cd by
Lead Uptake and Effects on Seed Germination and seedlings should allow the application of modern
Plant Growth in a Pb Hyperaccumulator Brassica genetic engineering techniques to improve their
pekinensis Rupr. selectivity and capacity for Cd removal from waters
Xiong, Z.-T. containing high levels of competing ions. As a first step
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination Toxicology v in this process, we have started to define the tissue and
60:2 p 285(7) February 1998 cellular localization of Cd, its accumulation rates and
possible uptake mechanisms, and the role of
The ability of Brassica pekinensis Rupr. to intracellular chelates in Cd detoxification. Intracellular
hyperaccumulate lead could make it effective for the Cd accumulation in seedlings was mediated by
phytoremediation of contaminated soils. The effect of saturable transport system(s) and inhibited
various concentrations of lead on the germination of competitively in shoots and non-competitively in roots
seeds and growth of plants was investigated. Generally by Ca2+, Zn2+, and Mn2+. Phytochelatins, the Cd-binding
germination and growth of roots and shoots peptides known to be involved in Cd resistance in
demonstrated dose-related inhibition. Bioaccumulation mature plants, also accumulated in B. juncea seedlings
of lead in root, stem, and leaf was related to lead exposed to Cd. Our results suggest that the use of
concentration in the growth medium. Roots aquacultured seedlings of B. juncea could provide a
bioconcentrated lead to between 27 and 34 times the novel approach to the treatment of various metal-
concentration in growth medium. Stem and leaf contaminated waste streams.
bioconcentration ranged from four to seven times and
two to three times, respectively. The shoot to root ratio
of lead was 0.9 for this plant species, which compares Phytoextraction of Cadmium and Zinc from a
well with other hyperaccumulators. High ratios allow Contaminated Soil
lead concentrated in shoots to be easily removed by Ebbs, S.D.; Lasat, M.M.; Brady, D.J.; Cornish, J.;
harvesting. Gordon, R.; and Kochian, L.V.
Journal of Environmental Quality v 26:5 p 1424(7)
September-October 97
Metal Accumulation by Aquacultured Seedlings of
Indian Mustard The phytoextraction ability of Brassica juncea, B.
Salt, D.E.; Pickering, I.J.; Prince, R.C.; Gleba, D.; napus, and B. rapa toward cadmium (Cd) and zinc
Dushenkov, S.; Smith, R.D.; and Raskin, I. (Zn) in a contaminated soil was determined and
Environmental Science & Technology v 31 p 1636(9) compared to that exhibited by Thlaspi caerulescens,
1997 Agrostis capillaris, and Festuca rubra. Results showed
that T. caerulescens achieved shoot Cd concentrations
Indian mustard (Brassica juncea (L.) Czern) seedlings approximately ten times as great as those of the three
grown in aerated water were able to accumulate various Brassica species, while shoot Zn concentrations in T.
caerulescens were approximately 2.5 times as great.
22
However, due to the significantly greater biomass species included B. nigra, B. oleracea, B. campestris,
produced by the Brassica species, this species was more B. carinata, B. juncea, and B. napus. Results indicate
effective in removing Zn and equally effective in that B. juncea and B. nigra had the highest
removing Cd as T. caerulescens. metal-accumulating ability among the species tested.
Shoot growth was only slightly affected by exposure to
lead over the concentration range tested. For the other
Phytoextraction of Zinc by Oat (Avena sativa), metals examined, chromium had the highest
Barley (Hordeum vulgare), and Indian Mustard phytoextraction coefficient, followed by cadmium,
(Brassica juncea) nickel, zinc, and copper.
Ebbs, S.D.; and Kochian, L.V.
Environmental Science & Technology v 32:6 802(5)
1998 Phytofiltration of Hazardous Cadmium, Chromium,
Lead and Zinc Ions by Biomass of Medicago sativa
The success of phytoremediation depends on the (Alfalfa)
selection of plant species and soil amendments that Gardea-Torresdey, J.L.; Gonzalez, J.H.; Tiemann, K.J.;
maximize contaminant removal. Indian mustard Rodriguez, O.; and Gamez, G.
(Brassica juncea) has been shown to be effective in Journal of Hazardous Materials v 57:1-3 p 29(11)
phytoextracting Zn, particularly after the synthetic 1998
chelate EDTA has been applied to the soil. However,
the effectiveness of grass species for phytoremediation Previous laboratory batch experiments of Medicago
has not been addressed in great detail. A hydroponic sativa (Alfalfa) indicated that the African shoots
screening of 22 grass species indicated that oat (Avena population had an appreciable ability to bind copper(II)
sativa) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) tolerated the and nickel(II) ions from aqueous solution. Batch
high copper, cadmium, and zinc concentrations present laboratory pH profile, time dependency, and capacity
in the solution and also accumulated elevated experiments were performed to determine the binding
concentrations of these metals in the plant shoots. A ability of the African shoots for cadmium(II),
hydroponic experiment comparing these two grasses to chromium(III), chromium(VI), lead(II), and zinc(II).
Indian mustard indicated that, although shoot Zn Batch pH profile experiments indicate that the optimum
concentrations were greater for Indian mustard, the pH for metal binding is approximately 5.0. Time
grasses were considerably more tolerant. The results of dependency experiments demonstrate that metal
this experiment suggest that barley has a binding to the African alfalfa shoots occurred within 5
phytoremediation potential equal to, if not greater than, minutes. Binding capacity experiments revealed the
that for B. juncea. following amounts of metal ions bound per gram of
biomass: 7.1 mg Cd(II), 7.7 mg Cr(III), 43 mg Pb(II),
4.9 mg Zn(II), and 0 mg Cr(VI). The results from these
Phytoextraction: the Use of Plants to Remove Heavy studies will be useful in the use of phytofiltration to
Metals from Soils remove and recover heavy metal ions from aqueous
Kumar, P. B. A. N.; Dushenkov, V.; Motto, H.; and solution.
Raskin, I.
Environmental Science & Technology v 29:5 p 1232(7)
May 1995 Phytoremediation of a Radiocesium-Contaminated
Soil: Evaluation of Cesium137 Bioaccumulation in the
The process of phytoextraction, the use of plants to Shoots of Three Plant Species
remove heavy metals from soils, generally requires the Lasat, M.M.; Fuhrmann, M.; Ebbs, S.D.; Cornish, J.E.;
translocation of heavy metals to the easily harvestable and Kochian, L.V.
shoots. Several cultivars of Indian mustard (Brassica Journal of Environmental Quality v 27:1 p 165(5)
juncea) were investigated for their ability to efficiently January-February 1998
accumulate lead and other heavy metals. The Brassica
23
At Brookhaven National Laboratory's Hazardous Waste Phytoremediation of Selenium Laden Soils: A New
Management Facilities, the potential for cesium-137 Technology
(137Cs) extraction from contaminated soil by three plant Banuelos, G.S.; Ajwa, H.A.; Terry, N.; and Zayed, A.
species was studied. In addition, the effect of applying Journal of Soil and Water Conservation v 52:6 p
ammonium nitrate to contaminated soil on 137Cs 426(5) November-December 1997
extraction was evaluated. The plants used were Indian
mustard, red root pigweed, and tepary bean. Results Selenium (Se) is naturally present in many soils around
show that red root pigweed concentrated the highest the U.S. High concentrations of Se may exert toxic
level of 137Cs in shoots, followed by Indian mustard and impacts on plants and animals. The performance of
tepary bean. Red root pigweed also produced several plant species (including canola, Indian mustard,
significantly more shoot biomass than the other two birdsfoot trefoil, tall fescue, and kenaf) in
species. Ultimately, red root pigweed removed 30- to phytoremediation projects aimed at reducing soil Se
60-fold more 137Cs from the soil than either of the other levels to below toxic concentrations are reviewed. The
two species. For red root pigweed and tepary bean, the best plants for these types of projects include Brassica
addition of ammonium nitrate produced only a slight and Astragalus species.
increase in the level of 137Cs in shoots.
Phytoremediation of Uranium-Contaminated Soils:

