Principles and Modern Applications 8 th EDITION

Petrucci • Harwood • Herring

Chapter 6: Gases

6
1
Gases
CONTENTS

6-1 Properties of Gases: Gas Pressure

6-2 The Simple Gas Laws
6-3 Combining the Gas Laws: The Ideal Gas Equation and
The General Gas Equation

6-4 Applications of the Ideal Gas Equation

6-5 Gases in Chemical Reactions

6-6 Mixtures of Gases
6-7 Kinetic—Molecular Theory of Gases

6-8 Gas Properties Relating to the Kinetic—Molecular

Theory
6-9 Nonideal (Real) Gases

2
 6-1 Properties of Gases: Gas Pressure
• Gases expand to fill their containers and assume the sahpes of their containers. They
diffuse into one another and mix in all proportions.

• We can not see individual particles of a gas, but we can see the bulk gas if it is colored.

• Some gases, such as H2 and CH4, are combustible; whereas others, such as He and Ar,
are inert.

• Four properties determine the physical behavior of a gas: the amount of gas (in mole),
the gas volume, temperature and pressure.

• If we know any three of these, we can usually calculate the vale of the remaining one.

• Most common gases, such as CO2, O2, N2 and H2 are colorless.

Cl2(g) Br2(l) l2(s)

The gaseous state of three halogens (group 17)
3
 The Concept of Pressure

• Pressure is the force per unit area.

• In SI, force is expressed in newtons (N) and area in square meters (m2).

• The unit of pressure in SI is the pascal (Pa) with the units N/m2.

• Kilopascals (kPa) are often used instead since the pascal is such a small unit.

• The atmosphere and mmHg (Torr) are the most common scientific units for
pressure.

• Converting from one unit to another simply requires the appropriate

conversion factor(s).

• e.g., 760 mmHg = 1.01325 bar

760 mmHg 1.01325 bar

or
1.01325 bar 760 mmHg
4
 The Concept of Pressure

• The two cylinders have the same mass and exert the same force on the
supporting surface (F = g x m).

• The tall, thin one has a smaller area of contact, however exerts a greater
pressure.

5
 Liquid Pressure

• The pressure of a gas is usually measured indirectly, by comparing it with a

liquid pressure.

• The pressure of a liquid depends only on the height of the liquid column and
the density of the liquid.

x x xd x x xd gxhxd

• Liquid pressure is directly proportional to the liquid density and

the height of the liquid column.

6
 Barometric Pressure
• In 1643, Evangelista Torricelli constructed a device to measure the pressure
exerted by atmosphere. This divece called a barometer.
A barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure.
The pressure exerted by a column of mercury exactly 760 mm high is defined as
1 atmosphere (atm).

The pressure exerted by

the column of mercury
…

… must be the same

as that exerted by the
atmosphere. 7
Barometric Pressure

• The height of mercury in a barometer provides a measure of barometric

pressure.

• Barometric pressures may be expressed in a unit called millimeter of mercury

(mmHg),

• The pressure exerted by the atmosphere can support a column of mercury that is
about 760 mm high and thus, atmospheric pressure is typically about 760 mmHg.

• One standard atmosphere (atm) is defined to be exactly equal to 760 mmHg

when the density of mercury is equal to 13.5951 g/cm3 (0 ºC) and g is equal to
9.80665 m/s2.

1 atm = 760 mmHg

8
 Pressure units
• Calculate the pressure exerted by a column of mercury that is exactly 760 mHg
high when the density of mercury is d= 13.5951 g/cm3 = 1.35951x104 kg/m3 and
g = 9.80665 ms-2

x xd

0 ºC
P = 101.325 kPa

• One atmosphere (atm): pressure exerted by a column of mercury

exactly 760 mm high.

• One millimeter of mercury is called a Torr.

1 atm = 760 mmHg
= 760 Torr
= 101.325 kPa
9
10
Manometers
• A manometer is used to measure the pressure of a sample of gas.
• Pressure is measured using the difference in the heights of mercury (or other
liquid) in the two arms of the manometer.

