Chapter 2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors

➢ 2.1 Semiconductor materials and their properties

➢ 2.2 PN-junction diodes

➢ 2.3 Reverse Breakdown

1
 Semiconductor Physics

➢ Semiconductor devices serve as heart of microelectronics.

➢ PN junction is the most fundamental semiconductor
device.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 2

 Charge Carriers in Semiconductor

➢ To understand PN junction’s IV characteristics, it is

important to understand charge carriers’ behavior in solids,
how to modify carrier densities, and different mechanisms
of charge flow.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 3

 Periodic Table

➢ This abridged table contains elements with three to five

valence electrons, with Si being the most important.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 4

 Silicon

➢ Si has four valence electrons. Therefore, it can form covalent

bonds with four of its neighbors.
➢ When temperature goes up, electrons in the covalent bond can
become free.
➢ Density of Electrons (n) = Density of Holes (p) = ni
➢ For pure/intrinsic Si: n=p=ni → np=ni2

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 5

 Electron-Hole Pair Interaction

➢ With free electrons breaking off covalent bonds, holes are

generated.
➢ Holes can be filled by absorbing other free electrons, so
effectively there is a flow of charge carriers.
➢ Question: Holes are slower than electrons; Why?

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 6

 Electron-Hole Pair Interaction

➢ Question: Holes are slower than Electrons; Why?

➢ Answer:
➢ Movement of Holes is based on release and trap mechanisms.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 7

 Electron-Hole Pair Interaction

➢ With free electrons breaking off covalent bonds, holes are

generated.
➢ Holes can be filled by absorbing other free electrons, so
effectively there is a flow of charge carriers.
➢ Density of Holes (p) = Density of Electrons (n) = ni
➢ For pure/intrinsic Si: p=n=ni → np=ni2
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 8
 Free Electron Density at a Given Temperature

ni is the density of free electrons (no. of free

electrons or carriers per cm3) in intrinsic or
pure semiconductor:

➢ Eg, or bandgap energy determines how much effort is needed to break off an electron
from its covalent bond.
➢ There exists an exponential relationship between the free-electron density and bandgap
energy.
➢ In the above equation: T is the temperature in K and k is the Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10-23
J/K.
➢ Eg unit is eV: The unit eV (electron volt) represents the energy necessary to move one electron across a
potential difference of 1V. Note that 1 eV= 1.6 x10-19J.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 9

 Band Gap

➢ A band gap is the distance between the valence band of electrons and the
conduction band. Essentially, the band gap represents the minimum energy
that is required to excite an electron up to a state in the conduction band
where it can participate in conduction.
➢ The lower energy level is the valence band, and thus if a gap exists between
this level and the higher energy conduction band, energy must be input for
electrons to become free. The size and existence of this band gap allows
one to visualize the difference between conductors, semiconductors, and
insulators. These distances can be seen in diagrams known as band
diagrams, shown below.

Source:
https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Band_gap#:~:text=A%20band%20gap%20is%20the,it%20can%20participate%20in%20conduction.
10
 Band Gap Sizes
➢ This figure illustrates the difference in size of the band gap
for insulators, conductors, and semiconductors. The size
of this band gap gives the materials some of their distinct
properties. In insulators, the electrons in the valence band
are separated by a large band gap from the conduction
band. This means that there is a large "forbidden" gap in
energies preventing electrons from the valence band from
jumping up into the conduction band and participating in
conduction. This provides an explanation for why
insulators do not conduct electricity well.
➢ In conductors, the valence band overlaps with the conduction band. This overlap causes the valence
electrons to be essentially free to move into the conduction band and participate in conduction. Since it is not
a full overlap, only a fraction of the valence electrons can move through the material, but this is still enough to
make conductors conductive.
➢ In semiconductors, the gap is small enough that it can be bridged by some sort of excitation - perhaps from
the Sun in the case of photovoltaic cells. The gap is essentially some size "in-between" that of a conductor or
insulator. In this model, a finite number of electrons are able to reach the conduction band and conduct small
amounts of electricity. The excitation of this electron also allows additional conduction processes to occur as
a result of the electron hole left behind. An electron from an atom close by can occupy this space, creating a
chain reaction of holes and electron movement that creates current. A small amount of doping material can
drastically increase the conductivity of this material.