Phytoremediation of Lead-Contaminated Soils: Role Role of Organic Acids in Triggering Uranium
of Synthetic Chelates in Lead Phytoextraction Hyperaccumulation in Plants
Huang, J.W.; Chen, J.; Berti, W.R.; and Cunningham, Huang, J.W.; Blaylock, M.J.; Kapulnik, Y.; and Ensley,
S.D. B.D.
Environmental Science & Technology v 31:3 p 800(6) Environmental Science & Technology v 32:7 p 2004(5)
March 1997 1998
Studies have shown that lead (Pb) is accumulated in the Uranium (U) phytoextraction, the use of plants to
roots of plants if Pb is bioavailable in the growth extract U from contaminated soils, is an emerging
media. However, Pb bioavailability is limited. The technology. In this research, the effects of various soil
relative efficiencies of selected synthetic chelates in amendments on U desorption from soil to soil solution
enhancing Pb phytoextraction were compared. Corn, were investigated, physiological characteristics of U
pea, goldenrod, sunflower, and ragweed were used, in uptake and accumulation in plants were studied, and
combination with the chelates, EDTA, HEDTA, DTPA, techniques to trigger U hyperaccumulation in plants
EGTA, and EDDHA. Results show that Pb in soil were developed. Of the organic acids (acetic acid, citric
solution increased linearly with increasing levels of acid, and malic acid) tested, citric acid was the most
HEDTA added to a Pb-contaminated soil. In all plant effective in enhancing U desorption and subsequent
species tested, there was a surge in shoot Pb accumulation in plants. Shoot U concentrations of
concentrations in response to the application of Brassica juncea and Brassica chinensis grown in a U-
HEDTA, with the highest shoot Pb concentrations contaminated soil (total soil U, 750 mg/kg) increased
found in pea, followed by corn and sunflower. When from less than 5 mg/kg to more than 5000 mg/kg in
experiments were continued with pea and corn plants, citric acid-treated soils. These results suggest that U
Pb accumulation was highest in the presence of EDTA, phytoextraction may provide an environmentally
followed in decreasing order by HEDTA, DTPA, friendly alternative for the cleanup of U-contaminated
EGTA, and EDDHA. The rank in the efficiency in soils.
enhancing total Pb accumulation in shoots was the
same as that found in enhancing soil Pb desorption.
24
Potential for Phytoextraction of 137CS from a species for remediating radionuclide-contaminated