 A Closed-End Manometer

• If the liquid is mercury, Dh can be expressed

directly in mmHg.
P is zero here …
• For other liquids, the pressure exerted by a
liquid column is:
P=g.d.h

Pgas = Dh
… so Pgas = Dh
11
 An Open-End Manometer

Pgas = Pbar Pgas = Pbar + DP Pgas = Pbar + DP

(DP = g x d x h > 0) (DP = - g x d x h < 0)
a) Gas pressure equal to b) Gas pressure greater than c) Gas pressure less than
barometric pressure barometric pressure barometric pressure

If Pgas and Pbar are expressed in mmHg, then ΔP is numerically equal to the
height h expressed in millimeters.

Measurement of gas pressure with an open-end manometer

12
13
14
6-2 Simple Gas Laws
 Boyle’s Law: Pressure-Volume Relationship
• In 1662, Robert Boyle discovered the first of the simple gas law.
• For a fixed amount of gas at a constant temperature, the gas volume is
inversely proportional to the gas pressure.
• For a fixed amount of gas at a constant temperature, the product of pressure
and volume is a constant.
1
Pa PV = a (a constant)
V

• The equation PV = a can be used to derive another equation for a gas when
undegoes a change at constant temperature.
• We write equation for the initial state(i) and the final state (f), we get PiVi = a
and PfVf = a.

PV = constant or PinitialVinitial = PfinalVfinal (n constant, T constant)

15
Graphical Representation of Boyle’s Law

Estimate the pressure at 3V and

at 5V. Which plot is easier to use
for making this estimation?

When volume is increased there is more area

for the molecules to “hit”; less force per area.
16
 6-2 CONCEPT ASSESSMENT
A 50.0 L cylinder contains nitrogen gas at a pressure of 21.5 atm. The
contents of the cylinder are emptied into an evacuated tank of unknown
volume. If the final pressure in the tank is 1.55 atm, then what is the
volume of the tank?
(a) (21.5/1.55) x 50.0 L (b) (1.55/21.5) x 50.0 L
(c) 21.5/(1.55 x 50.0) L (d) 1.55/(21.5 x 50.0) L

17
 6-2 CONCEPT ASSESSMENT (CONTINUED)

P1 21.5
V2 = V1 x = 50 x = 694 L
P2 1.55

18
 Charles’s Law: Temperature-Volume Relationship

• The relationship between the volume of a gas and temperature was

discovered by the French physicist Jacques Charles in 1787 and by
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac.

• The volume of a fixed amount of gas at constant pressure is directly

proportional to the Kelvin (absolute) temperature.

• Absolute zero is the temperature obtained by extrapolation to zero

volume.

• Absolute zero on the Kelvin scale = –273.15 °C

19
Gas volume as a function of temperature

The equation V/T = b can be used to derive another equation for a gas
when undegoes a change at constant pressure.

We write equation for the initial state(i) and the final state (f), we get
Vi/Ti = b and Vf/Tf = b.

𝐕𝐢 𝐕𝐟
=
𝐓𝐢 𝐓𝐟
20
Standard Temperature and Pressure

• S T P

 Standard temperature for gases

º

 Standard pressure for gases

21
 Avogadro’s Law: Mole-Volume Relationship
Avogadro 1811
At a fixed temperature and pressure, the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the amount of gas in moles (n) or to the number of
molecules of gas.

At fixed T and P
• Van  V = cn  V/n = c (c constant)

• Standard Temperature and Pessure (STP) is equal to 0 °C and 1 atm.

• The molar volume of a gas is the volume occupied by one mole of the gas.

• At STP, molar volume of an ideal gas is 22.4 liters.

22
Molar volume of a gas
visualized

• Wooden cube is 28.2 cm on edge and has

approximately the same volume (22.4 liters)
as one mole of gas at 1 atm and 0º C.

• Basketball = 7.5 L, Soccer ball = 6.0 L and

Football = 4.4 L

23
 Avogadro's Hypothesis

• equal volumes-equal numbers

1. Equal volumes
equal numbers of molecules.

2. Equal numbers of molecules

equal volumes.

Formation of Water – actual observation and Avogadro’s hypothesis

If equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of molecules, this means the
volume of O2(g) is one half that of H2(g) .
24
 Avogadro's Law

• At a fixed temperature and pressure, the volume of a gas is

directly proportional to the amount of gas.