Source: 11
https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Band_gap#:~:text=A%20band%20gap%20is%20the,it%20can%20participate%20in%20conduction.
 Comments on ni Equation

ni is the density of free electrons (no. of free

electrons or carriers per cm3) in intrinsic or
pure semiconductor:

In some textbooks, authors give Diamond different values of Eg such as the following:

Source of Eg table: 12
https://www.chu.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Chenming-Hu_ch1-3.pdf
Example 1

13
 Example 1 / Solution

What about the density of Holes?

14
 Example 1 / Solution

− Eg
ni = 5.2 10 T exp
15 3/ 2
electrons / cm 3
2kT
ni (T = 3000 K ) = 1.08 1010 electrons / cm 3
ni (T = 6000 K ) = 1.54 1015 electrons / cm 3

15
 Question Related To Previous Example

➢ Based on the results found in previous example (Example 1),

could intrinsic (pure) Silicon be considered as Good
Conductor? And if it is a poor conductor, how we can
improve it’s conductivity?
➢ Hint: there is 5 x 1022 of Si atoms in 1 cm3

16
 Question Related To Previous Example 1

➢ Based on the results found in previous example, could

intrinsic (pure) Silicon be considered as Good Conductor?
And if it is a poor conductor, how we can improve it’s
conductivity?
➢ Hint: there is 5 x 1022 of Si atoms in 1 cm3
➢ Answer: No; it is considered poor conductor. The solution is
to do Doping.

17
 Why Doping?

➢ Pure or intrinsic silicon is not a good conductor since it has very low
number of free electrons compared to the total no. of our silicon we have in a
crystal.
➢ Based on the previous example, in 1 cm3 Si crystal area, and at room
temperature (300 k), we will have 1010 of free electrons which is equal to the
number of holes created while we have 5x1022 of Silicon atoms. So, Si has a
relatively high resistance and it is not a very useful material in terms of
conductivity.
➢ To overcome the poor conductivity of pure Silicon so perhaps there is a
way to modify and increase the number of free carriers or free electrons in
Silicon, and hence we do Doping by adding impurities to the Silicon crystal.

18
 Doping (N type)

➢ Pure Si can be doped with other elements to change its electrical properties.
➢ In this doping process, we replace some of the Si atoms by Phosphorus (P)
atoms.
➢ P is a pentavalent atom since it has 5 electrons in its last orbital and this P
is called impurity, and also called dopant, and also called donor since it
donates free electrons in the Silicon crystal for current conduction and the
material is called n-type semiconductor material.
➢ In other words, if Si is doped with P (phosphorous) (which is a pentavalent
atom since it has 5 electrons in its last orbital), which means P has more
electrons → Si becomes type N (electron).
➢ Si doped with P is called Extrinsic Silicon.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 19

 Doping (N type)

➢ If we add Nd donor atoms, then the density of free electrons = Nd

electrons/cm3
➢ n: density of free electrons
➢ p: density of holes
➢ For pure Si: n=p=ni → np=ni2
➢ For doped Si: np=ni2
➢ For n-type Si: n ≈ Nd
➢ For doping purposes, usually we add P atoms in the range of 1015 – 1017 atoms
per 1 cm3 of Si (doping level).
➢ Nd = Density of P atoms ≈ 1015 - 1017 atoms/cm3
➢ n ≈ Density of P atoms ≈ Nd (Why approximately equal?)
➢ Note the “d” in Nd refers to donor dopant (why?)
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 20
 Example 2

➢ At room temperature (300 K), add 1015 Phosphorous atoms

to a 1 cm3 pure Si and find the density of majority and
minority carriers?