Contaminated Soil soils.
Lasat, M.M.; Norvell, W.A.; and Kochian, L.V.
Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, MD February
1998 Rhizofiltration: the Use of Plants to Remove Heavy
Metals from Aqueous Streams
Cesium-137 (137Cs) is a long-lived by-product of Dushenkov, V.; Kumar, P. B. A. N.; Motto, H.; and
nuclear fission. Phytoremediation of Raskin, I.
radiocesium-contaminated sites is impeded by the Environmental Science & Technology v 29:5 p 1239(7)
marked capacity of soils to tightly adsorb 137Cs and May 1995
limit its availability for plant uptake. Bioavailability
testing of a number of soil extractants from an aged Rhizofiltration is the use of plants to remove heavy
contaminated soil obtained from Brookhaven National metals from aqueous streams. Hydroponically grown
Laboratory demonstrated that ammonium salts released roots of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) were
a large portion of the radiocesium trapped in the soil. investigated for their ability to remove lead, cadmium,
This same amendment greatly stimulated the copper, chromium, nickel, and zinc from solution. The
bioaccumulation of 137Cs in plant shoots. Use of the best rate of lead removal depended on the initial
performing plant species from a species selection trial concentration in solution and showed a monotonic
(cabbage), in conjunction with amending the soil with decline with time. Since the magnitude of lead removal
ammonium nitrate, resulted in dramatic improvements was proportional to the root weight, much faster
in the accumulation of 137Cs in plant shoots compared removal rates were achieved when a larger root mass
with the results of many previous published studies (10 was used. Significant removal rates were also seen for
to 300-fold improvement). These findings indicate that the other metals. Only live roots were able to remove
the phytoremediation of 137Cs contaminated soils is a metals from solution.
very promising cleanup technology.
The Role of EDTA in Pb Transport and