1 mol gas = 6.022 x 1023 molecules gas = 22.4 L gas (at STP)
25
 6-3 Combining the Gas Laws:
The Ideal Gas Equation
and the General Gas Equation

1. Boyle’s law describes the effect of pressure, V  1/P

nT
2. Charles’s law describes the effect of temperature, VT V
P
3. Avogadro’s law describes the effect of the amount of gas, V  n


nT
 V
P

26
• The Ideal Gas Equation
These three laws can be combined into a single equation—the ideal gas
equation—that includes all four gas variables: volume, pressure, temperature,
and amount of gas.

nT RnT
V α —— and V α ——
P P

27
• Gas constant (R)
Any gas whose behavior conforms to the ideal gas
equation is called an ideal or perfect gas.

• Value for R at STP

(P in atm, V in L, n in moles, T in kelvins).

PV 1 atm × 22.4140 L
R= = = 0.082057 atm L mol−1 K −1
nT 1 mol × 273.15 K

• Value for R when using SI units

(P in Pa, V in m3, n in moles, T in kelvins).

PV 101,325 Pa× 2.24140 ×10−2 m3

R= = = 8.3145 Pa m3 mol−1 K −1
nT 1 mol × 273.15 K

R = 8.3145 Pa m3 mol-1 K-1 = 8.3145 J mol-1 K-1

28
Applying the ideal gas equation

29
30
31
• The General Gas Equation
Sometimes a gas is described under two different sets of conditions. The ideal gas
equation must be applied twice—to an initial condition and a final condition.

Initial condition (i) Final condition (f)

PiVi = niRTi PfVf = nfRTf

General Gas Equation

32
 Amontons’s law:

The pressure a fixed amount to a fixed

volume the Kelvin temperature

the amount volume constant

33
34
35
Using the Gas Laws

36
6-4 Applications of the Ideal Gas Equation
• Molar Mass Determination

If we know the volume of a gas at a fixed temperature and pressure,

we can find the amount of the gas in moles and also molar mass of the gas.

M = molar mass and m = mass in grams

m (grams) m
M = ————— so n= —
n (moles) M

The ideal gas equation rearranges to:

PV
n = ——
RT

37
38
• Gas Density
Gases are much less dense than liquids and solids, so gas densities are usually reported in g/L.

𝒎 𝒏 ×𝑴 𝒏
𝒅= = = ×𝑴 m=𝒏 ×𝑴
𝑽 𝑽 𝑽

The density of gases differs from that of solids and liquids in two ways.
1. Gas densities depend strongly on pressure and temperature, increasing as the gas
pressure increases and decreasing as the temperature increases. Densities of liquids
and solids also depend somewhat on temperature, but they depend far less on
pressure.
2. The density of a gas is directly proportional to its molar mass. No simple
relationship exists between density and molar mass for liquids and solids.

Density of a gas is directly proportional to its molar mass and pressure,

and is inversely proportional to Kelvin temperature.
39
40
6-5 Gases in Chemical Reactions
The law of combining volumes
• Consider an example to illustrate Gay Lussac’s law of combining volumes:
2 NO(g) + O2(g) → 2 NO2 (g)
2 mol NO(g) + 1 mol O2(g) → 2 mol NO2 (g)

At any other T and P, one mole of gas = V L

Then,
2V L NO(g) + V L O2(g) → 2V L NO2 (g) (divide both sides by V)

2L NO(g) + L O2(g) → 2 L NO2 (g)

• The volume ratio of the gases consumed and produced in a chemical is the same
as the mole ratio, if temperature and pressure are constant.

• When gases measured at the same temperature and pressure are allowed to react,
the volumes of gaseous reactants and products are in small whole-number ratios.
41
42
43
6-6 Mixtures of Gases

Partial pressure
Each component of a gas mixture exerts a pressure that it would
exert if it were in the container alone.

• Gas laws apply to mixtures of gases.

• Simplest approach is to use ntotal, but....

44
Mixtures of Gases: Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

• Dalton’s law of partial pressures is used in dealing with mixtures of

gases.