21
 Example 2 / Solution

➢ At room temperature (300 K), add 1015 Phosphorous atoms

to a 1 cm3 pure Si and find the density of majority and
minority carriers?
➢ Solution:
➢ This doping process will achieve an n-type silicon.
➢ n ≈ Nd = Density of P atoms ≈ 1015 electrons/cm3
➢ Hence, n is density of majority carriers (Electrons).
➢ Using this formula: np=ni2 → p= ni2 /n → p≈ ni2 / Nd
➢ But from example, we found ni = 1010 electrons/cm3 for pure
Silicon at room temperature
➢ Hence, the density of minority carriers (Holes) is
p ≈ (1010)2 / 1015 = 105 Holes/cm3
➢ This example shows us that no. Of holes dropped down
from 1010 to 105 holes; but why?

22
 Example 2 / Solution

➢ At room temperature (300 K), add 1015 Phosphorous atoms

to a 1 cm3 pure Si and find the density of majority and
minority carriers?
➢ Solution:
➢ This example shows us that no. Of holes dropped down
from 1010 to 105 holes; but why?
– Answer:
– Because we have a huge number of free electrons as majority
carriers in this n-type material and some of these electrons will
combine with some of these holes and hence this will lead to
reduction in no. of minority holes carriers.

23
 Doping (P type)

➢ Pure Si can be doped with other elements to change its electrical properties.
➢ In this doping process, we replace some of the Si atoms by Boron (B)
atoms.
➢ B is a trivalent atom since it has 3 electrons in its last orbital and this B is
called impurity, and also called dopant, and also called acceptor since it
accepts free electrons in the Silicon crystal for current conduction and the
material is called p-type semiconductor material.
➢ In other words, if Si is doped with B (Boron) (which is a trivalent atom since
it has 3 electrons in its last orbital), which means B has less electrons → Si
becomes type P (hole).
➢ Si doped with B is called Extrinsic Silicon.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 24

 Doping (P type)

➢ If we add Na acceptor atoms, then the density of holes = Na holes/cm3

➢ n: density of free electrons
➢ p: density of holes
➢ For pure Si: n=p=ni → np=ni2
➢ For doped Si: np=ni2
➢ For p-type Si: p ≈ Na → np=ni2 → n= ni2 /p → n≈ ni2 / Na
➢ For doping purposes, usually we add B atoms in the range of 1015 – 1017 atoms
per 1 cm3 of Si (doping level).
➢ Na = Density of B atoms ≈ 1015 - 1017 atoms/cm3
➢ n ≈ Density of P atoms ≈ Na
➢ Note the “a” in Na refers to acceptor dopant (why?)
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 25
 Doping (P type)

➢ B is a trivalent element since it has three electrons in its outer orbital

➢ Holes are the majority carriers and by the way we don’t call them free holes.
➢ And electrons are the minority carriers and material is called P-type material.
➢ Similar to the case of n-type materials:
➢ We can give an example in which it will show us that no. of electrons will drop
down from 1010 to 105 electrons if we add 1015 atoms of B to the 1 cm3 pure
silicon; but why?

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 26

 Doping (P type)

➢ We can give an example in which it will show us that no. of

electrons will drop down from 1010 to 105 electrons if we add 1015
atoms of B to the 1 cm3 pure silicon; but why?
➢ Because we have a huge number of holes as majority carriers in
this p-type material and some of these holes will combine with
some of the electrons and hence this will lead to reduction in no.
Of minority free electrons carriers.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 27

 Questions

➢ What will happen to n and p in n-type Silicon as T increases?

➢ What will happen to n and p in p-type Silicon as T increases?