Potential Remediation of 137Cs and 90Sr Accumulation by Indian Mustard
Contaminated Soil by Accumulation in Alamo Vassil, A.D.; Kapulnik, Y.; Raskin, I.; and Salt, D.
Switchgrass Plant Physiology v 117 p 447(7) 1998
Entry, J.A. and Watrud, L.S.
Water, Air, and Soil Pollution v 104:3-4 p 339(14) June Indian mustard (Brassica Juncea) plants exposed to
1998 lead (Pb) and EDTA in hydroponic solution were able
to accumulate up to 55 mmol/kg Pb in dry shoot tissue
Alamo switchgrass was evaluated on its ability to (1.1%[w/w]). This represents a 75-fold concentration of
remove cesium-137 and strontium-90 from Pb in shoot tissue over that in solution. A threshold
contaminated soil. Results show that the above-ground concentration of EDTA (0.25 mmol) was found to be
biomass of the plants accumulated 36% of the required to stimulate this dramatic accumulation of
cesium-137 and 44% of the strontium-90 in the growth both Pb and EDTA in shoots. The majority of Pb in
medium. However, the accumulated concentrations in these plants is transported in coordination with EDTA.
the plants declined after two harvests. For both Exposure of Indian mustard to high concentrations of
radionuclides, the duration of exposure correlated Pb and EDTA caused reductions in both the
curvilinearly with accumulation by the plants. As the transpiration rate and the shoot water content. The
concentration of both radionuclides increased in the onset of these symptoms was correlated with the
growth medium, total seedling accumulation and presence of free protonated EDTA (H-EDTA) in the
concentration of radioisotopes in plant tissue also hydroponic solution, suggesting that free H-EDTA is
increased curvilinearly. The overall findings revealed more phytotoxic than Pb-EDTA. These studies clearly
that Alamo switchgrass may be a good candidate demonstrate that coordination of Pb transport by EDTA
25
enhances the mobility within plants of this otherwise as well as on-site. Canola lowered Se concentrations
insoluble metal ion, allowing plants to accumulate high more effectively under greenhouse conditions than in
concentrations of Pb in shoots. The finding that both H- the field. The study clearly shows that extrapolating
EDTA and Pb-EDTA are mobile within plants also has results from greenhouse to field conditions should be
important implications for the use of metal chelates in done with caution. Using canola to lower Se levels at
plant nutritional research. Kesterson Reservoir will be a long-term management
strategy under field conditions.
A Search for Lead Hyperaccumulating Plants in the

