Principles and Modern Applications 8 th EDITION

Petrucci • Harwood • Herring

Chapter 4: Chemical Reactions

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1
Chemical Reactions
CONTENTS

4-1 Chemical Reactions and Chemical

Equations
4-2 Chemical Equations and
Stoichiometry
4-3 Chemical Reactions in Solution

4-4 Determining the Limiting Reactant

4-5 Other Practical Matters in Reaction

Stoichiometry

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 4-1 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations
• A chemcial reaction is a process in which one set of substances, called reactants,
is converted to a new set of substances, called products.

•
o
o
o
o
a) b) c)

silver nitrate potassium chromate

yellow color of chromate ion the red-brown
solid, silver chromate
b) Evolution of a gas: When a copper penny reacts with nitric acid, the red-brown
gas NO2 is evolved.
c) Evolution of heat: When iron gauze is ignited in an oxygen atmosphere, evolved
heat and light provide physical evidence of a reaction.
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 Chemical Reactions
• In a chemical equation, formulas for the reactants are written on the
left sides of the equation and formulas for products are written on the
right. The two sides of equation are joined by an arrow ().

• Consider the reaction of colorless nitrogen monoxide and oxygen

gas to form red-brown nitrogen dioxide gas.

1. Substitute chemical formulas for names, to obtain the following

expression.
nitrogen react oxygen to nitrogen
monoxide with gas form dioxide
gas gas
NO + O2  NO2

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The coefficients required to balance a chemical equation are called
stoichiometric coefficients.

NO NO2
O2

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Balancing Equations

NO + O2 → NO2 + O

NO + O2 → NO3

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Balancing Equations Illustrated

How can we tell … not by changing

that the the equation …
equation is not
balanced?
… and not by
changing the
formulas.

The equation is
balanced by changing
the coefficients …

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Balancing Equation Strategy

first.
free last.

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States of Matter

• triethylene glycol

l g → g l

• reactants or products dissolved in

water
aqueous solution

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Reaction Conditions
The reaction conditions above below the arrow
Δ, means that a high
temperature is required.

2Ag2O(s) 4Ag(s)


𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟎𝐂
CO(g) + 2H2(g) CH3OH(g)
340 atm
ZnO, Cr2O3

• 350 °C 340 atm

ZnO Cr2O3
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4-2 Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry

• In Greek, the word stoicheion means element.

The term stoichiometry means to measure elements.

• Stoichiometry quantitative
o
o
o

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• The coefficients in the chemical equation

2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(l)

mean that

2 x molecules H2 + x molecules O2  2x molecules H2O

• Suppose we let x = Avogadro’s number. Then x molecules represents one

mole. Thus the chemical equation also mean that

2 mol H2 + 1 mol O2  2 mol H2O

• Therefore, on the atomic or molecular scale, the coefficients of a

balanced equation represent atoms and molecules.

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 2 mol H2 + 1 mol O2  2 mol H2O

The coefficients in the chemical equation allow us to make statements such as

• 2 moles of H2O are produced for every 2 moles of H2 consumed.

• 2 moles of H2O are produced for every 1 mole of O2 consumed.
• 2 moles of H2 are produced for every 1 mole of O2 consumed.

We can turn such statements into conversion factors, called stoichiometric

factor.

A stoichiometric factor or mole ratio is a conversion factor obtained

from the stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical equation.

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A Generalized Stoichiometry Diagram

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Examples 4-6 and 4-7

• The reaction between solid aluminum, Al(s) and HCl(aq) can be used for
preparing small volumes of H2(g) gas.

• A balanced chemical equation for the reaction is shown below:

2 Al(s) + 6 HCl(aq) → 2 AlCl3(aq) + 3 H2(g) (Reaction 4.2)

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 4-3 Chemical Reactions in Solution
• Solvent

aqueous

• Solute

• NaCl(aq) notation is used to describe a solution in which liquid

water is the solvent and NaCl is the solute.
• To convey any information about the relative proportion of NaCl
in solution, Molarity property of must be used.

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 Molarity
• molarity
the amount of solute

M moles

• 0.440 mol of urea 1.000 L

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Preparation of 0.250 M K2Cr2O7

K2Cr2O7(s)
250 mL volumetric flask

250.0 mL calibration mark

K2Cr2O7 n=MxV

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Solution Dilution
• remains constant.

n Mi  Vi Mf  Vf
M=
V

Mi × Vi = ni = nf = Mf × Vf

Mi × Vi Vi 1
Mf = = Mi Mf = 8M = 1M
Vf Vf 8
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 4-4 Determining Limiting Reagent
•
stoichiometric
proportions.

• the limiting reactant

• 82 handouts the graph paper is the limiting reactant

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Molecular View of the Limiting Reactant Concept

When 28 g (1.0 … 150 g of 1,2-

mol) ethylene … 128 g (0.80 mol) dibromoethane, and
reacts with … bromine, we get … leftover ethylene!
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Recognizing and Solving Limiting Reactant Problems

• two

•
each

• smallest

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4-5 Other Practical Matters in Reaction Stoichiometry
Theoretical, Actual and Percent Yield

• Theoretical yield

• Actual yield

Actual yield
Percent yield = ––––––––––––– × 100
Theoretical yield

• Actual yield will be less than the theoretical yield, for many
reasons.

 Side reactions
 By-products
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Actual Yield and Theoretical Yield of ZnS

Actual Yield of ZnS is Less than the Theoretical Yield

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Consecutive Reactions, Simultaneous Reactions and
Overall Reactions

• Multistep synthesis is often unavoidable.

• Reactions carried out in sequence are called consecutive reactions.

• When substances react independently and at the same time, the reaction is
a simultaneous reaction.

• The Overall Reaction is a chemical equation that expresses all the

reactions occurring in a single overall equation.

• An intermediate is a substance produced in one step and consumed in

another during a multistep synthesis.

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• Consecutive reactions
Most of time it takes more than one steps to get desired product.

Purification of TiO2

2TiO2(impure) + 3C(s) +4Cl2(g)  2TiCl4(g) + CO2(g) + 2CO(g)

2x[ TiCl4(g) + O2(g)  TiO2(s) +2Cl2(g)]
overall reaction: 3C(s) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2CO(g)

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