28
 Summary of Charge Carriers

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 29

 Electron and Hole Densities

2
np = ni
Majority Carriers : p  NA
p-type 2
n
semiconductor Minority Carriers : n i
NA
Majority Carriers : n  ND
n-type
2
semiconductor n
Minority Carriers : p i
ND

➢ The product of electron and hole densities is ALWAYS

equal to the square of intrinsic electron density regardless
of doping levels.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 30

Example 3

31
Example 3 / Solution

32
Example 4

33
Example 4 / Solution

34
 First Charge Transportation Mechanism: Drift

A
Si

➢ The process in which charge particles move (current conduction) because of an

electric field is called drift.
➢ Ohm’s Law: V=IR: R = r*(L/A) where L is the length and A is the cross-sectional
area of the Silicon piece.
➢ Charge particles will move at a velocity that is proportional to the electric field.
➢ The velocity of the electrons (or holes) in the Si piece is proportional to the Electric
Field → v ∝ E → v = mE
→ →
vh = m p E
➢ mn = 1350 cm2/(V.s) → →

➢ mp = 480 cm2/(V.s) ve = − m n E
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 35
Example 5

36
Example 5 / Solution

37
 Current Flow: General Case

This total charge per second which is equal to

I = −v W  h  n  q the current and the “per second” is coming
from the velocity v which has a unit of cm/sec

➢ Electric current is calculated as the amount of charge in v

meters that passes thru a cross-section if the charge travel
with a velocity of v m/s.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 38
 Current Flow: General Case

Electric Field: E = V1/L

I = −v W  h  n  q
➢ | I | = mnE.W.h.n.q = mn(V1/L).W.h.n.q
➢ R = V1/|I| = L/ mn.W.h.n.q = L/ mn.n.q.A , where A=W.h
➢ Recall: R = r*(L/A) → r = 1/(mn.n.q) which is the resistivity of the silicon if its
majority carriers are electrons
➢ r = 1/(mp.p.q) is the resistivity of the silicon if its majority carriers are holes
➢ Generally, Resistivity is r = 1/q[mn.n + mp.p] which considers both types of carriers,
i.e., electrons and holes.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 39
 Current Flow: General Case

Electric Field: E = V1/L I = −v W  h  n  q

➢ In practice, people like to show current density which is the amount of current flowing per
unit cross-sectional area.
➢ We want to change this equation to current density. The area is (Wh), so we divide the
current I over the area (Wh) and we replace the velocity by mnE, and we get: Jn = mnE.n.q. This
equation characterizes the drift current.
➢ What about if we are dealing with P-type material so the holes will be the majority carriers
and, in this case, the current density will be Jp. The mobility will be mp, and instead of n we will
have p in the above equation. Hence Jp = mpE.p.q
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 40
 Current Flow: Drift

J n = mn E  n  q
J tot = m n E  n  q + m p E  p  q
= q( m n n + m p p) E

➢ Since velocity is equal to mE, drift characteristic is obtained

by substituting V with mE in the general current equation.
➢ The total current density consists of both electrons and
holes.
➢ Now we can write the general equation of total current
density for either n-type material or P-type material as
shown above.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 41

 Current Flow: Drift

J n = mn E  n  q
J tot = m n E  n  q + m p E  p  q
= q( m n n + m p p) E
Observation about this equation:
➢ 1) So if we have n-type material, the first part of this equation will be for the
majority free electrons and the second part is for the minority holes carriers and
hence the second part could be ignored.
➢ 2) And if we have p-type material, the first part of this equation will be for the
minority free electrons and the second part is for the majority holes carriers and
hence the first part of this equation could be ignored.
➢ 3) This equation is for drift mechanism where we have a piece of silicon with
some doping or no doping, it doesn’t matter, then we apply a voltage and in
response to this voltage we will have electric field and if we know the amount of
doping or the amount of free electrons per cm3 and the amount of holes per cm3 and
we know other parameters in the above equation we can find the total drift current
per unit cross sectional area.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 42
 Velocity Saturation

m0
m=
1 + bE
m0
vsat =
b
m0
v = E
m0 E
1+
vsat
➢ A topic treated in more advanced courses is velocity
saturation.
➢ In reality, velocity does not increase linearly with electric
field. It will eventually saturate to a critical value.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 43

Example 6

44
Example 6 / Solution

45
In-Class Exercise

46
 In-Class Exercise/Solution

The question is talking about Drift Current; how do you know?