Laboratory Test Plan for the Phytoremediation Studies of
Ghosh, S.; and Rhyne, C. Lead-Contaminated Soil from the Sunflower Army
Agriculture and Plant Science Meeting, Mississippi Ammunition Plant, Desoto, Kansas. Vol. 1 and Vol. 2
State University, 1997 Behel, D.; Kelly, D.; Pier, P.; Rogers, B.; and Sikora,
F.
The research objective is to identify plant species 233 pp (v 1), 291 pp (v 2) October 1996
capable of sustained healthy growth in elevated lead
concentrations and to evaluate their effectiveness in NTIS Document Number: ADA342667 (vol. 1)
accumulating high levels of lead in various parts of the ADA342668 (vol. 2)
plants. A modified hydroponic growing system was
used to suspend plants in aqueous solutions of either
This document provides a test plan for studying and
Hoagland's nutrient medium or varying concentrations
improving techniques for remediating lead-
of Pb(NO3)2 in the laboratory. Thirty-three different
contaminated soils using phytoremediation. It also
plant species were tested and grouped into five
discusses a study to examine the uptake of lead by
categories based on their growth potential and lead
plants in contaminated soil.
uptake. Two plant species, Ipomoea lacunosa and
Sesbania exaltata, appear to have significant potential
as lead hyperaccumulators. After the desired exposure
period, plants were harvested and separated into leaves, Toxicity of Zinc and Copper to Brassica Species:
stems and roots to analyze and locate the accumulation Implications for Phytoremediation
of lead in different plant parts. Morphological Ebbs, S.D. and Kochian, L.V.
characteristics (height and dry weight) of the plants Journal of Environmental Quality v 26:3 p 776(6) 1997
were also observed.
The toxicity of Zn and Cu in three species from the
genus Brassica was examined to determine if these
plants showed sufficient tolerance and metal
Selenium Accumulation by Brassica Napus Grown in
accumulation to phytoremediate a site contaminated
Se-laden Soil from Different Depths of Kesterson
with these two heavy metals. Hydroponically grown 12
Reservoir
day-old plants of Brassica juncea, B. rapa, and B.
Banuelos, G.S.; Ajwa, H.A.; Wu, L.; and Zambrzuski,
napus were grown for an additional 14 days in the
S.M.
presence of either elevated Zn (6.5 mg/L), Cu (0.32
Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, MD August
mg/L), or Zn plus Cu to quantify the toxic effects of
1997
these metals on several different growth parameters.
With few exceptions, both root and shoot dry weight for
Elevated levels of selenium (Se) have been measured in
all three species decreased significantly in the presence
sediment at Kesterson Reservoir and contributed to the
of heavy metals. In terms of heavy metal removal, the
death and deformities observed in waterfowl
Brassica species were more effective at removing Zn
frequenting this site. As part of a remediation strategy
from the nutrient solution than Cu. The extent of Zn
to lower levels of soil Se, canola was planted in
and Cu removal was reduced when both metals were
Se-contaminated sediment collected from the Reservoir,
present as compared to the single heavy metal
26
Abstracts of Phytoremediation Resources Internet Resources
treatments. The implications of these results for Publications Containing Multiple Papers
phytoremediation are discussed.
Metal-Contaminated Soils: In Situ Inactivation and
Phytorestoration
Toxic Mercury Reduction and Remediation Using Vangronsveld, J. and Cunningham, S. (eds.)
Transgenic Plants with a Modified Bacterial Gene R.G. Landes, Austin, TX
Rugh, C.L.; Gragson, G.M.; Meagher, R.B.; and
Merkle, S.A.
University of Georgia, Athens, GA Bioremediation of Inorganics, Vol. 3
HortScience v 33:4 p 618(4) July 1998 Hinchee, R.E.; Means, J.L.; and Burris, D.R. (eds.)
Battelle Press, Columbus, OH 184 pp 1995
The objective of this paper is to give a brief overview of
the concepts and progress of microbial- and plant-
assisted pollution remediation research. A summary of
Plants That Hyperaccumulate Metals: Their Role in
efforts to genetically engineer plants for mercury
Phytoremediation, Microbiology, Archaeology,
reduction and detoxification, as well as considerations
Mineral Exploration, and Phytomining
for future research toward this goal, will be presented. Brooks, R. R. (ed.)
CAB International, New York
Zinc and Cadmium Accumulation in the