• The total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the
partial pressures exerted by the separate gases:

• Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + …

• Partial pressure: the pressure a gas would exert if it were alone in the
container.

n1RT n2RT n3RT

P1 = ——— P2 = ——— P3 = ——— …
V V V

45
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

Ptot = PA + PB

Vtot = VA = VB

Dalton’s law of partial pressures illustrated

46
Partial Pressure

 mole fraction (x) of a

47
Mole Fraction

• The mole fraction (x) of a gas is the fraction of all the molecules
in a mixture that are of a given type.

n1
x1 = ——
ntotal
• Since pressure (at constant T and V) is directly
proportional to number of moles:
We can find the partial
pressure of a gas from
its mole fraction and the
total pressure.
P1
x1 = —— or P1 = x1 Ptotal
Ptotal
48
49
50
Collection of Gases over Water

• As (essentially insoluble) gas is bubbled into the container for collection, the
water is displaced.

• The gas collected is usually saturated with water vapor.

• Assuming the gas is saturated with water vapor, the partial pressure of the water
vapor is the vapor pressure of the water.
Values of water vapour pressure
Ptot = Pbar = Pgas + PH2O
can be obtained from tables:

Pgas = Ptotal – PH2O(g) = Pbar – PH2O(g)

51
52
6-7 Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

Visualizing Molecular Motion

53
Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases
1. The frequency of molecular collisions—the number of collisions per second.
• The higher this frequency, the greater the total force on the wall of the container.
Collision frequency increases with the number of molecules per unit volume and with
molecular speeds.

54
 Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases
2. The momentum transfer, or impulse. When a molecule hits the wall of a vessel,
momentum is transferred as the molecule reverses direction.

• This momentum transfer is called an impulse. The magnitude of the impulse is directly
proportional to the mass, m, of a molecule and its speed, u:

• The pressure of a gas (P) is the product of impulse and collision frequency.

55
Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases

: mean-square speed

56
 Distribution of Molecular Speeds
Three different speeds are noted on the graph.
• The most probable speed or modal speed is approximately 1500 m/s
• The average speed is approximately 1700 m/s
• The root-mean-square speed is approximately 1800 m/s.
• Notice that um ＜uav ＜urms .

um is the modal speed

uav is the simple average
urms  u2

57
Distribution of Molecular Speeds

( product NA m represents the mass of 1

mol of molecules, the molar mass, M).
1 mole gas
PV = nRT

58
• Gas molecules do not all move at the same speed, they have a wide
distribution of speeds.
• Molecular speeds increase as the temperature increases.
• Typical speeds are quite high, on the order of 1000 m/s.
• At a fixed temperature, molecules of higher mass (M) move more
slowly than molecules of lower mass (Lighter gas molecules have
greater speeds than do heavier ones.).

59
 Distribution of Molecular Speeds
The effect of mass and temperature

3RT
urm
s
M The higher the molar
As temperature
mass, the lower the
increases … speed.
most-probable

• The average kinetic energy of a gas particle is

proportional to the Kelvin temperature of the sample.
… speed
• For particles of the same gas, those at a higher increases.
temperature will possess more kinetic energy,
Most probable
reflected in a higher average speed. speed for H2 is
about 1500 m/s.

60
61
Distribution of molecular speeds – an experimental determination

62
The Meaning of Temperature

1 2 1
PV NAmu  NA( mu2)
2

3 3 2
2
RT NAek
3
3R
ek  (T)
2 NA
• where
• R = ideal gas constant (a constant)
• NA = Avogadro’s number (a constant), therefore:

ek = (constant) · T
The Kelvin temperature (T) of a gas is directly proportional to the average
translational kinetic energy (ek) of its molecules.
63
6-8 Gas Properties Relating to the Kinetic-Molecular Theory

• Diffusion is the migration of molecules as a result of random molecular motion.

• Effusion, is the escape of gas molecules from their container through a tiny
orifice or pinhole

64
Diffusion

NH3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)

1. The gases diffuse toward each other and where they meet a white cloud of
ammonium chloride forms.
2. Because of their greater average speed, NH3(g) molecules diffuse faster
than HCl(g) molecules, so the cloud forms closer to the drop of HCl(aq).

65
Graham’s law
• The rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square
root of its molar mass.

• The rate of effusion is directly proportional to molecular speed.