47
In-Class Exercise/Solution

48
In-Class Exercise/Solution

49
 Second Charge Transportation Mechanism:
Diffusion Current

➢ In this section, we will see how we will have diffusion

current without having a voltage source or electric field
which is something interesting and we have never seen in
the past.
➢ In the past, we studied in physics and basic circuits, in
order to have electric current, we must apply a voltage or
electric field which is not the case with diffusion current.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 50

 Second Charge Transportation Mechanism:
Diffusion Current

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 51

 Second Charge Transportation Mechanism:
Diffusion

➢ A source on the left continues to inject charge carriers into

the semiconductor, a nonuniform charge profile is created
along the x-axis, and the carriers continue to “roll down”
the profile.
➢ Charge particles move from a region of high concentration
to a region of low concentration. It is analogous to an
everyday example of an ink droplet in water.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 52

 Second Charge Transportation Mechanism:
Diffusion

➢ A source injects charge carriers into a semiconductor bar

as shown in this figure.
➢ Explain how the current flows?
➢ In this case, two symmetric profiles may develop in both
positive and negative directions along the x-axis, leading to
current flow from the source toward the two ends of the bar.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 53

 Second Charge Transportation Mechanism:
Diffusion

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 54

 Second Charge Transportation Mechanism:
Diffusion
Diffusion Current Density:

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 55

 Current Flow: Diffusion

dn dp
I = AqDn J p = − qD p
dx dx
dn dn dp
J n = qDn J tot = q ( Dn − Dp )
dx dx dx

➢ Diffusion current is proportional to the gradient of charge

(dn/dx) along the direction of current flow.
➢ Its total current density consists of both electrons and
holes.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 56

 Second Charge Transportation Mechanism:
Diffusion

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 57

 Second Charge Transportation Mechanism:
Diffusion

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 58

 Example: Linear vs. Nonlinear Charge Density
Profile

dn N dn − qDn N −x
J n = qDn = −qDn  J n = qD = exp
dx L dx Ld Ld

➢ Linear charge density profile means constant diffusion

current, whereas nonlinear charge density profile means
varying diffusion current.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 59

Example 7

60
Example 7 / Solution

61
 Einstein's Relation

D kT
= = Thermal Voltage VT = 26 mV @ 300
m q

➢ While the underlying physics behind drift and diffusion

currents are totally different, Einstein’s relation provides a
mysterious link between the two.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 62

Example 8

63
 Example 8 / Answer

Answer:

64
 PN Junction (Diode)

➢ When N-type and P-type dopants are introduced side-by-side in a

semiconductor, a PN junction or a diode is formed.
➢ We begin our study of semiconductor devices with the pn junction for three
reasons:
– (1) The device finds application in many electronic systems, e.g., in adapters that charge
the batteries of cellphones.
– (2) The pn junction is among the simplest semiconductor devices, thus providing a good
entry point into the study of the operation of such complex structures as transistors.
– (3) The pn junction also serves as part of transistors. We also use the term “diode” to refer
to pn junctions.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 65
 Diode’s Three Operation Regions

➢ In order to understand the operation of a diode, it is

necessary to study its three operation regions: equilibrium,
reverse bias, and forward bias.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 66

 PN Junction in Equilibrium
➢ Let us first study the PN junction with no
external connections, i.e., the terminals are
open and no voltage is applied across the
device. We say the junction is in “equilibrium.”
While seemingly of no practical value, this
condition provides insights that prove useful
in understanding the operation under
nonequilibrium as well.

➢ We begin by examining the interface between

the n and p sections, recognizing that one side
contains a large excess of holes and the other,
a large excess of electrons. The sharp
concentration gradient for both electrons and
holes across the junction leads to two large
diffusion currents: electrons flow from the n
side to the p side, and holes flow in the
opposite direction. Since we must deal with
both electron and hole concentrations on each
side of the junction, we introduce the notations
shown in the figure.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 67

 Current Flow Across Junction: Diffusion

➢ Because each side of the junction contains an excess of

holes or electrons compared to the other side, there exists
a large concentration gradient. Therefore, a diffusion
current flows across the junction from each side.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 68
Example 9

69
Example 9 / Solution

70
 PN Junction in Equilibrium

➢ The diffusion currents transport a great deal of charge from

each side to the other, but they must eventually decay to zero.
This is because, if the terminals are left open (equilibrium
condition), the device cannot carry a net current indefinitely.