Hyperaccumulator Thlaspi Caerulescens in Response
Internet Resources
to Limestone and Compost Applications to a Heavy
Metal Contaminated Site in Palmerton, Advanced Applied Technology Demonstration
Pennsylvania Facility (AATDF)
Li, Y.M.; Chaney, R.L.; Kershner, B.A.; Chen, K.Y.; http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~aatdf
Angle, J.S.; and Baker, A.J.
Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, MD AATDF is a research facility funded by the Department
September 1997 of Defense, Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways
Experiment Station (WES) through the Energy and
Research is being conducted to develop a new Environmental Systems Institute at Rice University.
technology using plants to remove Zn and Cd from One of its long-term projects involves evaluating and
contaminated soils which require remediation. Thlaspi recommending innovative treatment technologies in
caerulescens is a perennial herb which accumulates Zn support of faster and cheaper remediation.
(>3%) from soils to much higher foliar levels than
economic crops. At the Palmerton, PA site, soil metal
concentrations are very high and the soils are Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence
non-calcareous. It is likely that Thlaspi may suffer Zn (AFCEE)
phytotoxicity. Studies were conducted to characterize http://www.afcee.brooks.af.mil
the long term effect of limestone and compost
applications on plant biomass and Zn and Cd The Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence
accumulation. In addition, the uptake of metals by provides a complete range of environmental,
hyperaccumulator T. caerulescens was compared to architectural, and landscape design, planning and
uptake by a local metal-tolerant species, Merlin red construction management services and products.
fescue. In this paper, we report that compost treatment Environmental restoration is one of its several business
reduced metal phytotoxicity. We have also determined lines, and its services include: studies and
that higher soil pH and organic matter were the investigations, project design, cleanup, long-term
important factors attributing to the large shoot biomass operation/monitoring, program support, and new
accumulation for Thlaspi. restoration technology research. It was formed in 1991.
27
Alternative Treatment Technology Information innovative technologies by DoD end-users and the
Center (ATTIC) regulatory community.
http://www.epa.gov/attic
The EPA Office of Research and Development (ORD) Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable
Alternative Treatment Technology Information Center http://www.frtr.gov
(ATTIC) is a comprehensive computer database system
providing up-to-date information on innovative The mission of the Roundtable is to exchange
treatment technologies. ATTIC provides access to information and provide a forum for joint activity
several independent databases as well as a mechanism regarding the development and demonstration of
for retrieving full-text documents of key literature. The innovative technologies for hazardous waste site
system provides information to make effective decisions remediation. The exchange synthesizes the technical
on hazardous waste clean-up alternatives. knowledge that Federal Agencies have compiled and
provides a more comprehensive record of performance
and cost. Members include major developers and users
CLU-IN: Hazardous Waste Clean-Up Information of these technologies: Department of Defense (U.S.
http://clu-in.org Army, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Navy, U.S.
Air Force), U.S. Department of Energy, U.S.
The Hazardous Waste Clean-Up Information (CLU-IN) Department of the Interior, and the U.S. Environmental
Web Site provides information about innovative Protection Agency.
treatment technologies to the hazardous waste
remediation community. It describes programs,
organizations, publications, and other tools for federal GNET: The Global Network of Environment and
and state personnel, consulting engineers, technology Technology
developers and vendors, remediation contractors, http://www.gnet.org
researchers, community groups, and individual citizens.
The site was developed by the U.S. EPA but is intended GNET® is an on-line global information center for
as a forum for all waste remediation stakeholders. environmental technology. The site contains an
interactive environmental technology database
(TechKnow) that houses information on
Environmental Security Technology Certification phytoremediation and over 1,500 other technologies.
Program (ESTCP)
http://www.estcp.org
Great Plains/Rocky Mountain Hazardous Substance
ESTCP's goal is to demonstrate and validate promising, Research Center
innovative technologies that et the Department of http://www.engg.ksu.edu/HSRC
Defense's (DoD's) most urgent environmental needs.
These technologies provide a return on investment Kansas State University leads a fourteen-institution
through cost savings and improved efficiency. The consortium for the Great Plains/ Rocky Mountain
current cost of environmental remediation and Hazardous Substance Research Center. The other
regulatory compliance in the Department is significant. member institutions are Lincoln, Haskell Indian
Innovative technology offers the opportunity to reduce Nations, Colorado State, Montana State, South Dakota
costs and environmental risks. ESTCP's strategy is to State, and Utah State Universities, along with the
select lab-proven technologies with broad DoD and universities of Iowa, Northern Iowa, Missouri,
market application. These projects are aggressively Montana, Nebraska, Utah, and Wyoming. The center