• The rate of effusion for two different gases at the same temperature
can be compared by:

66
67
68
6-9 Nonideal (Real) Gases

The green molecule simply moves by the neighboring

molecules, and strikes the wall of the container with
considerable force.

Forces of attraction exist between the green molecule and neighboring molecules;
the green molecule strikes the wall with less force— pressure is lower.

Intermolecular forces of attraction

• Gases tend to behave ideally at high temperatures and low pressures.

• Gases tend to behave nonideally at low temperatures and high pressures.

69
Real Gases
• Compressibility factor of a gas is defined as PV/nRT

• Compressibility factor
• PV/nRT = 1 : ideal gas (~ 1atm).

• Deviations for real gases.

• PV/nRT < 1 : intermolecular forces of attraction

(at high pressure).

• PV/nRT > 1 : molecular volume is significant

(at high pressure).

• The van der Waals equation corrects for the volume

The behaviour of real gases –
associated with the molecules themselves and for
compressibility factor as a
intermolecular forces:
function of pressure at 0°C.

70
The correction for intermolecular forces, n2a/V2

• The effect of attractive forces between molecules

is to decrease the pressure that a mole of gas (at
standard temperature in a 22.4 L container) from
that which it would exert if it were ideal.
• That is, PV/nRT < 1

The excluded volume term, nb

• The effect of molecular volume is to make
the volume occupied by a mole of gas larger
than predicted by the ideal gas law.
• That is, PV/nRT > 1

71
van der Waals Equation

• Ideal gas equation (ideal gases):

• [P ] (V ) = nRT
• van der Waals equation (real gases):
• [P + {(n2a)/V2}] (V – nb) = nRT
• a – term is related to intermolecular force strength.
• b – term is related to volume of the gas molecules (in liters per mole).
• Both a and b are empirical constants, determined by experiment.

The van der Waals equation reproduces the observed behavior of gases with
moderate accuracy. It is most accurate for gases comprising approximately
spherical molecules that have small dipole moments.

72
73
74
 6-7 Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

FıGURE 6-14
Visualizing Molecular Motion

75
 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory: Some Quantitative Aspects

• The principal assumptions of kinetic-molecular theory are:

• A gas is made up of molecules that are in constant, random, straight-line motion.

• Molecules of a gas are far apart; a gas is mostly empty space.

• There are no forces between molecules except during the instant of collision.

• Individual molecules may gain or lose energy as a result of collisions; however,

the total energy remains constant.

76
The Kinetic-Molecular Theory: Some Quantitative Aspects (2)

• Using the assumptions of kinetic-molecular theory, we can

show that:

1 N
P = — · — · m · u2
3 V
• where
• P = pressure
• N = number of molecules
• V = volume
• m = mass of each molecule
• u2 = average of the squares of the speeds of the molecules.

77
 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory and Temperature

• From the previous equation we can derive the following:

3 R
ek = — · —— · T
2 NA
• where
• R = ideal gas constant (a constant)
• NA = Avogadro’s number (a constant), therefore:

ek = (constant) · T
The average translational kinetic energy of the molecules of a gas is
directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature.

78
 Molecular Speeds
• Gas molecules do not all move at the same speed, they have a wide
distribution of speeds.
• The root-mean-square speed, urms, is the square root of the average
of the squares of the molecular speeds.

3RT
urms = u2 = ——
M

• Typical speeds are quite high, on the order of 1000 m/s.

• At a fixed temperature, molecules of higher mass (M) move more
slowly than molecules of lower mass.

79
Derivation of Boyle’s Law

v

I

N 2
P mu
V

80
Three dimensional systems lead to:
1N 2
P m u
3V
um
uav
urms  u2

FıGURE 6-15
Pressure and Molecular Speed

81
Pressure
1
PV  N A m u 2

3
3 RT  N A m u 2

NA 3RT  M u 2

3RT
u rms 
M

82
Molecular Speeds
3RT
urm
s
M As temperature
The higher the molar
mass, the lower the increases …
most-probable speed.

Most probable
speed for H2 is
about 1500 m/s. … speed
increases.