➢ We must now answer an important question: what stops the

diffusion currents? We may postulate that the currents stop
after enough free carriers have moved across the junction so
as to equalize the concentrations on the two sides. However,
another effect dominates the situation and stops the diffusion
currents well before this point is reached.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 71
 Depletion Region

➢ To understand this effect, we recognize that for every electron that

departs from the n side, a positive ion is left behind, i.e., the junction
evolves with time as conceptually shown in the figure.
➢ In this illustration, the junction is suddenly formed at t = 0, and the
diffusion currents continue to expose more ions as time progresses.
Consequently, the immediate vicinity of the junction is depleted of
free carriers and hence called the “depletion region.”
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 72
 Depletion Region

➢ As free electrons and holes diffuse across the junction, a

region of fixed ions is left behind. This region is known as
the “depletion region.”

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 73

 Current Flow Across Junction: Drift

➢ Now recall from basic physics that a particle or object carrying a net
(nonzero) charge creates an electric field around it. Thus, with the formation
of the depletion region, an electric field emerges as shown in the figure.
➢ Interestingly, the field tends to force positive charge flow from left to right
whereas the concentration gradients necessitate the flow of holes from right
to left (and electrons from left to right). We therefore surmise that the junction
reaches equilibrium once the electric field is strong enough to completely
stop the diffusion currents. Alternatively, we can say, in equilibrium, the drift
currents resulting from the electric field exactly cancel the diffusion currents
due to the gradients.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 74
 Electric Field Profile in a PN Junction

➢ In the junction shown in the figure , the depletion region has a width
of b on the n side and a on the p side. Following is how to sketch the
electric field as a function of x.
➢ Beginning at x < b, we note that the absence of net charge yields E =
0. At x > b, each positive donor ion contributes to the electric field,
i.e., the magnitude of E rises as x approaches zero. As we pass x =
0, the negative acceptor atoms begin to contribute negatively to the
field, i.e., E falls. At x = a, the negative and positive charge exactly
cancel each other and E = 0.
75
 Current Flow Across Junction: Equilibrium

I drift , p = I diff , p
I drift ,n = I diff ,n

➢ At equilibrium, the drift current flowing in one direction

cancels out the diffusion current flowing in the opposite
direction, creating a net current of zero.
➢ The figure shows the charge profile of the PN junction.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 76

 Built-in Potential/Voltage

dp dV dp
qm p pE = −qD p − mp p = −Dp
dx dx dx
x 2 p
dp n
Dp p p
m p  dV =D p  V ( x2 ) − V ( x1 ) = ln
x 1 p p p m p pn
kT p p kT N A N D
V0 = ln ,V0 = ln 2
q pn q ni

➢ Because of the electric field across the junction, there

exists a built-in potential/voltage. Its derivation is shown
above.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 77

 Built-in Potential/Voltage

➢ Important comments:
– Vo is the Barrier Voltage across the pn junction with no
external voltage applied.
– NA and ND are the doping concentrations of the p side and n
side of the junction, respectively. Thus, Vo depends both on
doping concentrations and on temperature.
– Vo is also known as the junction built-in voltage.
– Typically, for silicon at room temperature, Vo is in the range
of 0.6 V to 0.9 V. Can you prove it?