moved to the field for rigorous trials that document was established in 1989 to conduct research pertaining
their cost, performance, and market potential. to hazardous substances produced through agriculture,
Successful demonstration leads to acceptance of forestry, mining, mineral processing, and other
28
activities of local interest. It serves Federal Regions 7 implementation, and validation of innovative
and 8. Specific research projects focus on soil and water technologies.
contaminated by heavy metals from mining wastes and
other industrial activities, soil and ground water
contaminated by organic chemicals, wood preservatives Interstate Technology and Regulatory Cooperation
that contaminate ground water, pesticides identified as Working Group (ITRC)
hazardous substances, improved technologies and http://www.sso.org/ecos/itrc
methods for characterizing and analyzing contaminated
soil, and waste-minimization and pollution-prevention The Interstate Technology and Regulatory Cooperation
methods and technologies. The tables of contents, Working Group (ITRC) was established in December,
abstracts, and selected papers of the Proceedings of the 1994 by the Develop On-Site Innovative Technology
Annual Conference on Hazardous Waste Research Committee, referred to as the DOIT Coordinating
beginning with the Ninth Annual Conference (1994) Group of the Western Governors Association. The
onward may also be viewed at the Web site. Mission of the ITRC is to facilitate cooperation among
states in the common effort to test, demonstrate,
evaluate, verify and deploy innovative environmental
Ground Water Remediation Technologies Analysis technology, particularly technology related to waste
Center (GWRTAC) management, site characterization and site cleanup.
http://www.gwrtac.org Regulators from 24 states are collaborating with
representatives from federal agencies, industry, and
The Ground Water Remediation Technologies Analysis stakeholder groups to raise the comfort level of
Center (GWRTAC) is a focal point for the collection environmental decision makers about using new
and analysis of information on ground water technologies. By pooling their experience and
remediation. The members of GWRTAC compile, knowledge in permitting innovative technologies and
analyze, and disseminate information on innovative by publishing and distributing their work products,
ground water remediation technologies. Technical ITRC is making it easier for state regulatory agencies to
teams are selectively chosen from Concurrent approve new technologies.
Technologies Corporation (CTC), the University of
Pittsburgh, and other supporting institutions.
PHYTONET - Phytoremediation Electronic
Newsgroup Network
Innovative Treatment Remediation Demonstration http://www.dsa.unipr.it/phytonet
(ITRD)
http://www.em.doe.gov/itrd The Phytonet Newsgroup was developed to allow easy
worldwide communications between scientists who
The Innovative Treatment Remediation Demonstration work on problems related with Phytoremediation and
(ITRD) Program is funded by the DOE Office of Application of Plant Systems to Environmental
Environmental Restoration (EM-40) to help accelerate Control. The Phytoremediation Electronic Network,
the adoption and implementation of new and innovative moderated by Nelson Marmiroli, is operated by the
remediation technologies. Developed as a Department of Environmental Sciences, University of
Public-Private Partnership program with Clean Sites, Parma, Italy.
Inc., and the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA)
Technology Innovation Office (TIO) and coordinated
by Sandia National Laboratories, the ITRD Program Remediation Technologies Development Forum
attempts to reduce many of the classic barriers to the (RTDF)
use of new technologies by involving government, Phytoremediation of Organics Action Team
industry, and regulatory agencies in the assessment, http://www.rtdf.org/public/phyto
29
The Phytoremediation of Organics Action Team was U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
established in 1997, as one of seven Action Teams http://www.usda.gov
under the Remediation Technologies Development
Forum (RTDF). The Phytoremediation of Organics In addition to supporting research to improve
Action Team includes representatives from industry agricultural production, the USDA also supports
and government who share an interest in further research concerning remediation of soil and ground
developing and evaluating the of use of plants and trees water contaminated with pesticides, herbicides, and
to remediate contaminated soil and water. fertilizers. The Current Research Information System
(CRIS) database is a documentation and reporting
system for ongoing and recently completed research
Strategic Environmental Research and Development projects. The Technology Transfer Automated Retrieval
Program (SERDP) System (TEKTRAN) provides abstracts of research
http://www.serdp.gov results from the UDSA’s Agricultural Research Service
that will be published as articles or documents.
The Strategic Environmental Research and CRIS: http://cristel.nal.usda.gov:8080
Development Program is the Department of Defense’s TEKTRAN: http://www.nal.usda.gov/ttic/tektran
(DoD) corporate environmental R&D program, planned
and executed in full partnership with the Department of
Energy (DOE) and the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), with participation by numerous other
federal and non-federal organizations. Within its broad
areas of interest, the Program focuses on Cleanup,
Compliance, Conservation, and Pollution Prevention
technologies.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Phytoremediation