83
 FıGURE 6-17
Distribution of molecular speeds – an experimental determination

84
Temperature

1 2 1
PV NAmu  NA( mu )
2 2

3 3 2
2
RT NAek
3
3R
ek  (T)
2 NA

85
6-8 Gas Properties Relating to the Kinetic-Molecular
Theory

Diffusion

Effusion

86
 Diffusion

• Diffusion is the process by which one substance mixes with one or

more other substances as a result of the translational motion of
molecules.
• Diffusion of gases is much slower than would be predicted by
molecular speeds due to the frequent collisions of molecules.
• The average distance a molecule travels between collisions is called
its mean free path.

87
 Effusion
• Effusion is the process in which a gas • Effusion is (mathematically) simpler
escapes from its container through a than diffusion since effusion does not
tiny hole, or orifice, into a vacuum. involve molecular collisions.
• At a fixed T, the rates of effusion of gas
molecules are inversely proportional to
the square roots of their molar masses:

Heavier molecules move

more slowly and so they
effuse more slowly.

Fewer light molecules, more

heavy molecules remain.
88
Graham’s Law

rate of effusion of A
  
rate of effusion of B

 
 


89
90
91
 6-9 Nonideal (Real) Gases
The blue molecule simply moves by the
neighboring molecules, and strikes the wall • Compressibility factor
of the container with considerable force.
•

• Deviations for real gases.

•

Forces of attraction exist

between the blue molecule and
neighboring FıGURE 6-22 the blue
molecules;
Intermolecular
molecule strikes theforces
wallofwith
attraction
less force— pressure is lower.
92
Real Gases

FıGURE 6-20
The behaviour of real gases – compressibility factor as a function of pressure at 0°C

93
van der Waals Equation

• Ideal gas equation (ideal gases):

• [P ] (V ) = nRT
• van der Waals equation (real gases):
• [P + {(n2a)/V2}] (V – nb) = nRT
• a – term is related to intermolecular force strength.
• b – term is related to volume of the gas molecules (in liters per mole).
• Both a and b are empirical constants, determined by experiment.

The van der Waals equation reproduces the observed behavior of gases with
moderate accuracy. It is most accurate for gases comprising approximately
spherical molecules that have small dipole moments.

94
95
96
 Postulates of the Kinetic Molecular theory

Postulate 1. Particle Volume.

• A gas consists of a large collection of individual particles.
• The volume of an individual particle is extremely small compared
to the volume of the container.
• Most of the space occupied by a gas is empty

97
 Postulates of the Kinetic Molecular theory

Postulate 2. Particle Motion.

• Gas particles are in constant motion.
• Their motion is random and in straight lines.
• At any one time there are gas particles moving in all directions.
• When they collide with the walls of the container or one another
they change their direction.

98
 Postulates of the Kinetic Molecular theory

Postulate 3. Particle Collisions.

• The forces of attraction between molecules in a gas are
negligible. Molecules do not influence one another unless they
collide.
• Collisions between molecules or with container walls are
fleeting and most of the time molecules are not involved in
collisions.
• When molecules collide they can transfer kinetic energy.

99
 Postulates of the Kinetic Molecular theory

Postulate 4. Temperature.
• In a collection of molecules at a certain temperature the total
energy remains constant although each individual molecule may
have a certain kinetic energy and can transfer energy in a
collision.

100
 Molecular speed

• The average kinetic energy of a gas depends on its temperature

and its mass.
• The average speed of molecules of a gas is greater at higher
temperature.
• Species with different molecular masses have the same average
kinetic energies at any given temperature, but the smaller
molecules have a greater average speed.

101
6-5 Gases in Chemical Reactions
• Stoichiometric factors relate gas quantities to quantities of other
reactants or products.
• Ideal gas equation relates the amount of a gas to volume,
temperature and pressure.
• Law of Combining Volumes can be developed using the gas law.

102
 The law of combining volumes
• Gay Lussac’s law of combining volumes states that, when compared at the
same temperature and pressure, the volumes of gases involved in a reaction
are in the ratio of small whole numbers.

• The volume of a gas is directly proportional to the moles of gas, if

temperature and pressure are contant.

• At a fixed temperature and pressure.

Each of the identical flasks contains the same number of molecules.

Therefore, the ratio of volumes is the same as the mole ratio from the
balanced equation:
2 H2 + O2  2 H2O
103