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 78

Example 10

79
Example 10 / Solution

80
Example 11

81
Example 11 / Solution

82
 Diode in Reverse Bias

➢ When the N-type region of a diode is connected to a higher

potential than the P-type region, the diode is under reverse
bias, which results in wider depletion region and larger
built-in electric field across the junction.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 83
 Reverse Biased Diode’s Application: Voltage-
Dependent Capacitor

➢ The PN junction can be viewed as a capacitor. By varying

VR, the depletion width changes, changing its capacitance
value; therefore, the PN junction is actually a voltage-
dependent capacitor.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 84
 Voltage-Dependent Capacitance

C j0
Cj =
V
1+ R
V0
 si q N A N D 1
C j0 =
2 N A + N D V0

➢ The equations that describe the voltage-dependent

capacitance are shown above.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 85

 Voltage-Controlled Oscillator

1 1
f res =
2 LC

➢ A very important application of a reverse-biased PN

junction is VCO, in which an LC tank is used in an
oscillator. By changing VR, we can change C, which also
changes the oscillation frequency.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 86

 Robotics Application: Infrared Transceivers

➢ PN junctions are used in IR LEDS for communication in robotics.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 87

 Diode in Forward Bias

➢ When the N-type region of a diode is at a lower potential

than the P-type region, the diode is in forward bias.
➢ The depletion width is shortened and the built-in electric
field decreased.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 88

 Minority Carrier Profile in Forward Bias

p p ,e
pn , e =
V0
exp
VT

p p, f
pn , f =
V0 − VF
exp
VT

➢ Under forward bias, minority carriers in each region

increase due to the lowering of built-in field/potential.
Therefore, diffusion currents increase to supply these
minority carriers.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 89
 Diffusion Current in Forward Bias

ND V NA V
n p  (exp F − 1) pn  (exp F − 1)
V VT V VT
exp 0 exp 0
VT VT
NA V ND V
I tot  (exp F − 1) + (exp F − 1)
V0 V V0 VT
exp T exp
VT VT
VF 2 Dn Dp
I tot = I s (exp − 1) I s = Aqni ( + )
VT N A Ln N D L p

➢ Diffusion current will increase in order to supply the

increase in minority carriers. The mathematics are shown
above.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 90

 Minority Charge Gradient

➢ Minority charge profile should not be constant along the x-

axis; otherwise, there is no concentration gradient and no
diffusion current.
➢ Recombination of the minority carriers with the majority
carriers accounts for the dropping of minority carriers as
they go deep into the P or N region.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 91
 Forward Bias Condition: Summary

➢ In forward bias, there are large diffusion currents of

minority carriers through the junction. However, as we go
deep into the P and N regions, recombination currents from
the majority carriers dominate. These two currents add up
to a constant value.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 92

 IV Characteristic of PN Junction

VD
I D = I S (exp − 1)
VT

➢ The current and voltage relationship of a PN junction is

exponential in forward bias region, and relatively constant
in reverse bias region.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 93

 Parallel PN Junctions

➢ Since junction currents are proportional to the junction’s

cross-section area. Two PN junctions put in parallel are
effectively one PN junction with twice the cross-section
area, and hence twice the current.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 94

 Constant-Voltage Diode Model

➢ Diode operates as an open circuit if VD< VD,on and a

constant voltage source of VD,on if VD tends to exceed VD,on.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 95

Example

96
 Example/Solution

Solution:

97
 Example/Solution

Solution:

98
Comments about the Example: Diode Calculations

IX
VX = I X R1 + VD = I X R1 + VT ln
IS
I X = 2.2mA for VX = 3V
I X = 0.2mA for VX = 1V

➢ This example shows the simplicity provided by a constant-

voltage model over an exponential model.
➢ For an exponential model, iterative method is needed to
solve for current, whereas constant-voltage model requires
only linear equations.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 99

 Bioengineering Application: Cancer Detection

➢ Laser diode generates light with wavelength l1. If the tissue

has cancerous cells and contains “fluorophore,” then it
generates a new wavelength, l2.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 100

 Reverse Breakdown

➢ When a large reverse bias voltage is applied, breakdown

occurs and an enormous current flows through the diode.

CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 101

 Zener vs. Avalanche Breakdown

➢ Zener breakdown is a result of the large electric field inside

the depletion region that breaks electrons or holes off their
covalent bonds.
➢ Avalanche breakdown is a result of electrons or holes
colliding with the fixed ions inside the depletion region.
CH2 Basic Physics of Semiconductors 102