Research
http://www.wes.army.mil/EL/phyto
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Innovative

Technology Program mission is to inform, encourage,
promote, and support the development and use of
innovative technology for environmental investigation
and remediation. Its Phytoremediation Research site is
part of the Waterways Experiment Station
Environmental Laboratory Web site.
U.S. Army Environmental Center (USAEC)

http://aec-www.apgea.army.mil:8080
The USAEC Technology link provides access to

descriptions of innovative restoration technology
demonstrations conducted at numerous Army
installations.
30

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United States Solid Waste and EPA 542-B-99-003

Environmental Protection Emergency Response June 1999

Phytoremediation Resource Guide

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Bioremediation Resource Guide

HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

HOW TO ORDER DOCUMENTS LISTED IN THIS GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY AND MATRIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

ABSTRACTS OF PHYTOREMEDIATION RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

EPA Document Number: EPA 542-R-97-004

Document Type Document Source

NTIS provides documents for a fee.

Publications numbers beginning with: National Service Center for Environmental

A document title or number is needed to place an order with NSCEP.

Publications numbers beginning with: RCRA Information Center (RIC)

Phytoextraction Phytoextraction, also called phytoaccumulation, refers to the uptake and

Rhizofiltration Rhizofiltration is the adsorption or precipitation onto plant roots or absorption

Phytostabilization Phytostabilization is the use of certain plant species to immobilize contaminants

Phytodegradation Phytodegradation, also called phytotransformation, is the breakdown of

Rhizodegradation Rhizodegradation, also called enhanced rhizosphere biodegradation,

Phytovolatilization Phytovolatilization is the uptake and transpiration of a contaminant by a plant,

Technology Media Contaminants

Bioremediation and Phytoremediation Glossary [2] Unspecified q q q q

Phytoremediation: A New Technology Gets Ready to Bloom [3] Unspecified q q q q

Evaluation of Various Organic Fertilizer Substrates and Hydraulic Phytodegradation

Field Scale Evaluation of Grass-Enhanced Bioremediation of PAH

Screening Submersed Plant Species for Phytoremediation of Phytodegradation

Field Studies and Demonstrations

Lead-Contaminated Sediments Prove Susceptible to

Toxicity of Zinc and Copper to Brassica Species: Implications for

Great Plains/Rocky Mountain Hazardous Substance Research Center

Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP)

Phytoremediation, the use of plants, trees, and other

Environment Canada's Environmental Technologies EPA Document Number: EPA 530-R-98-008

Phytoremediation Bibliography Phytoremediation: It Grows on You

U.S. EPA National Risk Management Research Phytoremediation on the Brink of

successful field demonstration of a plant bioreactor for

phytoremediation system can be viewed as a biological,

Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Hazardous International Journal of Phytoremediation

Proceedings of the International Seminar on Use of

Annual International Conference on

Phytoremediation of TCE in Groundwater using NTIS Document Number: ADA349293

NTIS Document Number: ADA311121/8/XAB (Vol. 1) Field Scale Evaluation of Grass-Enhanced

Friendly Forests poplar trees with no detectable TCE or CT emissions.

Phytoremediation of Dissolved-Phase inexpensive cleanup of certain hazardous waste sites.

Bioremediation Bacteria to Protect Plants in Degradation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls by Hairy

Plant-Enhanced Remediation of Petroleum Potential of Phytoremediation as a Means for

Phytoremediation is a means of removing organic or

Phytoremediation is emerging as a potential cost- Feasibility of Using Plants to Assist in the

Evaluation of Tamarisk and Eucalyptus Lead-Contaminated Sediments Prove Susceptible to

Phytoremediation of Uranium-Contaminated Soils:

Potential for Phytoextraction of 137CS from a species for remediating radionuclide-contaminated

The Role of EDTA in Pb Transport and

A Search for Lead Hyperaccumulating Plants in the

Zinc and Cadmium Accumulation in the

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Phytoremediation

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Innovative